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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

EE 467: POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL (3 0 3)

COURSE CONTENT

The controllability of electric power systems. The influence of controllability and the
possible solution of the control problem. Control of equilibrium points. Static
optimisation. Frequency and load control. Voltage and reactive power control.
Hierarchical control in power systems. The effect of voltage regulators on rotor angle
damping. The role of the human operator. Optimal control of power systems.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 1
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

EE 467: POWER SYSTEM OPERATION & CONTROL (3 0 3)

1. Introduction - The Electric Power System Network:

The overall power system consists of four basic subsystems, namely

1. generation
2. transmission
3. distribution and
4. load

In addition, there is usually an intermediate network, connecting the transmission and


distribution systems, and is called the sub-transmission systems. The illustration of
the Fig below shows a single power plant serving the transmission network.

Fig 1: Single-Line Diagram of Simplified Power System

All these portions of the power system operate at different voltage levels, as
summarised below. Typical voltage ranges are:

1. Generation - 12 kV to 35 kV

2. Transmission - 115 kV to 800 kV

3. Sub-transmission - 69 kV to 138 kV

4. Distribution - 11.5 kV to 34.5 kV

5. Load (Consumer supply) - 240 V (1-phase) and 415 V (3-phase)

The complete power system is, of course, far more complicated than what has been
shown in Fig 1 above, consisting of several generating plants, many centres of load
demand and a large network of transmission and distribution facilities.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 2
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

The generating stations feed power into the transmission system, which in turn may
supply power to a network of substations. From the main substations, power is then sent
through transmission or sub-transmission lines to the distribution system that supplies
the various load centres. However, large customers, such as the mines and some big
industries, are supplied power at the transmission or sub-transmission voltage level.

The simple diagram of Fig 1 also illustrates the stages of power flow from the source to
the customer. These are:

1. Unit Transformers or Generator Step-up Transformers – which transform the


generator voltage up to the transmission level. e.g., from 13.5 kV to say 161 kV.
2. Sub-transmission Substation Transformers – which step voltage down to the sub-
transmission level. e.g., from 161 kV to say 34.5 kV
3. Distribution Substation Transformers – which step voltage down to the primary
distribution level. e.g. from 161 kV to say 11.5 kV
4. Distribution Transformers – which effect the final voltage transformation to the
user levels of say 240 V, 415 V, etc.

1.1 The Generation System

It is not practically feasible with the present state of technology to generate electric
energy at the location of its use. Local generation may be unacceptable for economic,
environmental and reliability reasons. Consequently, in power systems, the power
station or power-generation equipment is usually located at some distance from the
points of consumption of power, where electricity is generated in bulk quantities. And as
the customer locations vary over vast geographic areas, the huge electric energy must
be transmitted over an electric power network connecting the power stations with every
consumer.

Generally, any individual power station contains several large generating units, including
a vast array of auxiliary equipment. Modern electric power system networks span
continents and thousands of megawatts of electric power often must be transmitted over
huge distances. Synchronous generators cannot generate power at voltage levels in
excess of about 25 – 30 kV.

The generator voltage magnitude is limited in practice by the number of conductors that
can physically be placed in stator slots. It must also be remembered that the conductors
must have a minimum cross-sectional area in order to carry the required stator current.
Furthermore, the sizes of generator units are becoming increasingly larger, and power
ratings in excess of 1000 MW are not uncommon.

There are several sources of power generation. These include hydro, fossil fuel (like
gas, diesel), nuclear, solar, wind, etc. A successful operation of the power system
requires knowledge of the different characteristics of the different types of power
generation.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 3
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

1.2 The Transmission System

Transmission and distribution lines are major components of the electric power network.
There is essentially no difference between transmission and distribution lines,
except for voltage level and power-handling capability. Lines referred to as
transmission lines usually are capable of large quantities of electric energy over
relatively great distances and operate at higher voltages of the order of 60 kV to 500 kV
or more. Distribution lines, on the other hand, carry limited amounts of power over
shorter distances and usually operate at voltages of the order of 2 kV to 40 kV.

In any case, the problem is to be able to transfer electric energy economically, and
reliably from one location to another. The electric power network must be designed to
meet the need of every customer and at the same time permit energy transportation in
the 1000-MW range. The analogy between an electric power network and a well-
designed transportation system may be drawn for a better appreciation of how the
power network functions.

The interstate or inter-regional superhighway system handles huge blocks of truck, bus
and long-distance auto traffic. Regional highways take care of medium-distance traffic,
whilst the small and lightly travelled urban and rural roads serve the local traffic needs.

In a power network, the huge blocks of electric power move on the grid or transmission
links. From the grid, power is subdivided into smaller blocks and fed into the
subtransmission portions of the power network. Finally, the individual consumers are
serviced from the distribution network.

1.2.1 Need for Higher Transmission Voltages

It will be impossible to transmit directly such bulk energy, even over modest distances,
at the voltage levels generated directly in the rotating machines, since unacceptably
high losses and voltage drops would result.

To demonstrate this, consider a nuclear-powered generator rated at 20 kV with a


capacity of 1000 MW transmitting this power over a 20 km copper transmission line
having a radius of 25 mm and resistivity 1.75x10 -8 m.

Assuming that the generator delivers power at unity power factor, the current per
phase to be carried is

P3 ph / 3 1000 / 3 333.33
I ph     28.86 kA / phase
V ph cos  20 
/ 3  1 11 .55
We have assumed in this case that the generator delivers power at unity power factor,
that is, cos   1 . Other values of cos  other than unity would obviously yield higher
current values.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 4
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

The resistance of the 20 km copper line is

l 20  103
R  1.75  108  0.178 / phase
A   252  10 6

We compute the ohmic power loss over the line as

2 2
PCu  R  I  0.178  28.86  148MW / phase
A higher loss would probably melt the copper conductor, and this is the reason why a
conductor of smaller dimension could not be chosen. Putting this loss power in relation
to the transmitted power per phase, we obtain the expression for the relative loss power

148
relative loss power  PCu   44.4%
Ptrans 333.33
In other words, to transmit 1000 MW over the above 20 km line at the generated voltage
of 20 kV, then almost half (actually 44.4%) of the generated power would be lost in
transmission. Even more disturbing results are obtained if we compute the voltage drop
along the 20 km line caused by the above current.

To be able to economically and technically transmit huge energy over long distances,
there is the need to transform the power to and from much higher voltage levels. Power
transformers make this possible and transform the generator output voltage to levels at
which transmission becomes feasible over long distances, to even as high as 1000 km.

Had the transmission been done at a higher voltage of say 200 kV instead of the 20 kV,
the phase current would decrease by a factor of 10. It would then be 2.89 kA instead of
28.9 kA. The loss power would be only 1.48 MW per phase instead of 148 MW, that is,
only 0.44% of generated power. And so both losses and voltage drops would be within
acceptable and physically realizable limits at the much higher transmission voltage of
200 kV.

