THREE MONGOLIAN COATS FROM THE

13TH–14TH CENTURY GRAVE AT BUKHIIN KHOSHUU

Ildikó Oka

The Objects of Study

Three coats were found by the archaeologists of the National Museum of Mongolian History
in the grave at Bukhiin Khoshuu in Khentii aimag. The archaeological site and the grave have
been described by Zh. Baiarsaikhan in the previous article in this volume. The grave was inves-
tigated only after grave-robbers had discovered and robbed it; according to the archaeologists,
the robes were found in a bundle. As it turned out, originally there were three coats which had
been layered over each other. The looters threw them away, and left them at the site. There
are no remains of trousers or shirts, but jewellery, pouches and belt ornaments that belonged
to the deceased person were later recovered. The archaeological finds, including the coats, are
now in the National Museum of Mongolian History.

Coat No. 11 is made of white tabby silk, and has an applied and embroidered decoration made
of golden lampas of unrecognizable colour.

Coat No. 2 is made of green-gold lampas, which was woven with a pattern of eagles in lobed
roundels and sections in between.

Coat No. 3 was made of two kinds of golden lampas of unrecognizable colour, one of them
with felines in lobed roundels, the other with griffins.

After restoration, which was done by the restorers of the Cultural Heritage Centre, B. Chin-
zorig, O. Batzaia, B. Miagmarsüren and O. Oiunchimeg (Tuultsetseg / Oka 2006, 70–71), the
coats were sewn on boards so their backs and inner sides cannot be studied. Extensive parts
of them are missing as well, so the cuts of the robes can be reconstructed only tentatively. In
some cases, the under-lapping parts can be seen to a certain extent 2, and we have some pho-
tographs of those parts which are invisible now. Because the coats are in a very bad state of
preservation, they cannot be put on exhibition. It was necessary to make an exact documenta-

1 The numbering has nothing to do with the original
positions of the coats, I have no information about in
which sequence they were put on each other.
2 I have used the phrase “under-lapping” with a dif-
ferent meaning than H. H. Hansen 1993, 33: “an
under-lapping part (is) which has …been added in
an S shaped breast seam”. I have used this phrase for
those parts of the robe which are under the overlap-
ping parts: Type A is in continuation of the central
back panel, type B is similar to the overlapping in
cut, and sewn, just like it, to the central vertical front
line with a vertical seam.
488 Ildikó Oka

tion and a copy of at least one of them. The first, experimental reconstructing (re-making) of
coat No. 1 has given us the possibility to interpret the present state of the other coats, and the
techniques and methods of the dress-making process. I should like to express my gratitude to
the director of the National Museum of Mongolian History, Professor A. Ochir, who invited
me to do this exciting experiment and the Mongolian seamstresses and embroiders, who, led
by Mrs Dar’süren, worked with me to produce the first copy of the robe. Our work gave us a
new insight into the production of the 13th–14th century luxury robes.

The Historical Background

The research of Thomas Allsen presents us with the historical circumstances under which
these coats were produced. According to his study, beginning with the initial campaigns of
the Mongol conquest, the lives of the Chinese, Iranian and Central Asian artisans were spared
even when the majority of their hometowns’ population was put to the sword. Most of them
were resettled to far away parts of the newly established Yeke Mongghol Ulus, in newly found-
ed workshops in the old manufacturing centres and cities (Allsen 1997, 32–33; 35). The most of
the so-called nasij textiles came from five state-controlled communities of civil artisans; at last
three of them were of Central or West Asian origin (Pelliot 1927, 261–279; Allsen 1997, 41–42).
The “nasij”, the luxury textile of the Mongol era, was identified with the golden lampas; a tex-
tile which is woven in lampas weave with silk and gold threads3. In recent years, several robes
have been found in graves belonging to the Yuan era. Thanks to the research of textile experts,
especially that of Anne Wardwell and Zhao Feng, the artistic and technical analysis of these
products of the Yuan era textile industry are available now. And we know from Allsen’s study,
how the presentation of the golden “clothes of one Colour” played a central role in the culture
and interacting of the Mongolian Empire (Allsen 1997).
The luxurious robes from Bukhiin Khoshuu belonged to this category. Their owner was ac-
cording to Zh. Baiarsaikhan (this volume) a member of the Mongol political (military) elite. Ob-
viously, he was presented with this set of robes by the court. I hope that a more detailed picture
of the clothing and the textile culture of this era will emerge from this research: not only through
the data, which was provided by the textiles and the coats, but the reconstruction of one of the
robes will help us to understand the production and labour division inside the workshops.

