FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE

PRACTICAL MANUAL

ON

INSTRUMENTATION
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS

1|Page
TABLE OF CONTENT

SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aims of Practical Work
1.2 Format for Laboratory Report Writing
SECTION 2
Practical 1: Safety and Maintenance Rules in Instrumentation Workshop
Practical 2: Basic Tools, Instrumentation, and Equipment Identification
Practical 3: Basic Troubleshooting Tips
Practical 4: Transistor circuit test and fault finding using a multimeter
Practical 5: Testing Diodes and Transistors
Practical 6: Troubleshooting tips: Automation and process control loops

2|Page
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Practical work is one of the prerequisite for excelling in a course in the
engineering field. The importance of practical in engineering fields can never
be over emphasized. It is one of the most effective teaching methods
necessary to develop craft skills or for the conduct of laboratory
experiments. A student may have an over view of an entire system but
through laboratory experiment individual components of the system can be
investigated and then assembled to produce a complete picture.

Practical work begins with experiments which study the behavior of

individual elements. Practical work involves the ability to handle equipment
for accurate measurement.

1.1 AIMS OF PRACTICAL WORK

The major aims of Practical work are itemized as follows below:
 To guide the students to develop logical thinking while carrying out
experimental tasks.
 To enable the students to know how to read accurate results
 To develop the manipulative skills in the use of techniques and
equipment relevant to discipline.
 To enable the students know how to write accurately.

1.2 FORMAT FOR LABORATORY REPORT

The result of the experiment must be clearly presented in the format shown
below:
1. Topic/ Title
2. Aim/ Objective
3. Apparatus/ Equipments/ Tools
4. Theory
5. Diagram
6. Method/ Procedure
7. Result
8. Observation
9. Precautions
10. Conclusion

3|Page
 Practical 1
Topic: Safety and Maintenance Rules in Instrumentation Workshop
Aim: To identify safety rules and getting used to them
Discussion:
1. All personnel that will use the machine tools must either take a class in
Machine Tool Operation or, through their prior experience, be able to
prove their proficiency to CEE Machine Shop Supervisor.
2. All shop users must wear eye protection while working with hazardous
machine tools and power tools.
3. Hearing protection (ear plugs) should be readily available to workshop
users.
4. A first aid kit must be placed in the workshop, and a lab member should
be assigned to keep it well stocked.
5. A fire extinguisher must be readily available.
6. Basic Safety rules must be followed at all times. Among these are:
 Long hair must be tied back at all times.
 No flip-flops while working with hazardous machine tools and power
tools;
 Any oil spilled on the floor must be immediately cleaned up.
 Loose fitting clothing must be tucked in or tied up.
 Neckties must be removed.
 Bracelets and other loose jewelry must be removed prior to using the
shop.
 No horseplay around the machines is permitted. Machine tools can be
dangerous.
7. No person should work alone. At least two people should be in the
workshop. A buddy system may be used. The buddy, however, must be in
the building while the shop user is in the shop. The buddy is responsible
for checking every 15 minutes to see that the workshop user is safe at all

4|Page
 times. The workshop user must put his/her buddy’s name and location in
the logbook.
8. The workshop area must be kept clean. It is impossible to maintain a safe
work environment if tools, stock and last week’s pure water sachet are
lying about the equipment. A lab member should be put in charge of
workshop cleanliness.
9. Practice common sense. If your gut tells you not to setup a part in a
certain way in a machine, don’t do it. Most workshop accidents are a
result of lack of knowledge, not carelessness. If you have any doubt,
consult personnel working in the Student Instrumentation Workshop.

General Safety Considerations

Depending on the type of equipment you will be working on, there can be a
variety of dangers - some potentially lethal:

 Electrical shock hazard from TV, computer and other video monitors,
microwave ovens, the switchmode power supplies in some VCRs and
computer peripherals, electronic flash units, some parts of audio
equipment, hand and stationary power tools, large appliances, and
even many small line powered appliances.
 Mechanical hazards from the moving parts of various appliances,
computer peripherals, hand and stationary power tools, and especially
gasoline powered yard equipment.
 Risk of CRT implosion from equipment using large CRTs.
 Vision hazards from the lasers in CD players and CDROM drives, DVD
players and DVDROM drives, other optical data storage devices, and
laser disc players.

It is imperative that you understand and follow ALL safety recommendations

while working inside whatever equipment.

5|Page
See the SAFETY sections of the documents dealing with your equipment for
additional safety information for your equipment.

Questions
1. Mention and briefly explain 5 Safety and Maintenance Rules in
Instrumentation Workshop.

6|Page
 Practical 2
Topic: Basic Tools, Instrumentation, and Equipment Identification
Aim: At the end of the session, the student should be able to identify the
basic instrumentation Equipment

Discussion:
Hand tools: A good set of hand tools includes an assortment of wrenches,
screwdrivers, pliers, wire cutters, wire strippers, channel locks, punches,
hammers and other common hand tools.