This shows vividly that power transmission, even over short distances, is possible only if
we transmit bulk power at voltage levels far exceeding those that can be directly
generated in the rotating machines. Power transformers make this possible by
transforming the generator voltage to levels at which transmission becomes feasible
over long distances even as high as 1000 km.

The two general types of power transmission medium are:

1. Overhead Line
2. Underground Cable

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 5
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

1.2.2 Overhead AC Transmission

Most power is transmitted by overhead AC (alternating current) line. Some other power
utilities transmit DC (direct current) for special purposes. Underground cable is usually
applied in very densely populated areas or under water, over long distances. Overhead
lines are nearly always more economical than cable, since they make use of air for
insulation instead of expensive oil and impregnated paper or cross-linked polyethylene
(XLPE), as used in cable applications.

The most common type of AC power transmission is by overhead conductors


suspended from metal towers. Although high transmission voltages permit large
amounts of power to be transferred while keeping the heat losses at a minimum, there
are cost penalties associated with higher transmission voltages, such as:

 bigger clearances
 larger insulators
 bigger towers and
 bigger right of ways (i.e., increased land acquisition requirements).

There are four basic components of an overhead transmission line. These are

1. Conductors
2. Ground (or Shield) wires
3. Insulators
4. Towers (or Masts)

The Fig 2 shows two typical transmission tower designs for application at 161 kV.

Fig 2: Typical Transmission Tower Designs Without Dimensions

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 6
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

1.2.2.1 Conductors

Power conductors are commonly made of stranded aluminium with a stranded steel
core. This type of construction is referred to as Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced
(ACSR). At higher voltage levels, conductors are “bundled” to form on phase of the line.
This is done primarily to decrease electric field effects, such as radio interference. The
phase conductors of Fig 2 are arranged horizontally, and show two conductors per
phase bundle.

1.2.2.2 Ground Wires

Ground wires do not carry any load. They are made of high strength steel, or a
combination of steel and aluminium, and act as a “shield” to protect the energised phase
conductor from lightning strokes. In the tower designs of Fig 2, two ground wires run
along the top of each tower. These ground wires are connected to ground at each end
of the line.

1.2.2.3 Insulators

Insulators suspend the energised phase conductors and insulate them from the
grounded tower. They are most commonly made of porcelain, and are shown
schematically in Fig 2 as dotted lines.

1.2.2.4 Towers

The towers support the conductors themselves and are, of course, the most visual part
of a transmission line. Due to a growing effort to reduce the visual impact of
transmission lines and to make towers more economical, a great variety of tower
designs and materials have evolved.

1.3 The Substation System

The substation is an integral part of the power system and serves as a juncture point of
lines and other system equipment. The substation serves 3 basic purposes. These are:

1. Switching equipment and circuits in and out of the system. This is accomplished
by circuit breakers and associated protective relaying equipment, and by isolating
devices, such as disconnect switches.
2. Voltage Transformation, i.e., stepping up or stepping down voltages in the
system. This is accomplished by the main component of the susbstation – the
transformer.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 7
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

3. Voltage Control. This is accomplished by shunt reactors (mainly on the high


voltage system), shunt capacitors, voltage regulators, load tap-changing
transformers, etc.

The Fig 3 below shows an example of a typical substation containing the following
equipment.
Busbar
Circuit
Breaker Transformer

Disconnect
switch

Fig 3: Major Components of a Distribution Substation

1. Busbars. The substation high and low voltage buses form the common collecting
point for receiving and redistributing the power. Buses are usually heavy
conductors, often made of aluminium, and may be hollow or solid, with varying
cross-sectional shapes (i.e. flat busbars, round conductors, etc.)

2. Transformers. The sample substation shows two transformers supplying several


distribution feeders. The substation transformers connect the sub-transmission
system to the primary distribution system, and may effect a voltage
transformation of, say 161 kV down to 34.5 kV or 11.5 kV.

3. Circuit Breakers. The circuit breaker is designed to interrupt current under normal
load conditions, and also under short circuit, or “fault” conditions, when current
flow may be many times greater than normal. The breaker control system must
be designed to trip (i.e. open) the breaker quickly and automatically in the event
of a fault. This is accomplished by protective relays, which sense faults and
send signals to the appropriate breaker to trip. The relays and circuit breakers in
the substation are co-ordinated with each other, so that only the faulty section is
removed from service, leaving the ret of the substation intact.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 8
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

4. Disconnect Switches. These switches are used to isolate pieces of equipment for
maintenance or testing, and are not designed to be opened under load. For
example, the disconnect switch on the high voltage side of the transformer may
be opened to isolate the transformer for inspection or maintenance after the low
voltage breaker has interrupted the load current. Most importantly, disconnect
switches provide maintenance personnel with a visible break in the circuit.
5. Voltage Control Equipment. Among these are

 Shunt reactors – used to lower the voltage, primarily on long lightly loaded
transmission lines
 Shunt capacitors – used to raise the voltage
 Substation voltage regulators
 Load tap-changing equipment on substation transformer – deigned to
adjust the transformer low side voltage while under load.

Although these devices assist in regulating voltages throughout the power system, the
main method of voltage control takes place at the generating station, where the
generator output voltage is adjusted by plant operators, usually under the direction of
the bulk power system operators.

1.4 Basic Power System Operation

To understand the basics of power system operation, refer again to the plant system
shown in Fig 1.

An electric utility’s generation facilities produce and deliver bulk power to the distribution
system or, alternatively, to several distributing utility companies. Recall that the
distribution system is that portion of the overall system that actually delivers (i.e,
distributes) power to the load, that is, the individual customers.

The customer demand for electricity (i.e., the load) is constantly changing throughout the
day as customers switch on and off electrical appliances and equipment. Fig 4 indicates
atypical daily load curve.

Fig 4: Typical Daily Load Curve

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 9
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

The diagram shows the total electrical power demand from all of the utility customers for
each hour of the day, over a one period. The important point to note is that, as load
changes continuously, the generation of electricity must also change to supply the load.
The generation of electricity is achieved by conversion of one form of energy into
another. For example, the heat energy stored in certain fuel can provide the energy
which is converted into electrical energy, ie., electricity.

Since electrical energy cannot be stored in large amounts, power must be used as it is
generated. It is actually the consumers’ demand that determines how much power is
generated. In addition, there are power losses that occur on the system, due to lines,
cables and other equipment.