Description of the Coats and their General Characteristics

To avoid confusion, I use H. H. Hansen’s definitions and vocabulary to explain the cut and the
details of the robes. Whenever it was possible, I tried to follow A. Wardwell’s technical analy-

3 Wardwell 1989, 95–133; Allsen 1997, 1–10. Lampas that is weft dominant is combined with a foundation
weave can be defined as a “compound weave in which weave with its own warps and wefts that is warp
a supplementary weave with its own warps and wefts dominant” (Watt / Wardwell 1997, 213).
 Three Mongolian Coats from the 13th–14th Century Grave at Bukhiin Khoshuu 489

sis of Yuan era’s textiles (Watt / Wardwell 1997, passim). However, there was no microscope in
the museum, and I had to take the measurements for the technical analysis of the textiles by
using a magnifying glass.

Coat No. 1 with applied decoration

The coat (Fig. 1–2; 5.1,2) consists of two parts and has a horizontal cross-partition (Hansen
1993, 143). The upper part is formed of two lengths of white silk fabric with an over-lapping and
an under-lapping part, which is sewn on it on the front. The overlapping is to the right and the
partly visible under-lapping is to the left. It has a shawl-collar, which follows the upper edge of
the overlapping, the back, and the under-lapping. It is closed by five (?) pairs of ribbons on the
right side and probably two pairs on the left, inside the garment. The sleeves are cut in prolonga-
tion4 of the body, and they have prolongations. The long, ample sleeves are tapered towards the
wrists. The waist is covered with horizontal rows of silk cords. During the Yuan period, this
rather common type of robe was called “bian xian ao” or “bian xian pao”, which means braided
thread robe. (It has to be mentioned, that though the decoration looks like braiding, actually it
is not.) (Dinwiddie et al. 2004, 49). Each cord is made of two Z-twisted silk threads of natural
colour, which are sewn together with a narrow, fine thread. This upper part has been combined
with a plaited lower part formed as a petticoat which is open at the right side. The plaits are very
narrow, and they are sewn down with four rows of seams, the uppermost one is hidden under
the upper part of the coat. The two parts are sewn together with a horizontal seam, which runs
at the level of the hips. The central part of the “petticoat” is missing; its present form was con-
structed by the restorers. The garment is lined with lower-quality white tabby silk.
This coat has several kinds of applied decoration, each of them cut out of silk brocade (most-
ly lampas). They have an identical facing of the same brown silk gauze, which is embroidered
in the same fashion, with two parallel rows of sewn-on double silk threads.

1. The application on the shawl-collar is a continuous row of horned motifs.

2. The application along the upper edges of the sleeve-prolongation at shoulder height, around
the wrists, and along the edges of the petticoat consists of separate horned and rounded tri-
angles which are arranged between two parallel bands.
3. These narrow bands (2) have on their two sides facings and embroidery.
4. On the upper part of the caftan, there is a prolongation of the petticoat’s side decoration.
Though similar in structure, it has two slightly different S-shaped horned applications be-
tween the bands, and the inner band has a decorative ending.
5. On the yoke of the garment, both on the overlapping and the under-lapping side, a large,
four-cornered application covers the caftan. It resembles the four-pointed cloud-collars of
later periods, but is structurally different5. This decoration is not a “collar”; it continues on
the over- and under-lapping of the coat (Garrett 1994, 85; 134).
6. Under the silk strings of the waist-decoration, four bands with floral endings are sewn on
the front and back, and next to the side vertical seams of the caftan. Only the upper parts of
them are visible as they stick out from under the cords.