Screw Drivers: A set of small screw drivers with different blade styles and
sizes can be useful for working on control system components for calibration
and other adjustments as well as working with small terminal strips.

Safety Equipment: Hard hats, safety glasses, ear protectors, and steel-toe
shoes are generally good ideas on construction sites and around machinery
and may be mandatory at some locations.

Thermocouple: A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar conductors in

contact, which produces a voltage when heated. The voltage produced is
dependent on the difference of temperature of the junction to other parts of
the circuit. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for
measurement and control and can also be used to convert a
temperature gradient into electricity.

7|Page
Thermometer: is a device that measures temperature or temperature
gradient using a variety of different principles. A thermometer has two
important elements: the temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb on a mercury-in-
glass thermometer) in which some physical change occurs with temperature,
plus some means of converting this physical change into a numerical value
(e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass thermometer).

Electrical Meters: Having a small portable multimeter and an amprobe

available can allow valuable troubleshooting information to be readily
obtained. In inexpensive pocket multimeter has the advantage of portability.

8|Page
However, a larger, higher precision meter can be useful for cross checking
calibration and input signals on control systems.

Sling Psychrometer: The instrument most commonly used in laboratories

to measure relative humidity is the psychrometer, or wet-and-dry-bulb
thermometer. Two similar thermometers are mounted side by side; one, the
dry bulb, has its bulb exposed to the atmosphere, and the bulb of the other,
the wet bulb, is wrapped in a suitable material, such as muslin, which is
immersed in water and serves as a wick. The wet bulb is cooled by
evaporation of the water, the amount of evaporation and consequent cooling
of the thermometer depending on the humidity of the atmosphere—the drier
the atmosphere, the faster the water evaporates. A table accompanying the
instrument gives the relative humidity in terms of the readings of the wet-
bulb and dry-bulb thermometers.

While somewhat harder to use than an electronic hygrometer, a sling

psychrometer will provide a reliable measure of wet bulb temperature. The
instrument uses mercury thermometers so there is never a need to change
batteries or calibrate. Be careful not to swing it into a wall or equipment
housing. For tight quarters, units are available with a battery-powered fan.

Inclined Manometers: is an instrument used for measuring the pressure of

liquids and gases. A set of inclined manometers and several different sized
pitot tubes allow a variety of pressure and flow readings to be taken for a
relatively low first cost. At least two meters should be obtained, one in the 0
to 1/4 inch water column range for low pressure readings and another in the
0 to 10 water column range for higher pressures. This is one instance where
the advantages of the electronic versions of these instruments might
outweigh the advantage of the inclined manometer measurement with no
power supply required. However, the inclined manometers will usually cost
significantly less than the electronic meter and offer a good compromise
9|Page
between price, flexibility, ease of use, and accuracy. The meter set should
be supplemented with several static and pitot static probes. The probes
come in a variety of lengths to allow ducts of all sizes to be traversed. The
typical diameter is 1/4, but short, flexible, smaller diameter probes are also
available. These probes are useful where pressure relationships must be
verified by sliding the probe under a door threshold or through the crack
between the door and the jamb.

Precision Pressure Gauges: A set of high accuracy pressure gauges will

be useful for measuring coil and valve pressure drops as well as performing
pump tests. This is another area where the electronic version may provide
better accuracy and flexibility, but at a cost premium. A set of two or three
precision gauges may be more viable as an initial investment.

Anemometer: A rotating vane anemometer can be a convenient way to

estimate low velocity air flows. Rough estimates of unit flow rates and
minimum outdoor air flow rates can be obtained by taking velocity readings
across filter banks or intake louvers with this device. The readings may not
be exact, but they will be better than a guess.

Tachometer: The speed at which shafts rotate can be a key indicator of

performance. There are a variety of tachometer options available such as
mechanical tachometers, digital tachometers, and strobes that allow the
shaft speed to be measured without actually being in contact with the shaft.
The strobe tachometer is generally the most expensive option, but it also is
the most flexible and safest approach. When working with a strobe
tachometer, it is important to remember that the strobe will freeze the shaft
motion at the fundamental speed (the speed that you want to measure) as
well as at its harmonics (even multiples of the speed you want to measure).

10 | P a g e
Dataloggers: Even though most current technology buildings are equipped
with DDC systems that allow trending of the data required to commission
the system, having several data loggers available with a variety of input
sensors to supplement this capability can often be useful for the following
reasons:

1 Proper commissioning or troubleshooting of some systems may require a

sensing point that was not included with the DDC package. Using a
datalogger available to pick up this information is often the quickest, least
costly way to obtain the data.
2 Retro-commissioning applications in older buildings may involve working
with non-DDC controlled systems. For these situations, portable
dataloggers provide an economically feasible approach to obtaining trend
data.
3 Most commercial DDC systems are restricted to a trending rate of 1
sample per minute or more. This is suitable for many applications, but
can be a limitation for identifying problems in some processes. Many
dataloggers are capable of sampling at frequencies of once per second or
more.