Thus the total amount of power generated must be sufficient not only to meet the total
consumer demand, but also to cover any losses that occur in the system, i.e.,

Generation = Demand + Losses

Typically, system losses account for additional generation of 2-5% above the consumer
load requirements. As an example, let us assume a power system of 3 generating units
with each having a generating capacity of 1000 MW. Thus the total system capacity is
3000 MW. Let us further assume that, at a particular instant, the total demand is 1500
MW. In order to simplify the example, we will assume the 150 Mw includes system
losses. If each generating plant supplies 500 MW, the supply of power just equals
demand, resulting in “balanced” operation.

Consider now the sequence of events if the load suddenly decreases from 3000 MW to
2000 MW. Initially, there is excess generation, since the power stations are still trying to
generate 3000 MW. In this case, the turbines begin to run faster because the system is
now taking less energy out of the turbine generators than is being put in. As the speed
N s of the turbine generators increases, the electrical frequency f of the system will rise
above its normal value (of say 50 Hz), in accordance with the equation

120 f
Ns 
P

where P is the number of poles of the generator. If the power demand is greater than
the power generated, the opposite situation will occur, i.e., the turbine speed will
decrease and the system frequency will fall. In fact, the frequency will continue falling (or
rising if generation is greater than load demand) until generation is adjusted to match
the load demand. This is done by increasing or decreasing the amount of energy input to
the turbine generators.

Therefore, in order to maintain constant system frequency, generation must equal


load demand at every instant.

In actual practice, the load demand is continuously changing throughout the day, and so
generation must be continuously adjusted. This function of controlling power generation

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 10
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

to match the load demand is normally carried out automatically. The system frequency
also varies continuously as a result of the temporary load-generation imbalance, but
oscillation is usually very small. On a 50 Hz system, the frequency deviation will rarely
exceed  0.1 Hz, that is, the frequency will hardly deviate below 49.9 or above 50.1 Hz.

System frequency is measured and recorded at the System Control Centre. Maintaining
frequency within a very narrow range is actually a measure of how well a utility company
is matching power generation with the load demand.

1.5 Power System Interconnection

The basic operating principle of the power system is that generation must equal load
demand at all times. When demand exceeds generation, the output of the power plants
must be increased to restore balance. If this demand eventually exceeds the installed
system capacity, the need then arises to import power from an external system through
an interconnection.

Just how any change in generation is divided amongst the various parts is basically a
matter of economics (unless other restrictions apply). Normally, it will be arranged that
the plant which produces the least expensive power will operate at highest output. This
usually the hydro plant, provided that sufficient water is available. Power generation at
the fossil-fired thermal plant may be kept at a relatively low level, since this is the most
expensive form of power production.

However, as may be expected, economics is not the only factor that must be considered
in dispatching generation. In addition, there are many restrictions that apply in the day-
to-day operation of the system. For example:

1. At certain times of the year, many hydro plants cannot deliver full power output
due to limitations of water storage or river flow. Some hydro plants may even be
out of service for many hours of the day.
2. Fossil Power Plant (gas or diesel) Start-up Time – The fossil power plant is quite
flexible in responding to load changes once on-line, but it takes several hours to
bring a fossil unit into service from a cold start.
3. Transmission System Loading – It sometimes becomes necessary to operate with
an uneconomical generation schedule in order to prevent overloading of certain
transmission lines. For example, we may have to operate a hydro plant at an
output lower than economically desirable, and a fossil plant at an output higher
than economically desirable, to avoid transmission overloading.
4. Plant or Line Outages – At certain times, specific power plants or transmission
lines may not be available for service since they will occasionally undergo
maintenance. These outages are normally planned into generation schedule, but
unanticipated breakdowns do occasionally occur.
5. The system operating personnel must consider the economics of power
production (as well as any restrictions or constraints that apply) in establishing a
daily dispatch of generation amongst the various power plants. System operators

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 11
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

will usually have at their disposal an array of computer programs to determine


what generating units should be run and how they should be loaded.
6. In addition, an accurate daily forecast is necessary to indicate how much
generation must be on-line every hour to meet the anticipated demand. The load
forecast takes into account load fluctuations die to weather, special events
holidays, etc.
The system operators must schedule enough generation not only to meet the
anticipated demand, but also to provide for a sufficient amount of operating reserve
capacity to handle unexpected peak loads or loss of generating units.

The reserve may come from either on-line generation not being operated at its
maximum capacity or from generation which could be brought on-line quickly if needed.
The Fig 5 shows system load and total capacity on-line as a function of the time of day.
The difference between the two curves is the spinning reserve margin, which is
typically 15 to 20 percent of the load for most systems.

Fig 5: System Spinning Reserve Margin

Generation reserve must be planned into the day-to-day dispatch of power. If the
demand increases above the supply (i.e., unexpected peak load or loss of generating
unit), and there is insufficient reserve capacity, the frequency will begin to fall, and will,
in fact, keep falling until some corrective action is taken. In this case, there are two
possible options.

1. Load shedding
2. Importing power into the system from a neighbouring system.

1.5.1 Load Shedding

Load shedding is accomplished by switching out selected feeders on the distribution


system, thus cutting off power to some customers. The utility company will normally set
up continuously and review load shedding procedures so that these actions are taken
only as a last resort, and with the correct customer priority in mind.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 12
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Load shedding may be carried out manually by the distribution system operator (usually
under the direction of the system operator), or automatically by under-frequency relays
set at two or three different stages, when the frequency falls below certain preset values.

1.5.2 Import of Power

But load shedding could be avoided if the system were able to import from a
neighbouring power system through the interconnected transmission line. Most power
systems are interconnected to several neighbouring power systems. This has many
advantages, such as:

1. buying power from a neighbouring system when insufficient generation is


available.
2. buying power when the neighbouring system can supply it more economically
than adding generation into one’s own system
3. selling excess generation to neighbouring utilities, both for economic reasons and
to aid during emergencies
4. increasing the overall reliability of supply to the customer
5. resulting in total power generation at the least cost, another benefit to the
customer

1.6. Load Characterisation

Generally, the term “load” refers to a device or conglomeration of devices that tap
energy from the network. In a practical situation, the load devices may range from a few-
watt lamp to a multi-megawatt induction motor. The power system, if properly designed,
shall be capable of supplying energy to all of them.

It is possible to divide the various load devices into the following categories:

1. Motor devices
2. Heating equipment
3. Lighting equipment
4. A diversity of electronic gear

From an electrical point of view, the multitude of load devices are characterised by vast
differences in regard to

 Size
 Symmetry (single- or three-phase)
 Load constancy (in respect to time, frequency and voltage)
 Use cycle (regular or random use)

In summary, we give the following rules characterising typical system loads:


Prepared by E. K. ANTO 13
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

1. Although individually of random type, the lumped or composite loads, as we


encounter them at sub-transmission or transmission level, are of highly
predictable character.

2. These lumped loads vary in a predictable fashion with time

In general, there is considerable variation not only throughout the hours of the
day, but also between weekdays and Sundays and holidays, and also between
different seasons.