4 H. H. Hansen’s expression, meaning extension. 5 Actually, this type of garment has a long history in
China, but it does not concern us in this article.
490 Ildikó Oka

Fig. 1. Bukhiin Khoshuu. Coat No. 1.

7. Above the lower edge of the upper part of the caftan, at the level of the hips, an embroi-
dered horizontal band of lampas is sewn. It is adorned with an embroidered variation of
the collar’s decoration, albeit in a different technique. The pattern is a continuous line of
horn-motifs in upright and upside-down positions. Their outline is drawn by two sewn-on
 Three Mongolian Coats from the 13th–14th Century Grave at Bukhiin Khoshuu 491

threads in brownish and beige colours. The upper half of the embroidery is under the silk
strings, which cover the waist.

Technical analysis of the textiles of the coat

Outer fabric: tabby silk with applied decoration. Warp: single, sometimes double, without
apparent twist, sometimes it resembles miniature flat ribbons. Weft: single, without apparent
twist; similar to the warp, but narrower. Count: 45–46 / cm. Weave: warp-faced tabby, slightly
uneven.
Lining: tabby silk. Warp: uneven, yellowish, apparently without twist, it resembles narrow
ribbons. Count: 20–21 / cm. Weft: similar to the warp, but narrower. Count: 25–26/cm. Weave:
very loose, resembles a net.

Technical analysis of the textiles used for the decoration

Several kinds of textiles have been used for the applied decorations of the caftan. The textiles
seem to be the cut, left over remains of textile panels from which other caftans had been made.
The decorations are made of smaller textile pieces, which first were stitched together to create
a larger fabric of golden cloth, regardless of the pattern. The intricate horned patterns were cut
of this basic textile, obscuring their design, and the similar facing gives them a united, uniform
impression in spite of the difference in their details. It is obvious that the tailors and embroi-
ders tried to use the same, or at least similar textiles for the same type of decorations.

The textile used for the bands of the right shoulder seems to be made of a textile which has a
pattern of clouds.
Warp – Foundation: double, sometimes triple, mostly unspun, its present colour is beige. Sup-
plementary: single, mostly unspun, similar to the weft. Count: 36 (24 foundation warp and 12
supplementary) warp / cm. Step: 4 (2 double) thread.
Weft – Foundation: single, mostly unspun, similar to the warp. Supplementary: some kind
of unidentified gilded substance wrapped around a thick, single, Z-spun silk core. Count: 11
foundation wefts and 11 supplementary wefts per centimetre.
Weave – Foundation: tabby, simple weave. Supplementary; twill, 2/1. Proportion: 8 (one of them
double) foundation warps to 1 supplementary warp. Proportion (of the foundation warps and
the supplementary warps): 16 (8 pairs) of foundation warps to 1 supplementary warp / cm.

The textile used for the decoration of the shawl-collar is a comparatively rough, uneven, loose-
ly woven silk, which has almost a net-like appearance. Its colour is now a yellowish-beige, and
has a scattered, sparse, green pattern. Though I could not study it under microscope, it looked
like a double-woven textile, similar to that of published by Zhao Feng in: Dinwiddie et al.
2004, 63.
Warp – Foundation: yellow, thin, slightly Z-spun. Count: foundation warps and supplemen-
tary warps together approximately 36.
Weft – Foundation: yellowish, uneven, unspun, thin, strong, wavy, the distance between the threads
is about 0.7-0.8 mm. Count: 11 / cm. Supplementary; green, uneven, single, sometimes double.
492 Ildikó Oka

Weave – Foundation: tabby. Supplementary: twill. For each foundation weft there is a sup-
plementary weft. The textile is so loose that both of them are visible. Mistakes: sometimes the
wefts steps over 3 warps.