11 | P a g e
Shortridge or Other Electronic Air Data Multimeter: An electronic
pressure measurement meter like the meters used by most balancing firms
is an expensive but highly useful tool. Most meters of this type can measure
pressures in the thousandths of an inch water column range accurately, and
thus can detect and measure low velocity pressures and air flow rates.

Air Data Multimeter

Electronic Thermometer: Electronic thermometers are a rugged and easy

approach to field temperature measurements. The accuracy will probably not
be as good as a good lab grade thermometer, and this reduced accuracy
should be kept in mind when taking readings. Many of these devices use
thermocouples for inputs and the accuracy can easily be 2 or more degrees.
Accuracy will not matter for differential readings taken with the same meter
or relative calibration work, but it may be significant in instances where
absolute accuracy is important.

12 | P a g e
Electronic Hygrometer and Electronic Pressure Gauge

Electronic Hygrometer: Electronic hygrometers offer a more rugged,

faster way to take humidity measurements compared to a sling
psychrometer. However, these devices may not offer the accuracy of a good
sling psychrometer with matched liquid filled thermometers. Special
equipment is often required to perform accurate calibrations of electronic
hygrometers.

Electronic Pressure Gauge: Electronic pressure gauges often offer a more

versatile approach to multiple range pressure measurements, but usually at
a cost premium compared to precision bourdon tube type gauges. The
electronic version most likely offers better accuracy than the mechanical
version.

Function Generator: A function generator is usually a piece of electronic

test equipment or software used to generate different types of electrical
waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common
waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square,
triangular and saw-tooth shapes. These waveforms can be either repetitive
or single-shot (which requires an internal or external trigger source).
Integrated circuits used to generate waveforms may also be described as
function generator ICs.

13 | P a g e
Although function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies, they are
usually not suitable for applications that need low distortion or stable
frequency signals. When those traits are required, other signal generators
would be more appropriate. Some function generators can be phase-locked
to an external signal source (which may be a frequency reference) or
another function generator. Function generators are used in the
development, test and repair of electronic equipment. For example, they
may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce an error
signal into a control loop.

Simple function generators usually generate triangular waveform whose

frequency can be controlled smoothly as well as in steps. This triangular
wave is used as the basis for all of its other outputs. The triangular wave is
generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a
constant current source. This produces a linearly ascending or descending
voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the
charging and discharging is reversed using a comparator, producing the
linear triangle wave. By varying the current and the size of the capacitor,

14 | P a g e
different frequencies may be obtained. Sawtooth waves can be produced by
charging the capacitor slowly, using a current, but using a diode over the
current source to discharge quickly - the polarity of the diode changes the
polarity of the resulting sawtooth, i.e. slow rise and fast fall, or fast rise and
slow fall.

A 50% duty cycle square wave is easily obtained by noting whether the
capacitor is being charged or discharged, which is reflected in the current
switching comparator output. Other duty cycles (theoretically from 0% to
100%) can be obtained by using a comparator and the sawtooth or triangle
signal. Most function generators also contain a non-linear diode shaping
circuit that can convert the triangle wave into a reasonably accurate sine
wave by rounding off the corners of the triangle wave in a process similar to
clipping in audio systems.

A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz. RF

generators for higher frequencies are not function generators in the strict
sense since they typically produce pure or modulated sine signals only.

Pulse Generator: A pulse generator is either an electronic circuit or a piece

of electronic test equipment used to generate rectangular pulses.

15 | P a g e
Procedure:
Identify the various instrumentation Equipments in the laboratory

Question:
Write briefly on 10 instrumentation equipments found in the laboratory
stating their functions.

16 | P a g e
 PRACTICAL 3
Topic: Basic Troubleshooting Tips
Aim: To understand the basic troubleshooting tips

Discussion:
Some of the Rules of Troubleshooting
1. Safety first - know the hazards associated with the equipment you are
troubleshooting. Take all safety precautions. Expect the unexpected. Take
your time.
2. Always think 'what if'. This applies both to the analytic procedures as well
as to precautions with respect to probing the equipment.
3. Learn from your mistakes. We all make mistakes - some of them can be
quite costly. A simple problem can turn into an expensive one due to a
slip of the probe or being over eager to try something before thinking it
through. While stating that your experience in these endeavors is
measured by the number of scars you have may be stretching the point,
expect to screwup - we all can point to that disaster due to inexperience
or carelessness. Just make it a point not to make the same mistake
again.
4. Don't start with the electronic test equipment, start with some analytical
thinking. Many problems associated with instrumentation equipment do
not require a schematic (though one may be useful).
5. Many problems have simple solutions. Don't immediately assume that
your problem is some combination of esoteric complex convoluted
failures. For a TV, it may just be a bad connection or failed diode. For a
VCR, it may just be a bad belt. For a CD player, a dirty lens or need for
lubrication. Try to remember that the problems with the most
catastrophic impact on operation - a dead TV or a VCR that eats tapes -
usually have the simplest solutions. The kind of problems we would like to
avoid at all costs are the ones that are intermittent or difficult to