3. Although the loads are time-variant, the variations are relatively slow. From
minute-to minute, we have an almost constant load. A minute is a long time
period compared with the electrical time constants of the power system, and this
permits us to consider the system operating under steady-sate, a steady-state
that slowly shifts throughout the hours of the day (quasi-static operation).

4. The typical load always consumes reactive power. The reason for this is that
motor load is an important (actually the most important) ingredient in most cases.
Motors are always, with the exception of over-excited synchronous machines,
inductive.

5. The typical load is always symmetric. In the case of large motors, this symmetry
is automatic, since they are always designed for balanced three-phase operation.

6. In the case of single-phase devices, the symmetry comes about by intentional


distribution between phases.

1.7 Load Management

Historically, power companies considered it their “holy” duty to plan their generating
capacity so as to be able to meet every whim of their customers. Over the years, this
philosophy led to a completely “customer-controlled” load that gave no consideration of
the resulting “peaks” and “valleys” in the demand curve.

Generating capacity must be available to meet the peak power plus a security (or
reserve) margin of the order of 15 – 20%. As the average load is considerably less than
the peak load, it follows that the generators will run at considerably below ratings for
most of the time. This is not economically attractive.
As generator capacity has increased in price (as much as $1000 / kW or more) and fuel
shortages put an extra financial burden on them, many electric utility utilities are finding
it worthwhile to “shave” off the load peaks. This is referred to as load management.

Load management can be implemented by:

1. Timer-controlled switching of load objects like hot-water heaters.


2. Under-frequency relays that trip to shed load in the event of increased demand or

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 14
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

3. Specially-designed rate structures or tariffs that encourage the individual


customer to readjust their own electric-use schedules.

2. Controllability of Electric Power Systems

The essential problem of the operation a power system comprising generating stations,
networks, substations, load centre and consumers is how best to transmit power to the
consumers, and allocate the generation among the stations. It is the responsibility of the
control engineer to carry out the desired calculations and select the set points required
in the event. These operations must be carried out on a nearly continuous basis. The
basic aim of such dispatching is to achieve optimum or minimum generation cost, so
that the following requirements are met:

 Satisfactory quality of supply


 Maintenance of acceptable voltages under normal and emergency conditions
 Observance of commitments to external systems, e.g., constancy of transfers and
contribution to spinning reserve.

The requirements above can be met by control over those links that connect the
generation cost and the variables of load flows on the distribution networks with the
frequency control mechanism. The control of power system may be done manually by
an operator or automatically. At present, however, the trend is towards replacing manual
control with automatic control.

This is achieved by developing automatic systems which could control power systems in
normal operating conditions, whilst taking into account their basic characteristic features
such as the impossibility of storing power and the necessity of continuously matching
generation and demand.

Automatics of normal state of operation has received a large development effort, and is
now characterised by the diversity of forms and types closely linked with various types of
the controllable objects such as power systems and their interconnections.

Such control systems may be approached not only from an engineering viewpoint, but
also from economic considerations. Thus the automatic control of power systems in
normal state of operation plays an essential role in dispatch control depending on the
type of power system, transmission capabilities and on the level of coordination
concerned with power exchanges.

3. Automatic Control of Power System

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 15
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Automatic power system control refers to the set of methods and technical facilities
applicable to power systems to perform certain automatic functions.

The automatic control problem of any modern power system consists in controlling the
generation, transmission and distribution of electrical power in both normal and
emergency conditions without (or with minimum) human intervention.

Being an essential part of automation, automatic control is very important to power


system control, since it provides for normal functioning of plant so that the whole power
system is operated in a most reliable and economical manner to achieve the required
standard of power quality.

Automatic control in power systems is basically effected through the use of process
control equipment and power system control equipment.

3.1 Process Control Equipment

Process control equipment includes devices responsible for automatic regulation of the
main parameters of the processes taking place under both normal and emergency
situations in the units of hydro, thermal and nuclear power plants.

The parameters include turbine speed, generator excitation, burning of fuel in furnaces
of boilers, adjustment of control valves of steam turbines (as in thermal power plants),
opening of the gates of a hydro-turbine to admit more water (as in hydro-power plants),
etc.

Station-oriented control devices, which may serve as the actuating organs of the power
system control equipment, are designed to exercise control over an electric station
treated as an integrated controllable object. The process control devices include
economic dispatch devices, which allocate station power outputs among power units or
sets.

3.2 System Control Equipment

Power system control equipment affords slow control actions applied to a power system
under normal operating conditions, and quick control actions under emergency
conditions to resist faults that may exist on a power system.

The normal-state automatic control devices are actuated when the power system
operating conditions undergo small and slow changes. Subject to automatic control in
this case are system frequency, network voltage levels, etc.

The fault-resisting automatic control devices handle violent system swings (due to faults,
lightning surges, etc) and intensely influence the controllable objects.

The power system control devices here include

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 16
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

 Protective relay systems activated during short-circuits


 Standby switching-on arrangements used to restore interrupted supply to service
and
 Automatic reclosure means to reconnect transmission lines, transformers and
other equipment after their automatic tripping.

Being part of the fault-resisting automatic control equipment, emergency control


schemes provide corrective actions in the case of risk of violation of normal operation of
a system or some parts thereof.

Along with an extensive use of local control schemes, there is a growing tendency to
develop centralised automatic control systems to effect emergency control through
telecontrol facilities. Emergency control schemes deal with automatic variation of
generator excitation (rapid increasing or decreasing).

Emergency control schemes basically perform the following control functions:

1. Reducing the system load when frequency and in some cases voltage are
decreasing (through the switching off of certain consumer loads (load shedding),
especially in cases when these state variables are changing hazardously).

2. Bringing into action standby plants

3. Automatic reclosure of those system components which were lost for some
reasons, but could be restored to normal after a reclosure operation, and

4. Elimination of out-of-step conditions in a certain system portion whose


synchronism was lost so that the resultant stability of the system is achieved.

Of great importance in emergency control schemes are protective relay systems, which
are usually operated to disconnect a faulted component of a system from its unfaulted
portion. In recent years, preventive control equipment has been developed to provide
the power system operator with information on the status of a particular system
component and on the risk of its possible damage.

4. Quality of Power Supply

The normal operation of power consumers such as electric motors, heating and lighting
installations, radio-electronic equipment, etc., is determined to a large extent by the
quality of the power supply. Two parameters of power that characterise power quality
are voltage and frequency.

The quality of power supply in both AC and DC networks is measured by the following:

 Frequency deviation (usually ± 0.1 Hz, but not more than ± 0.2 Hz)
 Voltage deviation

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 17
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

 Distortion of the sinusoidal voltage waveform (assumed sinusoidal if the higher


harmonics do not exceed 5% of the voltage at the fundamental frequency)
 Neutral offset or shift
 Non-symmetry of phase voltages
 Ripple factor

The quality of power supply depends on the time of day, weather and climatic conditions,
system load changes, occurrence of contingencies, etc. A deterioration of the quality of
supply may influence considerably the consumers’ demand, thereby resulting in such
events as a reduced efficiency of working mechanisms, poor end-products, shorter
service life of electric equipment, higher rate of fault occurrence, etc.