Textile with coiled dragons (from the decoration of the shoulders and the chest).
Warp – Foundation: double, sometimes triple, mostly unspun, or with a slight Z-twist. Sup-
plementary: single, similar to the foundation warp. Proportion: 16 (8 double) foundation warps
to 1 supplementary warp. Step: 6 (3 double) foundation warps. Count: 60 (54 foundation and 6
supplementary) warps / cm.
Weft – Foundation: 19 / cm. Supplementary: double gold thread composed of strips of some
kind of gilded substance wrapped around a silk core. Step: 1 pass. Count: 36 (18 double)
threads / cm.
Weave – Lampas foundation: tabby. Supplementary: ½ twill. Step: 4 (2 double) warps. Mistake:
3 mm under the stripe, the warps step over 3 foundation wefts.

The textile used for the decoration of the narrow bands on the shoulders; its surface resembles
to a negative relief.
Warp – Foundation: beige silk, double, without apparent twist, or with slight Z-twist. Supple-
mentary: single, similar to the foundation warp, with or without a slight Z-twist. Proportion: 8
foundation warp to 1 supplementary warp. Step: 4 (2 pairs) foundation warps. Count: 45 / cm.
Weft – Step: 1 foundation weft (?). Count: 20 / cm.
Weave – foundation: tabby (?). Supplementary: twill, 2/1.

The textile used for the facing of the applied decorations

Warp – untwisted, brown silk. Count: 50–53 / cm.
Weft – the same untwisted silk. Count: 38 / cm.
Weave – Gauze.

Coat No. 2 made of textile decorated with eagles

The upper part of this caftan (Fig. 3; 5.3,4) is similar to that of the two other caftans. It has a
shawl-collar, an overlapping part to the right, and an under-lapping which ends at the left side-
seam. It had wristbands which were made of plain tabby silk. Only one of them survived. The
waist is decorated, just like the other coats, with horizontal rows of silk strings. These have
been made of long silk stripes or bands, which were sewn to a “tube”. The cut edges are inside
the “tube”, and that was sewn on the coat in such a way, that the seam is running horizontally
in the middle of the cords. Though several parts of them are missing, it looks like the whole
decoration was made of a single continuous string6. On the right side of the back, at the end of
the decoration, where the cord is turning, every third turning was made longer to form a loop,
which became a strap for a button. The coat was fastened by buttons, now missing. We know
of their existence because of their straps. Though very similar to the other two coats, this one

6 Though we have a somewhat ambiguous photo of the

back of the coat, which seems to contradict this de-
duction.
Three Mongolian Coats from the 13th–14th Century Grave at Bukhiin Khoshuu 493

Fig. 2. The replica of coat No. 1.

494 Ildikó Oka

has no horizontal cut. Under the waist downwards it flares because it is cut in at the waist,
and in addition there are two triangular appendages which are sewn to the central panels on
the two sides. These appendages were arranged in large inner folds; the number of these folds
seems to be six on each side. The tabby silk lining of the coat has almost completely disap-
peared and only a few traces of it remains.
The decoration of this textile consists of pairs of eagles with spread wings in lobed medal-
lions. Their heads are turned backwards, and the void is filled with two similar but smaller
birds. In the sections between the medallions there are again pairs of regardant eagles. The
remaining ground is decorated with floral vines. The details and forms of the birds’ heads and
beaks are very similar but by no means the same. Again there is a distinct feeling of horror
vacui in this decoration.
Just as on the other caftans, the tailors used the end of the textile panels on the yoke. The
shoulder-line runs in the middle of a horizontal band of a stylized Kufic inscription. It is sepa-
rated by a stripe from the fabric’s “sample”; a unit which contains a characteristic part of the
main design.