17 | P a g e
 reproduce: subtle color noise, the occasional interference, or the dreaded
horizontal output transistor blowing out every 3 months syndrome.
6. Whenever possible, try to substitute a working unit. With modular
systems like component stereos and computers, narrowing down a
problem to a single unit should be the first priority. This is usually safe to
do in such cases and will quickly identify which unit needs work. This
same principle applies at the electronic or mechanical parts level. Note
that there is the possibility of damaging the known good part by putting it
into a non-working device or vice versa. This risk is most likely with the
power circuitry in amplifiers, TVs and monitors, power supplies, etc. With
appropriate precautions (like the series light bulb) the risk can be
minimized.
7. Don't blindly trust your instruments. If you get readings that don't make
sense, you may be using your equipment in a way which is confusing it.
DMMs are not good at checking semiconductors in-circuit or the power
transistor you are testing may have a built in damper diode and/or base
resistor. Your scope may be picking up interference which is swamping
the low level signal you are searching for (TVs and Monitors, or low level
circuits in VCRs and CD players). Your frequency counter may be double
triggering due to noise or imperfect signal shape.
8. Realize that coincidences do happen but are relatively rare. Usually, there
is a common cause. For example, if a TV has no vertical deflection and no
picture, it is much more likely that a common power supply output has
failed than for parts in both the deflection and video subsystems to be
bad. In other words, first look for a common root cause rather than trying
to locate bad parts in separate circuits.
9. Exceptions include lightning, power surge, dropped, water, or previous
repair person damaged equipment. However, multiple electrolytic
capacitors in older equipment may be degrading resulting in failures of

18 | P a g e
 unrelated circuits. Determine if all the problems you are troubleshooting
have just appeared.
10. Confirm the problem before diving into the repair. It is amazing how
many complaints turn out to be impossible to reproduce or are simple
cockpit error. It also makes sense to identify exactly what is and is not
working so that you will know whether some fault that just appeared was
actually a preexisting problem or was caused by your poking. Try to get
as much information as possible about the problem from the owner. If
you are the owner, try to reconstruct the exact sequence of events that
led to the failure.
11. Get used to the idea of working without a schematic.
12. Whenever working on precision equipment, make copious notes and
diagrams. You will be eternally grateful when the time comes to
reassemble the unit. Most connectors are keyed against incorrect
insertion or interchange of cables, but not always. Apparently identical
screws may be of differing lengths or have slightly different thread types.
Little parts may fit in more than one place or orientation. Etc.
13. Select a work area which is wide open, well lighted, and where
dropped parts can be located - not on a deep pile shag rug. The best
location will also be relatively dust free and allow you to suspend your
troubleshooting to eat or sleep or think without having to pile everything
into a cardboard box for storage.
14. Understand the risk of ESD - Electro-Static Discharge. Some
components (like ICs) in solid state electronic devices are vulnerable to
ESD. There is no need to go overboard but taking reasonable precautions
such as getting into the habit of touching a safe ground point first.

WARNING: even with an isolation transformer, a live chassis should NOT be

considered a safe ground point. This applies mostly to TVs, computer and
video monitors, some AC operated strobe lights, and other line connected

19 | P a g e
devices. You shouldn't be touching components with the device powered and
plugged in (at least, not until you really know what you are doing!). Once
unplugged, sheet metal shields or other ground points should be safe and
effective.

Some Quick Tips or Rules of Thumb

 Problems that are erratic or intermittent - that come and go suddenly -
are almost always due to bad connections - cold solder joints or
internal or external connectors that need to be cleaned and reseated.
It is amazing what a large percentage of common problems fall into
the category.
 Pay particular attention to areas of the circuit board where there are
large and/or high power components, connectors, or evidence of
discoloration or actual charring due to excessive heat. Your eyeballs, a
bright light, and magnifier will be the most useful test equipment for
this purpose!
 Problems that change gradually - usually they decrease or disappear -
as the equipment warms up are often due to dried up electrolytic
capacitors.

While capacitors will occasionally leak making diagnosis easy, in most cases,
there are no obvious signs of failure. (Note: Don't be misled into thinking
that the adhesive often used to anchor large capacitors and other
components to the circuit board are leakage.) The most useful testing device
for electrolytic capacitors is an ESR meter. However, heating suspect caps
with a hair dryer may get the equipment going for the purposes of making a
diagnosis.