Therefore a great deal of attention should be paid to the quality of supply in controlling
system operating conditions. This characteristic of power quality can be maintained
most effectively within the specified tolerances by the automatic regulation of voltage
and frequency.

5. Objectives of Power System Operations

As already pointed out, a power grid may span an entire region or even continent.
Theoretically, therefore, turning on a light switch in a town in that region will affect the
current flow in the portion of the grid in which the town situated. In practice, however, the
effects of network changes (like sudden steps in loads, generations, etc.) will be most
strongly felt locally. The remote effects diminish rapidly with increasing distance.

Physically, this can be attributed to the so-called “diffusion effect” that is always
present in a vast power system. To demonstrate this effect, consider the case of a
sudden load increase on a bus being supplied by, say, four feeders. The increased load
current will be divided between the 4 individual feeders, each of which might subdivide
into other new lines, etc.

This diffusion effect (where remote effects on the power system diminish with distance)
makes it possible to operate the individual power systems, although interconnected, on
an individual basis. However, certain functions, like frequency control and pooling
operations, must be done by mutual agreements between all power companies.

The most important objectives that must be met in normal operation of a power grid or
the individual power systems that constitute its components are:

1. Maintenance of real power balance


2. Control of frequency
3. Maintenance of reactive power balance
4. Control of voltage profile
5. Maintenance of “optimum” generation schedule (economic dispatch)
6. Maintenance of “optimum” power routing (load flow analysis)

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 18
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

It must be stressed that these objectives are to be met in normal system operation.
Under abnormal or fault or emergency conditions, the effects of the system disturbances
must be minimized, that is, we wish to operate with maximum security.

6. Real Power Balance – The Load-Frequency Control Problem

The six main objectives of power system operation stated above are not necessarily
mutually exclusive. For example, the automatic control of power system frequency at 50
Hz under normal state of operation is closely intertwined with the problem of real power
balance. Hence the term automatic load frequency control (ALFC) describes this joint
task. No doubt that the ALFC problem is the most basic one that confronts the power
systems engineer. ALFC facilities are comparatively sophisticated devices which form an
automatic generation control system (AGCS).

6.1 Why Frequency Tends To Vary

Before explaining the means at our disposal to control the system frequency, it is
appropriate to examine the reasons why frequency tends to vary. The frequency is
closely related to the real power balance in the overall network. Under normal operating
conditions, the system generators run synchronously and generate together the power
that at each moment is being drawn by all loads plus the real transmission system
losses.

The transmission system losses, amounting usually to a few percent, consists of

1. ohmic losses in the various transmission components


2. corona losses on the lines
3. core losses in transformers and generators

It must be remembered that the electric energy is being transmitted at almost the
velocity of light, and since the energy is not being stored (the storage that actually
takes place in the reactive elements, i.e., inductors and capacitors, amounts to zero
average, and therefore does not enter into our discussion) in electrical form, we
conclude that electric energy production rate must equal consumption rate at each
moment of time.

Should the power balance not exist, then the difference would enter into or exist from
kinetic storage. As the kinetic energy depends on the generator speed, a power
imbalance will thus translate into a speed (and hence frequency) deviation. Should we
have a momentary surplus of generator power over load, the total generator speed
(and hence frequency) will increase. In that situation, all the motors which during those
moments were being supplied by the network, would speed up. Conversely, when the
load increases and there is a momentary deficit of generator power, the generator
speed would decrease.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 19
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

The rate of the speed (and frequency) increase would depend on the amount of surplus
power and the total moment of inertia of the running equipment.

6.2 Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC)

ALFC may thus play either supplementary or main part in dispatch control, depending
on the type of power systems, transmission capabilities and on the level of coordination
concerned with power exchanges. To understand the ALFC systems, let us consider a
hypothetical case of a single generator unit supplying power to an isolated load through
a transmission line.

Fig 6: Generator Supplying Isolated Load through a Transmission Line

As already explained, when the generator load increases, the rotational speed N s of
the generator unit decreases momentarily. Consequently, the frequency f of the system
N s  Ppoles
voltage decreases as in the relation f  . The change in speed is sensed by the
120
speed governors, which operate to activate the controls.

The control system responds to the variation of the speed, caused by an imbalance of
its generation, by adjusting the control valves of a steam turbine or of the opening of the
gates of a hydro-turbine. In this manner, the input (water or steam) into the turbine is
adjusted, thereby restoring the balance between the turbine output and the unit
generation.

In short, the power output of a generator is changed only by adjusting the


mechanical input to the prime mover (steam turbines, hydro turbines, gas
turbines, etc).

The frequency must be kept within a tolerance of 50.0± 0.1 Hz, and a frequency dip of
magnitude higher than the given tolerance would be entirely unacceptable in a modern
power system.

There are many reasons why the frequency must be controlled to within these narrow
limits of accuracy. There are millions of electric clocks running off today’s power

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 20
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

systems, and the accuracy of these clocks depends on the frequency constancy in the
system. A sudden shift in frequency is one of the surest signs of system trouble.

Generally, it can be said that the tighter the control one has on the frequency, the better
the control one has over the system.

The control of the system frequency by automatic regulation of the generator output is
achieved in most systems today. The Fig below depicts schematically the workings of
such an ALFC system.

Fig 7: Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) System

The parameter that best gives a clue about the generation-demand balance is the
frequency. And so the generation-load control or regulation is achieved by measuring the
frequency.

A frequency sensor-comparator senses the actual system frequency f and compares it


with a reference frequency f ref (50 Hz). A frequency error signal given by

f  f  f ref (1)

is thus generated, which is a measure of the frequency deviation.

A transducer amplifies the error signal into an actuating command which is sent on to
the turbine steam valve (or gate, in case of hydro plant). Three cases may be
considered:

Case 1: Demand equals Generation ( PD  PG  f  f ref and f  0 )

If the load demand is practically met by the generation, there will be no change in speed
N s  Ppoles
of the generating unit, and hence the frequency f  or f  N s will not change.
120
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 21
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

f  0 thus implies the actual system frequency equals the reference frequency and the
demand is well balanced by generation, in which case no changes will need to be
effected in the generation.

Case 2: Demand less than Generation ( PD  PG  f  f ref and f  0 )


If the demand PD is significantly less than generation PG , the generating unit will tend
N s  Ppoles
to increase in speed, and so the frequency f  or f  N s will also tend to
120
increase beyond the rated value, unless something is done to rectify the situation.