Technical analysis of the textile

Warp – Foundation: silk of unknown colour, Z-twist, double. Supplementary: silk of the
same unknown colour, single, sometimes double, usually without apparent twist. Proportion:
4 foundation warps (two double), 1 supplementary warp. Step: 2 foundation warp (1 pair).
Count: 52–59 / cm (foundation and supplementary together).
Weft – Foundation: silk, Z-twist, single. Supplementary: gold thread composed of strips of
some kind of gilded substance wrapped around a yellow silk core, Z-twist. Pass: 1 foundation
weft and 1 pair of supplementary weft. Step: 1 pass. Count: 57 (19 foundation wefts and 19
pairs of supplementary) wefts / cm.
Weave – lampas. Foundation: tabby binding, single weave. Supplementary: warps usually lie
next to the foundation warps. Supplementary warps: ½ S twill binding (gold wefts bound in
pair).

Coat No. 3, made of different textile panels decorated with felines or griffins

This coat (Fig. 4; 5.5,6) is made of two kinds of textile panels. Both of them are of the same
green colour and have technically and formally similar woven decorations. The two kinds of
textiles are sewn together alternatively, and make a coordinate united design. The caftan has
a similar cut to that of the caftan No. 1 with the applied decoration. It has a shawl-collar and
wristbands made of the same material. Its main body consists of two parts which are sewn
together horizontally on the hip level. The robe is fastened by pairs of ribbons sewn on the up-
per right side of the front and the back. Only one of these ribbons remains. The collar is partly
covered with a square of brownish tabby silk stitched onto it. This is folded over the neckline,
and looks like a dust-cover.
The lower part resembles a petticoat. Its 3 cm wide upper edge is gathered into tight, flat,
narrow pleats, and attached by three parallel rows of stitches. It has been done with a brown-
ish, strong, thick silk thread which looks almost un-spun. The uppermost seam cannot be
Three Mongolian Coats from the 13th–14th Century Grave at Bukhiin Khoshuu 495

Fig. 3. Bukhiin Khoshuu. Coat No. 2.

496 Ildikó Oka

Fig. 4. Bukhiin Khoshuu. Coat No. 3.

 Three Mongolian Coats from the 13th–14th Century Grave at Bukhiin Khoshuu 497

Fig. 5. Bukhiin Khoshuu. 1a–b, 2a–b details of coat No. 1; 3–4 details of coat No. 2; 5–6 details of coat No. 3.
498 Ildikó Oka

seen, but we know of its existence from the similar caftan No. 1. It is hidden under the upper
part of the caftan. The other seams are at 2.7 and 3 cm below the first one. The 20 cm wide
lower part of the waist is entirely covered with horizontal rows of silk strings. Each string
consists of two separate ones. These are made of pairs of thick, un-spun silk threads which
had been first plied, then sewn together, and then sewn on the brocade with another, fine silk
thread.
The robe is lined with brownish, uneven silk. It has been sewn with strong, brownish twined
thread, with a running stitch.

The textiles

Textile with felines

This textile is decorated with lobed medallions on a patterned ground. Each encloses a pair of
what A. Wardwell (Watt / Wardwell 1997, 154–156), describing felines and griffins in a similar
pose, called “addorsed, regardant, rampant felines”. Each animal has two big, rounded ears and
their slightly upturned pointed noses resemble that of a mouse. They have wings which are
joined in the middle and terminate in a palmette. The lower line of the wings is lobed. The
animals’ thick tails curve behind their hind legs and terminate in dragons’ heads. The ground
of the medallions is filled with intricate floral vines with stylized leaves and fruits. The field
between the medallions is filled with vines on a grander scale, these have big, thick, rounded
leaves and wind in spiralling wavy lines.