 Problems that result in a totally dead unit or affect multiple functions are
generally power supply related. These are usually easy to fix. Common
failure items are the large hybrid power regulator ICs used in many VCRs
20 | P a g e
 and TVs, diodes and transistors, and remarkably - high value resistors
that open up.
 Catastrophic failures often result in burnt, scorched, cracked, exploded, or
melted components, or similar catastrophic consequences. However, some
components run hot by design and slight discoloration on the circuit board
in their vicinity, while not desirable, may be normal. Use your senses of
sight and smell for the preliminary search for such evidence.
 Listen for signs of arcing or corona - snapping or sizzling sounds. A
component on the brink of failing due to overheating may provide similar
audible clues.
 Many CD player problems are mechanical - dirty lens, worn or oily drawer
belts, dirt/gummed up grease on sled tracks/gears, bad/partially shorted
spindle or sled motor. Power problems with portables seem to be common
as well. No matter what the symptoms, always make it a habit to clean
the lens first - many peculiar failure modes are simply due to a dirty lens.
Actual laser failure is relatively uncommon despite what the typical service
shop may claim. CD players are also remarkably robust. Optical alignment
should never be needed under normal conditions of operation.
 TV and monitor problems are very often power supply or deflection
related. These tend to have obvious causes - blown posistor, rectifier
diodes, filter capacitor, HOT, or chopper. Flyback with shorted windings or
shorts between windings or in the voltage multiplier (if used) or
screen/focus divider network are also common. Where the HOT or chopper
is involved, operation should be observed after the repair as components
in the vicinity may cause the new parts to fail. HOTs should generally not
run hot. If they do, check for weak drive, excess B+, etc.
 Ink-jet printers are extremely reliable electrically. Look for simple problem
such as caked ink in the 'service station' area, misaligned print-head

21 | P a g e
 contacts, or a nearly empty cartridge when erratic printing problems
develop.
 Laser printers tend to develop problems in the fuser, scanner, or power
control modules. These are often simple like a burned out lamp, bad
motor or bad connections.
 Logic circuits - marginal timing or signal levels will result in a dramatic
change in behavior with a slight 'body' load. It has been possible to locate
a race condition or glitchy signal on a 305 pin PGA chip using this
approach in less time than it would have taken to roll the logic analyzer
over to the system under test. Signals which have proper levels and
timing are generally remarkably immune to this sort of torture.
 Analog circuits - behavior can again be altered. In the case of audio
amps, probing with a finger is just as effective as the use of a signal
injector - which is what you are doing - and the equipment is always
handy. By evoking hum, buzz, clicks, and pops, locating the live or dead
parts of a circuit is rapid and effective.
 Unknown circuits - where no schematics are available, it may be
possible to get the device to do something or locate an area that is
sensitive to probing. The function of a section of circuitry can often be
identified by observing the effects of touching the components in that
area.
 Bad bypass capacitors - touching the power/signal side of a good
bypass cap should result in little or no effect. However, a cap with high
ESR and/or reduced uF will not be doing its job bypassing the pickup from
your finger to ground - there will be a dramatic effect in audio or video
systems.

Don't get carried away - too much moisture may have unforeseen
consequences.

22 | P a g e
Depending on the condition of your skin, a tingle may be felt even on low
voltage circuits under the right conditions. However, this is pretty safe for
most battery operated devices, TTL/CMOS logic, audio equipment (not high
power amps), CD players, VCRs (not switching power supply), etc.

WARNING: Make sure you do this only with LOW VOLTAGE circuitry. You
can easily fry yourself if you attempt to troubleshoot your TV, computer
monitor, photoflash, or microwave oven in this manner!

23 | P a g e
 Practical 4

Topic: Testing Diodes and Transistors

Aim: At the end of this session, the students will be able to test
semiconductor diodes and transistor to ascertain whether they are good.

Discussion:

One of the nice things about solid-state devices is that, under normal
conditions, they rarely go bad. However, "rarely" is not the same as "never".
And if conditions are not "normal", if an excessive voltage gets to a
semiconductor, it can be damaged. In this article we will discuss how to test
for a damaged transistor or diode.

Procedures:

1. Testing Silicon Diodes

To test a silicon diode such as a 1N914 or a 1N4001 all you need is an ohm-
meter. If you are using an analog VOM type meter, set the meter to one of
the lower ohms scales, say 0-2K, and measure the resistance of the diode
both ways. If you get zero both ways, the diode is shorted. If you get
INFINITY both ways, the diode is open. If you get INFINITY one way but
some reading the other way (the value is not important) then the diode is
good. If you use a digital multi-meter (DMM), then there should be a special
setting on the Ohms range for testing diodes. Often the setting is marked
with a diode symbol:

Measure the diode resistance both ways. One way the meter should indicate
an open circuit (infinity), the other way you should get a reading (often a
reading around 600). That indicates the diode is good. If you measure an

24 | P a g e
open circuit both ways, the diode is open. If you measure low resistance
both ways, the diode is shorted.

2. Testing Diodes in Circuit

The procedures described above assume the diode under test is not part of
any circuit. If you are trying to test a diode that is on a circuit board or
otherwise connected to other components, then you should disconnect one
end of the diode. On a circuit board you can unsolder one end of the diode
and lift it off the board. Make sure that you first disconnect all power going
to the circuit before you disconnect the diode. After disconnecting one end,
proceed as described above.

3. Know Polarity of Your Meter

When set to measure resistance, both VOMs and DMMs apply voltage to the
test leads. You should know which lead is positive. Don't assume the red
lead is positive, it may not be. Use another meter set to measure DC volts
on, say, the 20V scale and determine which lead of your Ohm-meter is
positive. Another way is to take a diode you know is good and find which
way you need to put the leads to get an Ohms reading. At that point, the
positive lead is on the anode and negative lead is on the cathode (cathode is
the banded end.)