A positive error frequency signal f  0 thus indicates a reduction in demand. The


corrective measure in this case involves the actuating signal issuing a “reduction”
command in generator output PG , i.e., a closing of the steam valve (or gate).

Case 3: Demand exceeds Generation ( PD  PG  f  fref and f 0 )

If the demand PD is significantly more than generation PG , the generating unit will tend
N s  Ppoles
to decrease in speed, and so the frequency f  or f  N s will also tend to
120
decrease below the rated value, unless something is done to rectify the situation.

A negative error frequency signal f  0 thus indicates an increase in demand over

generation. The corrective measure in this case involves

 actuating signal issuing an “increase” command in generator output PG , i.e.,


either an opening of the steam valve (or gate) or
 importation of power or
 load would have to be shed to match the generation to the demand, if the two
measures are still not enough.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 22
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

The discussion given here is obviously somewhat simplified and superficial, and many
interesting questions arise in connection with the actual operation of an ALFC system,
such as:

 How “responsive” should the control loop be? Clearly, it is not wise to let the
generators “chase” every load excursion, however short it may be. This would
cause unnecessary wear and tear on the equipment.

 What generators should participate in the ALFC operation? In a power system,


the ALFC job is delegated to those generators most suitable for the job. It must
be noted that, it is much easier to control the power level in a hydro turbine
than in a steam-driven generator. Consequently, if we have a generation mix,
hydro turbines are natural candidates for the ALFC job.

6.3 Summary of ALFC Loop Control Operation

1. The ALFC regulates megawatt power output and frequency (and speed) of the
generator. A relatively fast primary loop responds to a frequency signal which is
an indirect measure of megawatt power balance.

Via the speed governor and the control valves (or gates), the steam (or hydro)
flow is regulated with the intent of matching the megawatt power output to
relatively fast load fluctuations. By “fast” is meant the changes that take place in
one to several seconds. By thus tending to maintain a megawatt power
balance, the primary loop performs indirectly a coarse speed or frequency
control.

2. A slower secondary loop maintains the fine adjustment of the frequency, and
also by “reset” action, maintains proper megawatt power interchange with other
pool members. This secondary loop is insensitive to rapid load and frequency
changes, but focuses instead on drift-like changes which take place over periods
of minutes.

6.4 ALFC As Applied To Single-Area Systems

As noted, the basic role of the ALFC is to maintain a desired megawatt power output of
a generator unit and thus assist in controlling the frequency of the large system
interconnection. The ALFC also helps to keep the net interchange of power between
pool members at predetermined values. The ALFC loop will maintain control only during
normal (that is, small and slow or steady-state) changes in load and frequency. It is
typically unable to provide adequate control during abnormal (or emergency) situations,
when large megawatt power imbalances occur. In that situation, more drastic emergency
controls must be applied.

Let us first study the ALFC as it applies to a single generator supplying power to a local
service.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 23
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

6.4.1 Speed-Governing Control System

The real power in a power system is controlled by controlling the driving torques of the
individual turbines of the system. The speed-governor system constitutes the primary
control loop. By controlling the position of the control valve (or gate, in the case of a
hydro-turbine), we can exert control over the flow of high-pressure steam (or water)
through the turbine.

This flow increment translates into a turbine power increment Pmech and a
corresponding megawatt power increment P in the generator output. The position of
the valve can be affected via a linkage system either

 directly, by the speed changer or


 indirectly via a feedback mechanism.
6.4.2 Turbine-Governor Control System for Regulating Real Load

Let an increase Pmech in turbine mechanical power result from an increase Pref in
the reference power setting, and a decrease f in frequency. For small and slow
(static or steady-state) increments, we can write

1
Pmech  Pref  f (2)
R

where R = regulation or droop constant


= Hz / MW

This is the steady-state frequency power relation for the turbine-governor control. Note
that if Pref is fixed, then Pref  0 , and Pmech is negatively proportional to f . That is,
if Pmech increases, then f decreases linearly.

Let us consider three (3) network cases.

6.4.2.1 Case 1: Infinite Network , f  0

A synchronous generator is connected to an infinite network of large size, that is, a


network whose frequency is independent of changes in power output of individual
generator. In other words, for an infinite network, f  0 . Eqn (2) then becomes

Pmech  Pref (infinite network) (3)

Example 1

A 100 MW generator is operated into an infinite network. How would you make this
generator increase its turbine power by 5 MW?

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 24
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Solution 1

Since the network is infinite, f  0 . Thus Eqn (3) applies.

Pmech  Pref  5 MW

The solution is simply to give a “raise” signal of 5 MW to the speed-changer motor.

6.4.2.2 Case 2: Finite Network , Pref  0

Consider a finite network finite, that is, one whose frequency is variable. However, we
keep the speed-changer setting constant, that is, Pref  0 . Hence from Eqn (2),

1
Pmech   f (finite network) (4)
R

Eqn (4) shows that for a constant power setting, static increase in turbine mechanical
power output is directly proportional to the static frequency drop.

This result points out the physical significance of the feedback parameter R . In
practice, the power is measured in per units, and in that case the unit for the
drooping/regulating constant R will be Hz per unit megawatt. If the frequency drop is
likewise measured in per unit of normal frequency, and the power is measured in per
unit megawatt, then the unit for R will also be in per unit.

Example 2

Consider the 100 MW generator of Example 1. It has a regulation parameter R of 4%


(0.04 pu). By how much will the turbine power change, if the frequency drops by 0.1 Hz
with the reference power setting unchanged?

Solution 2

1
Reference power setting is unchanged implies that Pref  0 . Thus Pmech   f .
R
Note that R is given in per unit, and must be changed to actual Hz/MW value.

f pu f / f f P
R pu     mech
Pmech pu Pmech / Pmech Pmech f
(5)
P
 R  mech
f

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 25
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Rearranging Eqn (5), we obtain

f
R  R pu  (6)
Pmech

f 50
Thus R  R pu  P  0.04   0.02 Hz / MW
mech 100

1 1
Hence Pmech   f   ( 0.1)   5 MW
R 0.02

Therefore for a 0.1 Hz frequency drop in a finite network, the turbine power must
increase by 5 MW.

Example 3

Two generators are supplying power to a finite system. Their power ratings are
P1  50 MW and P2  500 MW . The frequency is 60 Hz and the generator is half-loaded.
The system load increases by 110 MW and as a result, the frequency drops to 59.5 Hz.
What must the individual regulations be, if the two generators should increase their
turbine powers in proportion to their ratings?

Solution 3

For a finite system, Pref  0 . Furthermore, generators should increase their turbine
powers in proportion to their ratings. Thus

Pmech1 P 50 1
 1  
Pmech2 P2 500 10

 Pmech2  10Pmech1 (*)

But Pmech2  Pmech1  110 (**)

Solving (*) and (**) simultaneously,

Pmech1  10 MW and Pmech 2  100 MW .