Textile with griffins

This textile is decorated with lobed medallions on a patterned ground. Each of them encloses
a pair of “addorsed, regardant, backward-looking, rampant” griffins. The animals have lobed
collars, and small, upward-turned single wings, which are joined in the middle and end in a
palmette. Their thick tails curve behind the hind legs, and end in floral vines. The ground of
the medallions is filled with similar vines with stylized leaves and fruits. In the centre, between
the griffins’ curved backs, a stylized flower in what resembles a miniature vase fills the void.
These medallions are arranged in vertical rows. Between them there are long, oblong, hexago-
nal bands, which are filled with a fish-scale pattern.

Inscriptions on the top of the textile panels

The yoke of the robe was made from the top of the original textile panels. In the front
they can be seen turned upside down. They contain a band of pseudo-inscription, which is
composed of interlaced Kufic characters. It has been folded along the shoulder line and has
a narrow border below which there is a decoration of a repeated stylized flower and vine.
Under the border there is a small, representative portion of the main design. It seems as if the
textiles have not retained their original (woven) edges but were cut instead. However, since
the robe is mounted it was impossible to study this detail properly. The textile’s ground is
filled with two kinds of geometrical floral vine. One has thick leaves and the other has more
delicate ones.
 Three Mongolian Coats from the 13th–14th Century Grave at Bukhiin Khoshuu 499

Technical analysis of the caftan’s textiles

The lining of the caftan

Warp – brownish silk, without apparent twist. Count: first counting 24–24 / cm; second count-
ing 30 / cm.
Weft – similar brownish silk, without apparent twist. Count: first count, 20–21 / cm; second
count 30 / cm.
Weave – tabby, simple weave. The threads look like miniature flat ribbons. The weaving is
quite loose, and the discrepancy between the thicknesses of the threads that make up the weft
sometimes gives an unintentional ribbon-like pattern to the textile.

The outer facing of the collar

The yellowish colour perhaps originally was white. The threads are apparently without twist.
The ribbon-like pattern of the weaving is similar to that of the lining, but the threads are thin-
ner, and the weaving is even, and tighter. The steps of the stitches are 3.5–4.0 mm in the outer
seam and 5.0–5.5 mm in the inside seam.
Warp – 40 / cm.
Weft – 40 / cm. Unspun or spun, unrecognizable.
Weave – tabby, simple weave. It is an even, well-balanced, tightly woven textile.

Green lampas
Warp – Foundation: green silk, mostly double, but sometimes triple and occasionally single; the
ply is Z, the basic thread unrecognizable. Supplementary: yellow silk, single, Z-twist, mostly
unspun. Proportion: 4 foundation warps (2 pairs) to 1 supplementary warp. Step: 1 foundation
warp and 1 supplementary warp. Count: 76 (38 pairs) foundation warp and 38 supplementary
warp / cm.
Weft – Foundation: yellow silk, mostly single, apparently without twist, sometimes triple, also
without twist. Count: 13–14 / cm. Supplementary: yellow silk, Z-twist, double. Count: 27 (13
pair and a single) / cm. Step: 1 foundation weft and 1 (double) supplementary weft.
Weave – warp-faced tabby, loose enough to let the weft to be seen, simple weave. The supple-
mentary warps lie next to the foundation warps on the right side of the fabric, and underneath
the supplementary wefts on the back side of the cloth. The ground of the textile is green and
the pattern is woven of flat stripes of a gilded or silver-plated substance. Some traces of gold
can be detected on the yoke. Mistakes: sometimes the foundation warp binding is of 7. One
supplementary warp is woven in twill and this gives to the surface of the tabby ground weave
a curious, twill-like wave.

The Coats and the Clothing of the Mongolian Empire

Similar archaeological finds

In recent years, several Mongolian robes have been found in archaeological contexts. There is
a damask robe with a “ribboned” waist decoration, and two robes with “braided” decoration
500 Ildikó Oka

from Inner Mongolia7. The pictures of another robe of unknown provenance were found on
the Internet8. Each of them has a strikingly similar cut to those of the Coats No. 1 and 3. Even
the minute details (for instance the parallel seams on the plaiting) look identical. There is a
distinct possibility that they were made in the same workshop.