One reason to know the polarity of your meter is so you can determine
which end of a diode is the cathode if the band has been removed. Also, as
we will see below, you can use your Ohm-meter to tell an NPN transistor
from a PNP if you know which meter lead is positive.

25 | P a g e
4. Testing Zeners
If you just want to know if a Zener diode has opened-up or shorted-out,
then just test it as described above for standard diodes. If you want to
measure its Zener voltage level, you will have to build a circuit as shown in
Figure 3.

The power supply voltage should be set to a value slightly higher than the
Zener value. For example, for a 12 volt diode, the supply voltage should be
about 15 volts. The value of the resistor R should limit the current to about a
milliAmp. For example, using 15 volts with a 12 volt Zener, use a 3.3K
resistor. The exact value is not critical. Once the circuit is built, just read the
Zener voltage off the meter (if you read 0.6 volts, reverse the diode).

NOTE: Any diode will become a Zener diode if you apply enough voltage to
it.

5. Testing LEDS
LEDs have a larger voltage-drop across them than regular diodes. Depending
on the LED, the drop can be between 1.5 to 2.5 volts. If you have a DMM
with a diode setting on the Ohms scale, then you may be able to test an LED
as you test a standard diode. The difference will be that the meter will read
1600 or 50 when the diode conducts instead of the 600 you read on a silicon
diode.

26 | P a g e
If you can't use your multi-meter, then build the circuit shown in Figure
4 and see if the LED light up.

If the LED doesn't light up; reverse polarity on the diode. If it still doesn't
light, it's bad.

Transistors
As with diodes, it is usually the case that a transistor either works or it
doesn't. So again we will be able to make a few simple tests with a meter to
see if a transistor is good or bad. You can think of a transistor as two back-
to-back diodes in one package as shown in Figure 5.

Note that transistors come in two basic types: NPN and PNP. The letters C,
B, E stand for COLLECTOR, BASE, and EMITTER which are the names of the
three leads which come out of a transistor.

6. Testing Transistors
Assuming you know if the transistor is NPN or PNP, and assuming you know
where B, C, and E are, then just test the B-C junction and the B-E junction

27 | P a g e
as if they were standard diodes. If one of those junctions is a "bad diode",
then the transistor is bad. Also, check the resistance from C to E using a
higher Ohms scale (say, the 2 Meg scale). Be sure your fingers don't touch
the metal test points or you will just measure your skin resistance. If the
transistor is good, you should get an open-circuit reading from collector to
emitter.

NOTE: the above assumes silicon. With germanium transistors you may
measure a high resistance from C to E.

7. Using Meter to Separate NPN from PNP

If you have a transistor but you don't know if it is NPN or PNP, then you can
find out which it is using your Ohm-meter if you know which lead of your
meter is positive.

Assuming you know where C, B, and E are on the transistor, do the

following. Connect the positive lead of your Ohm-meter to the base. Touch
the other lead of your meter to the collector. If you get a reading, the
transistor is NPN. To verify, move the lead from the collector to the emitter
and you should still get a reading. If your meter reads open-circuit, then
connect the negative lead to the base and touch the positive lead to the
collector. If you get a reading, then the transistor is PNP. Verify by
measuring from base to emitter.

Things to Watch For

Some transistors have diodes from collector to emitter built into them. They
will not read open-circuit when measuring resistance between C and E.
Some transistors have resistors from base to emitter built into them. They
will read that resistance when measuring Ohms B to E.

28 | P a g e
Some transistors are Darlingtons. They have a higher reading base to
emitter which may appear as an open on a VOM.

8. Checking Transistors in Circuit

With power disconnected from the circuit, you can try some of the above
measurements on transistors that are in the circuit. However, your readings
can be deceptive due to resistors and other components in the circuit. You
can try disconnecting the base lead from the circuit before making
measurements. Be sure to reconnect it after testing.

29 | P a g e
 Practical 5
Topic: Transistor circuit test and fault finding using a multimeter
Aim: To identify fault in a faulty equipment using multimeter
Discussion:
One of the main uses for multimeters whether they are analogue
multimeters or digital multimeters, DMMs is to test and fault find circuits like
those in a transistor radio. Multimeters are ideal items of test equipment for
finding many faults in a transistor circuit. However to use a multimeter to
test a circuit and find faults it is necessary to have a little knowledge about
the circuit, and also to adopt a logical approach in tracking down any faults
that may exist.
Word of warning!! Some transistor equipment may be mains powered.
Only qualified persons should attempt to repair mains powered equipment or
equipment that contains high or hazardous voltages. High voltage
scan kill so be warned!