Thus the two generators must pick up 10 MW and 100 MW respectively.

(a) Regulation constant for smaller Unit 1 is

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 26
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

f (59.5  60)
R1     0.05 Hz / MW
Pmech1 10

Expressed in per unit,

f / f P 50
R1 pu   R1  mech1  0.05   0.0417 pu
Pmech / Pmech f 60

(b) Regulation constant for bigger Unit 2 is

f (59.5  60)
R2     0.005 Hz / MW
Pmech2 100

Expressed in per unit,

f / f P 500
R2 pu   R2  mech 2  0.005   0.0417 pu
Pmech / Pmech f 60

Notes:

 If we express the regulation in per unit, i.e. pu Hz / pu MW , the regulation figure


is the same for both units, that is, R1 pu  R2 pu
 Generators working in parallel on the same network ought to have the same
regulation (expressed in per unit of their own ratings), in order to share load
changes in proportion to their size or rating.

Example 4

A 500 MW 50 Hz turbine-generator has a regulation constant of R  0.05 pu based on its


own rating. If the generator frequency increases by 0.01 Hz in steady-state, what is the
decrease in turbine mechanical power output? Assume a fixed power setting.

Solution 4

Fixed reference power setting implies Pref  0 . Noting that the regulation is given in per
unit and needs to be changed into the actual value, we have

1 f
Pmech   f But R  R pu  . Hence
R Pmech

1 f  Pmech 0.01  500


Pmech   f      2 MW
R R pu  f 0.05  50

6.4.2.3 Case 3: Changes Occur in Both Reference Power Setting and


Prepared by E. K. ANTO 27
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Frequency, i.e., Pref  0 ; f  0

Here the more general equation applies, and is recalled.

1
Pmech  Pref  f (2)
R
In a frequency-generation graph, Eqn (2) represents a family of drooping lines as
shown below, each line depicting or corresponding to a specific reference power setting

Fig 8: Drooping Characteristics for Synchronising Two Generators

f
Slope =  R  P
mech

Example 5

Consider again the 100 MW generator in Example 1. If the frequency drops by 0.1 Hz
but the turbine power must remain unchanged, by how much should the reference
power setting be changed.

Solution 5

Turbine power remains unchanged implies Pmech  0 . Hence

1 1 1
0  Pref  f  Pref  f  ( 0.01)   5 MW
R R 0.02

Thus the reference setting must drop by 5 MW.

6.4.3 Prime Mover Frequency-Load Characteristics

Ns  P
From the frequency relation f  , if the load on an alternator changes, say
120
increases, the speed N s of the machine decreases and consequently the frequency f
decreases. Conversely, if the load decreases, the speed and hence frequency also

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 28
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

increase. The speed-power characteristic is thus similar to the frequency-power


characteristic. This type of characteristic where an increase in the load leads to a
decrease in speed or frequency is known as drooping characteristic. All practical prime
movers have drooping speed-power characteristics.

The Fig below shows the speed-power or frequency-power drooping characteristics of


two prime movers PM 1 and PM 2 supplying or sharing power to a load through two
generators G1 and G2 .

Fig: Prime Mover Speed-Power Characteristics

NB: The total load is PL  AB  AB   AB 

In the Fig above, the sloping solid lines PM 1 and PM 2 represent the speed-power
characteristics of the two prime movers for constant throttle (or valve or gate) openings.
The total load PL is shown by the solid horizontal line AB, and the generator active
power outputs are P1 and P2 .

Now suppose the throttle opening of PM 2 is increased, the power output of generator
G2 will increase, translating its speed-power characteristic upward to the dotted line
PM 2 . The dotted line AB  now represents the load power. Note that the power
output of generator G has now increased from P to P  , whilst that of generator G
2 2 2 1

has decreased from P1 to P1 .

At the same time, the system frequency has increased from f to f  . The frequency can
be restored to normal with a further load shift from generator G1 to generator G2 by
closing the throttle on generator G1 . The load power is now represented by AB  , and
the power outputs of the generators are P1 and P2  .

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 29
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Thus the system frequency and the sharing of active power between the
generators can be controlled by means of the adjustment of the prime mover
throttles.

6.4.3.1 Load Sharing Given the Drooping of the Characteristics and The
Effects of System Frequency

The division of active power between the machines is determined by their speed-load or
frequency-load characteristics, which take the form shown in Fig above. For steady
state operation the frequencies and speeds of the two machines must be equal hence

   01  P1 tan  1   02  P2 tan  2 (7)

The slope tan  is termed the drooping of the characteristics. Changing the speed-
load characteristic changes the load sharing, and this involves an alteration to the
governor setting (speed changer setting affects  and speed regulation setting affects
the slope). The speed regulation is so adjusted that changes in frequency are small (of
the order of 5 % from no load to full load). Unless the speed–load characteristics are
identical, the machines can never share the total load in accordance with their ratings.

Example 6:

Two generators rated 200 MW and 400 MW are operating in parallel. The droop
characteristics of their governors are 4 % and 5 % respectively from no load to full load.
Assuming that the generators are operating at 50 Hz at no load, how would a load of
600 MW be shared between them? What will be the system frequency at this load?

Solution 6:

Let x1 and x 2 be the loads contributed by Generator 1 and Generator 2 expressed as


fraction of their rated powers. Then from Eqn (7),

1   01  P1 tan  1  1.0  0.04 x1 for Generator 1

 2   02  P2 tan  2  1.0  0.05 x 2 for Generator 2

Since the generators are in parallel, they will operate at the same frequency
1   2   . Therefore

1   2  1.0  0.04 x1  1.0  0.05 x 2

x1 0.05 5 5
or    x1  x2 .
x 2 0.04 4 4

Now to share a load of 600 MW, we also have


Prepared by E. K. ANTO 30
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

P1 x1  P2 x 2  200 x1  400 x 2  600  x1  2 x 2  3

Solving for x 2 by substituting the value of x1 , we obtain

5  12
 x2   2 x2  3  x2 
4  13

12
Thus Generator 2 load is P2 L  x2  P2   400  369 MW
13

And Generator 1 load is P1L  PL  P2 L  600  369  231 MW

12
The system frequency in p.u.   1.0  0.05 x 2  1.0  0.05  1  0.046  0.954
13

Hence the actual system frequency f  0.954  50  47.70 Hz

Example 8:

Two 750 kW alternators operate in parallel. The speed regulation of one set is 100 % to
103 % from full load to no load and that of the other 100 % to 104 %. How will the two
alternators share a load of 1000 kW and at what load will one machine cease to supply
any portion of the load?