The representation of the robes in art of the period

The coats are well represented on the paintings and statues of the era, on Yuan-era tomb-
paintings (Zhao Feng 2000, 16–21), paintings (Dschingis Khan und seine Erben 2005, 299;
Eggebrecht 1989, 2) and on Ilkhan miniatures (Gray 1961, 11–13; Eggebrecht 1989, 44). Zhao
Feng calls it “one of the most common types of ceremonial robe” in Yuan dynasty documents
(Dinwiddie et al. 2004, 49). Of course, the coat with a shawl-collar without horizontal cross-
partition has a very long history among the nomads of Central Asia, not to mention among the
settled people under the rule of, or influenced by them. It remained the single most important
piece of their wardrobe until recently. It did not remain unchanged, however: Our three caf-
tans represent three distinct stages of one period of its transformation; it seems that during the
Yuan there was a trend to make the skirt of the caftan fuller and fuller, and the upper part of
the caftans more close-fitting. It seems that different types of cuts were used at the same time,
even for the same set of garment and the variations in form had no special official meaning.
The type of robe with six-six folds at the sides, was more popular in the Ilkhanate, but
without the waist-decoration, which seems to be more characteristic of the coats of the Yuan.
Horizontal cross-partitions appear on the fashionable caftans in both regions. This is not all
inclusive, but seems to be fairly widespread. We do not have enough data to decide the general
characteristics of the contemporary Central-Asian and Caucasian clothing yet, but a unique
manuscript from Central Europe has several representations of similar costumes in Eastern
and Central Europe. The Cronicum Pictum, made in Hungary during the 1340s, comprises
several miniatures which depict Hungarians, Cumans, Rumanians, Ruthenians etc. wearing
typical “Mongolian” caftans some with horizontal cross-partitions and some without9. The
international influence of the Mongolian “fashion” was not restricted to Asia, or to the Yuan
era. After the fall of the Mongol Empire, the typical Mongolian costumes remained in usage,
and were even incorporated into the official Ming clothing (Serruys 1945, 148–168). One of
them was the garment with the horizontal cross-partition and the plaited petticoat.
During the Manchu Qing dynasty, robes with horizontal cross-partitions and plaited petticoats
(the chao pao) (Dickinson / Wrigglesworth 1990, 42; 47; 59, etc.) became one of the formal official
coats, regardless of nationality. Its basic characteristics survived in the national costumes of
many nationalities, such as the Buriat and Khalha Mongol women’s costume (Hansen 1993,
43–44; 50). Perhaps the clothing cultures of the different nations and nationalities in Inner Asia
and China are so interrelated that it is impossible to suppose a total lack of relationships dur-

7 Övör monggolyn tuukhiin dursgalt zuil ertnii sud- 8 http://www.redkaganate.org/clothing/shirt_coat/

lal 1992, 1; 2; 113–123; Kessler 1993, 159; “Onggut kaftan4.shtml; http://www.redkaganate.org/cloth-
tombs at Dasujixiang Mingshui, Daerhanmao Min- ing/shirt_coat/chrispatt.jpg.
gan United Banner, unearthed in 1978”, Vollmer 9 Zichy 1934; Chronicon pictum 1964, passim.
2002, 42–43, Fig. 2.15,16. Its best photos were pub-
lished in: Kessler 1993, 158–159; Dinwiddie et al.
2004, 44–53.
 Three Mongolian Coats from the 13th–14th Century Grave at Bukhiin Khoshuu 501

ing those centuries when we have no archaeological or pictorial data about clothing in Mongol
territories, but its continuous usage can not be proved yet. This style of caftan remained a
popular costume in Timur’s Empire, in Persia (Gray 1961, 164), and in Mughal India as well
(Bobirnoma Rasmlari 1979, passim; Marek / Knižkova 1963, passim).