Procedure:
Look for obvious faults
The first step when looking at tracing any faults and testing a transistor
circuit of any sort is to look for the obvious or major faults. Fortunately most
faults with electronics equipment such as transistor radios are relatively
major and therefore easy to find. Accordingly the first step in any fault
finding is to look for the major problems.
1. Check the supply to the circuit: The first steps in checking the circuit
are to ensure that it has power being supplied to it. This is easily done
using a multimeter set to a voltage range. Measure the voltage using a
multimter at the points where the supply enters the circuit board. If the
multimeter indicates that there is no supply voltage then there can be a
number of possibilities to investigate:
o Battery could be flat if the equipment is battery powered

30 | P a g e
 o If the transistor equipment is battery powered, the battery could have
been left in for many months and corroded the battery compartment.
Check for this and if there are signs of leakage then clean and remove
all signs of corrosion being careful not to touch any of the residue.
o On-off switch may be faulty: This can be checked by disconnecting any
power source and checking for continuity across the switch.
o Corroded connector: One common problem is that connectors become
corroded with time and connections can become very poor, especially
of the equipment has not been used for some time. To overcome this
it can help to unplug and then re-mate the connector.
o Check for any broken wiring that would prevent the power reaching
the circuit board.
2. Check the outputs from the board: In the same way that broken
connections may exist for the power line, the same may be true of the
outputs from the board. Again it is worth checking any connectors that
may have corroded or oxidised with time, and check for any broken
connections.
3. Check the inputs to the circuit: Likewise, if the signal inputs are not
reaching the board then it will not be able to perform. Again any switches
and connectors along with any broken wires should be checked. Often a
multimeter can be used to check the continuity of the wires, but first
ensure there is no power applied to the circuit.
By using a multimeter for the fault finding, it is possible to find many of the
obvious faults that can occur. If the problem cannot be found, and it appears
that the correct power is reaching the transistor circuit, and the inputs are
all connected and present as well as the output lines being intact, then
further fault finding on the transistor circuit board itself may be needed.
Again a multimeter can assist in this.

31 | P a g e
4. Expected voltages in a transistor circuit
If all the inputs to the board appear to be correct, further tests can be
undertaken using a multimeter for the fault finding and to track down the
problem. Again a systematic approach should be adopted.
When testing a particular transistor circuit, a multimeter can be used to
determine if the voltages around the circuit are correct. To test and fault find
a particular transistor circuit, it is necessary to have an idea what the steady
voltages should be. The circuit below is a typical basic transistor circuit.
Many circuits are similar to it, and it provides good starting point to explain
some of the points to note.

Expected voltage readings when testing a transistor circuit with a multimeter

The circuit shows several of the points where the voltage can be measured
in a circuit. Most of them are measured with respect to ground. This is the
easiest way to make a voltage measurement because the "common" or
negative probe can be clipped to a suitable ground point (many black probes
used for the negative line have a crocodile or alligator clip for this purpose).
Then all the measurements can be made relative to ground.
There are normally a number of points around a transistor circuit that are
easy to measure, and the expected voltages can be anticipated for the most
part if a few assumptions are made:

32 | P a g e
  Assume the circuit is operating in a linear mode, i.e. it is not a
switching circuit.
 Assume the circuit is operating in a common emitter mode as shown in
the diagram.
 Assume the circuit has a resistive collector load.
If the assumptions above are true, then the following voltages can be
expected. If not then allowances need to be made for the changes.
1. The collector voltage should sit at approximately half the rail voltage.
More specifically it should sit at half the rail voltage less the emitter
voltage. In this way the greatest voltage swing can be obtained. If the
transistor has an inductive load, as in the case of the intermediate
frequency amplifier in a radio which may have an IF transformer in the
collector circuit, then the collector should sit at virtually the same
voltage as the rail voltage.
2. The emitter voltage should sit at around a volt or two. In most class A
common emitter circuits an emitter resistor is included to give some
DC feedback. The voltage across this resistor is typically a volt or so.
3. The base voltage should sit at the PN junction turn on voltage above
the emitter. For a silicon transistor, which is the most common type,
this is around 0.6 volts.

33 | P a g e
In addition to this there are many other types of circuit which may need
fault finding. Switching circuits are quite common these days where
transistors are used to drive other elements such as relays or other devices.
These do not operate in a linear mode. Instead all voltages are either on or
off. The collector voltage will either be approximately zero when the
transistor is on, and approximately the rail voltage when off. The emitter will
usually be connected to ground, and the base voltage will be high, i.e.
approximately 0.6 volts for a silicon transistor when the transistor is on (i.e.
collector near zero), and low, (zero volts) when the transistor is off and the
collector is high.

Summary
A multimeter is an ideal piece of test equipment to help with fault finding in
an electronics transistor circuit. Often circuits like transistor radios fail after
they have been used for many years, and it is useful to be able to mend
them Also when constructing equipment, circuits do not always work first
time and it is necessary to fault-find these circuits. While it will not be
possible to solve all problems using a multimeter, it is one of the most useful
basic tools for any fault finding job.

34 | P a g e
 Practical 6

Topic: Troubleshooting tips: Automation and process control loops

Aim: To understand the basic troubleshooting tips in automation and
process control loops.

Discussion:
Automation technicians are constantly challenged to keep instrumentation
loops and I/O working at peak efficiency in the least amount of time
possible. While multiple tools have typically been needed to perform various
troubleshooting tasks, today's multi-function instruments, such as mA
process clamp meters, allow technicians to perform a wide range of tests
with outstanding accuracy and efficiency, while cutting down on the number
of instruments needed to do the job.
As these tools become increasingly important in today's automation and
process control environments, it is important to understand when, where
and how to use them to their best advantage - from tracing control loop
problems or malfunctions to field testing and commissioning.
Following is a look at some of the features and functions of mA process
clamp meters, along with troubleshooting guidelines to help you get the
most out of your instrument investment.
1. Tracing Control Loop Problems: Often, the first indication of a control
loop problem comes from the operator reporting a bad valve or a loop not
responding the way it should. Any of these anomalies is a signal for the
technician to begin troubleshooting.
The first step is to measure the 4-20 mA signals to verify the loop current
value. There are three likely causes when the loop current measured is not
as expected: broken, disconnected or shorted wires; a bad loop power
supply; or faulty instrumentation. If no problem is found in the wires, check
the loop power supply. If that supply shows no output, a meter with a 24-V
loop power function can be used to substitute for the missing output. If the

35 | P a g e
loop works properly, then the source of the problem is obviously the power
supply.
When the wiring and power supply both check out, it's time to check the
transmitter. Use the mA simulate mode on a loop calibrator, process
calibrator or multi-function clamp-on meter to substitute for the transmitter.
If the loop performs as requested, the problem lies with the transmitter.
Finally, if a final control element (i.e. a valve positioner) is suspected, the
mA source/simulate mode can feed a signal into the element and provide a
response.

2. Loop Malfunctions: An inaccurate (versus a dead) loop can be caused

by a number of things, including a bad input/output (I/O) card on the PLC,
distributed process control system (DCS), or a bad final control element (for
example, an I/P on a valve positioner). It's usually best to start by doing a
field check of the transmitter, local or remote indicator, or final control
element.

For a final control element, use a clamp-on meter to measure loop current
and compare the value to the local position indicator on the valve or other
final control element. Relay that information to the operator to verify your
findings. In the case of a measurement loop, use the clamp meter to
measure loop current, then check with the operator to see how well the
value indicated on the control panel agrees with the actual loop current. This
will provide a quick check on the PLC or DCS I/O card that handles that
particular loop. It's also possible to use the meter's mA source/simulate
mode to send a known signal to the control room; and compare the value as
read by the operator to the actual current in the loop.

Some loops show random fluctuations or intermittent faults that need to be

tracked over time. A clamp meter with a scaled mA output can be used to
measure the current in the loop without breaking the circuit, and produce an

36 | P a g e
identical and isolated mA output. That output can be fed to a DMM with a
logging function to enable recording over time.

3. Field Checks & Plant Commissioning: When performing a field check

or commissioning, a clamp-on loop current meter can be used to check each
loop for current in a matter of seconds, without disconnecting anything. If a
loop is not working, a multi-function clamp meter can also make quick work
of diagnostics. If current is not present on some loops, however, it is time to
move on to classic troubleshooting.

Classic troubleshooting involves checking the wiring, the power supply and
the control system's I/O cards (i.e. using the meter to inject a signal into the
I/O, and then contacting the operator to ask what he sees). If the operator
agrees with what is being sent, then there may be something amiss with the
transmitter - either the transmitter itself or, if this is a new installation, the
wiring.
4. Checking DCS and PLC I/O Cards: A mA process clamp meter can also
be used as an accurate signal source to check the operation of I/O cards on
PLCs and DCSs. For 4-20 mA input cards, disconnect the process loop and
use the meter's mA source mode to feed in a known signal value and
compare it to the value shown on the operator's readout. Voltage input cards
can be checked in a similar way, using the meter's voltage source function.

5. Checking a Valve Positioner: As part of preventive maintenance

programs, technicians can use milliamp clamp meters for periodic in-field
checks of electronic valve positioners. Accounting for manufacturer-specific
instructions, it is relatively easy to perform quick operational checks using
the meter as a signal source, while observing the valve stem position,
mechanical position indicators or flow indicators as input changes are made.

6. Checking Loop Isolators and VFDS: To check a loop isolator, apply an

mA input signal to the device and measure its 4-20 mA output using the

37 | P a g e
clamp-on current measuring function. A two-channel simultaneous
source/measure function can be used for valves that report their position
using 4-20 mA. An mA process clamp meter can also be used to feed in a
signal to a variable frequency drive (VFD) to simulate a normal input while
the technician observes the result.

Today's mA process clamp meters can save instrumentation and automation

technicians a great deal of time because they can replace a number of
separate instruments and support a range of functions. When selecting a
multi-function tool, be sure to check the specifications and feature/function
sets to ensure the instrument you choose is the right one to meet all of your
troubleshooting needs.

38 | P a g e