Parallels and representations of the applied decoration

There is a 13–14th century boot cover, which has facings and embroidery so strikingly similar,
that they even could have been made in the same workshop (Dinwiddie et al. 2004, 60; 63).
The use of golden embroidery to embellish these types of caftans is well documented in the
Ilkhan period manuscripts and Yuan pictures (Gray 1961, 28; Watt / Wardwell 1997, 95). The
style and placement of these decorations look like the applied decoration of coat No. 1, but it
is simply impossible to differentiate between the applied and the embroidered versions in the
Persian miniatures. Similar application and embroidery motifs decorate modern Mongolian
boots, made of leather and textiles10; but, as our experiments proved, the technique is slightly
different. Also, the time-gap is simply too long to assume a direct connection.

The technical characteristics of the textiles

The silks used in coats No. 2 and No. 3 coats and many of the textiles used for the decorations of
coat No. 1 have paired foundation warps. A. E. Wardwell pointed out that while the single foun-
dation warps were characteristic for the Chinese textiles, the Iranian lampas silks have paired
foundation warps. The binding of gold wefts in pairs is again an Iranian element (Watt / Ward-
well 1997, 127). The golden threads of most of the textiles were made according to the Iranian
tradition. This kind of thread is made of a long, narrow, gilded membrane, which is wound
up spirally on a central silk thread. The silk thread is entirely wrapped in gold. The Chinese
artisans use flat stripes of mulberry paper, which are usually gilded only on one side. On the
wrong side of the fabric only the back of the threads and the plain, un-gilded paper is visible.

The decoration of the textiles

The primary decorations of the textiles consist of paired animals, enclosed in lobed roundels
and sometimes in the sections in between. The secondary motifs are composed of vines, which
fill the ground completely and give a distinct feeling of horror vacui. The textile panels end
with a band of stylized Kufic letters, and a customary presentation “sample” of the decoration.
Only one fabric has a decoration which consists of coiled dragons, in a form which is familiar
to Chinese textiles. Furthermore, a small part of the wings of the eagles in the lobed medal-
lions of the coat No. 2 has a Chinese-looking fungi design incorporated to it. There is such a
close similarity between the artistic repertoires of most of the textiles that they must have been
the products of the same imperial workshop.

10 Hansen 1993, 211; 223; 227, all of them made of tex-

tile.
502 Ildikó Oka

The closest parallel to the griffins of coat No. 3 is a textile from a cape, presently in the
Nationalmuseum, Copenhagen (Watt / Wardwell 1997, 137). Another closely related textile is
a band of a coat excavated at Salt Lake, China (Watt / Wardwell 1997, 137). The closest paral-
lel to the felines of coat No. 3, is a lampas decorated with felines and eagles (Watt / Wardwell
1997, 154–155). To the eagles of coat No. 2, the most similar textile is a cloth of gold with
displayed falcons (Wardwell 1989, 128; 134; 144–145). Wardwell attributed these textiles,
which we consider to be the closest parallels to our material, to Central Asia and the Eastern
Iranian world, and to the textile-workers who originated from there, but were sent to work
in the great state-run imperial workshops. She assumed that the weaving techniques and
patterns of Iran, Central Asia and China were combined and appeared on these distinctly
“Mongolian” luxury textiles. The applied decorations have been made of the cutoff pieces
of other luxury textiles, and only in a workshop they were readily available. Moreover, the
robes were obviously the products of highly trained tailors. According to our experiments,
a group of textile-workers (tailors and embroiderers) must have worked together, and a divi-
sion of labour must have existed among them to produce such a robe as coat No. 1. The other
grave finds – belt decorations – which have been found together with the robes belong to an
“average member of the military elite”11. It gives us a new understanding of the phrase “when
silk was gold”. It seems that these “Tartar cloths”, which were the most highly valued luxury
products of the era in Europe, were actually more available, and therefore, “cheaper” for the
Mongols than gold!

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