Solution 8:

1   01  P1 tan  1  1.04  0.04 x1 for generator 1

 2   02  P2 tan  2  1.03  0.03x 2 for generator 2

Since the generators are connected in parallel, they will operate at the same
frequency, ie, 1   2   . Therefore

1   2  1.04  0.04 x1  1.03  0.03x 2  x1  0.25  0.75x 2

For the two generators of the same 750 kW rating to share the load of 1000 kW,

4
P1 x1  P2 x 2  PL  750 x1  750 x 2  1000  x1  x 2 
3
4
Hence substituting x1 to solve for x 2 , we obtain (0.25  0.75x2 )  x2   x 2  0.619
3

Thus the load contributed by Generator 2 is P2 L  x 2 P2  0.619  750  464 kW


Prepared by E. K. ANTO 31
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

And the load contributed by Generator 1 is P1L  PL  P2 L  1000  464  536 kW

Generator 2 will cease to contribute when the speed is 1.03 p.u. At that speed, power
supplied by Generator 1, that is x1 , is determined from the relation:

1  1.04  0.04 x1  1.03 p.u.  x1  0.25 p.u.


or P1L  x1  P1  0.25  750  187.5 kW

6.5 Transmission Line Power and Its Control

Transmission lines permit us to dispatch surpluses of power from one grid bus to
another. They constitute important network links that make it possible to choose
alternate power flow configurations for optimum economy and security. In this section,
we wish to study the factors that affect the line power flows, and particularly, how we go
about controlling these flows. First, let us remind ourselves of how power lines are
modelled.

6.5.1 Line Parameters

A three-phase transmission line is mostly of overhead design. In dense urban areas,


underground cables are often used when overhead lines would represent unacceptable
safety hazards. Typically, the bare stranded conductors consist of a steel core for
mechanical strength and an outer current-carrying shell made of aluminium. To obtain a
more flexible conductor, both the steel and aluminium portions are designed stranded.

Each of the three conductors in a three-phase line in Fig below is characterized by


electric resistance.

Fig 9: Pie-Line Representation on per phase basis

The current in each conductor surrounds itself with a magnetic field, resulting in a self-
inductance. In addition to the self-inductance per phase, there is also a mutual
inductance between phases. Finally, there exist electric capacitances between each
conductor, and these are equivalent to a set of capacitances between each phase and a
neutral node. In addition to capacitances between phases, there exists also capacitance
between each phase and ground.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 32
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

And so electrically, the transmission line is characterized by circuit parameters in the


form of both series and shunt elements. Clearly, the line resistance belongs to the series
elements; so does the self-inductance caused by the magnetic flux surrounding each
conductor.

The capacitance that exists between the conductors represents a shunt or parallel
admittance. There is also a shunt resistance which represents the leakage current along
insulator strings, but for normal weather conditions, the leakage current can be usually
neglected. All the above circuit parameters are distributed in nature. The total effect of
these distributed parameters can be shown to be equivalent to that of the lumped circuit
shown above.

If the line is ”electrically short”, that is, less than about 100 km at a system frequency of
50 Hz, the lumped circuit elements are obtained from the distributed parameters by
simply multiplying by the length of the line. In an “electrically long” line, the lumped
elements follow more complicated formulae which would not be treated. Moreover, a
practical conductor arrangement is not always symmetrical.

However, when all those factors are considered, a practical line can still be represented
by the per-phase equivalent circuit of the figure above. Normally, the series reactance
dominates over the resistance. In a typical network study, all three network parameters
(R, L and C) must be taken into account. Sometimes for short urban lines, one may
disregard both the resistance and capacitance and work with the simplified line model
shown below.

Fig 10: Simplified Model of a Short Line

6.5.2 Control of Real Line Power Flow Ptrans on a Transmission Line

Having considered the model of transmission line, let us consider the important
mechanisms whereby the real power in a transmission line may be controlled in both
magnitude and direction. To avoid unwieldy formulae, consider the reasonable and
practical assumption that the line is lossless, that is, the line resistance R  0  .

Considering the simplified line representation that is assumed lossless, the sending-end
and receiving-end currents are equal to I .

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 33
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

The complex powers at each end can then be computed from the relationships:


S 1  P1  j Q1  V 1 I
(7)

S 2  P2  j Q2  V 2 I

But the line current is given as


I  V1 V 2
Z
(8)

Substituting the value of I into Eqn (7), the complex powers at the sending-end is
computed as


  V1 V 2 
P1  j Q1  V 1 I  V 1  
 Z 
 V 1  V 2    V 1V 1  V 1V 2  

 V 1    
  

 Z Z 
2 j
V1  V1 V 2 e

 jX
2
V1 V 2 V 1  V 1 V 2 cos 
 sin   j
X X
(9)

Similarly, the receiving-end complex power is

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 34
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL


V1 V 2 

P2  j Q2  V 2 I  V 2  
 Z 
 V 1  V 2   V 2V 1  V 2V 2 
 V 2   
  

 Z Z 
j 2
V V e V2
 2 1
X
2
V V V V cos   V 2
 1 2 sin   j 1 2
X X
(10)

Hence comparing Eqns (7), (9) and (10), the real line power that can be transmitted is:

V1V 2
P1  P 2  Ptrans  sin  (MW/phase)
X
(11)

and the reactive line powers are

2
V  V 1 V 2 cos 
 1  V 1  V 2 cos  
V
Q1  1 (MVAr/phase)
X X
(12)

2
V V cos   V 2
Q2  1 2 
V2
 V 1 cos   V 2  (MVAr/phase)
X X
(13)

where the power angle  = angle between the sending-end and receiving-end voltages
of the line, that is,

  V 1  V 2 .
In the above deductions, use was made of the identities:


a a
(a  b)  a  b ;     ; a  a  a 2 (14)
b b

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 35
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

V1V 2
6.5.3 Deductions on Transmittable Real Line Power Ptrans  sin 
X
The following deductions must be noted:

 The real line power flow on a transmission line depends in magnitude and
direction on the difference in phase angles between the end-point voltage
phasors. The power magnitude increases with phase difference, and the flow
direction is from leading to lagging voltage.
 The voltages and reactances must be given in per-phase values to yield the per-
phase values of power.
 Because the line resistance was neglected, the real line powers at each end are
equal.
 The per-phase line reactance X  is a fixed parameter that is determined by the
line length L , conductor size R and spacing D in the formula

0 1  3 2  D 
X'    ln 
 ( / m and phase) (15)
2  4  R 

 Assuming that the sending-end and receiving-end voltages V1 and V2 are kept
constant, then the only way in which the real line power P can be made to
change is for the power angle  to vary.
 The real power flow is determined by the load on the system

The figure below shows how the real line power P varies as a function of the power
angle .

Fig 11: Variation of Real Line Power P with Power Angle 

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 36
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

As  increases in a positive sense ( V1 leading V2 ), the per-phase transmittable real


power increases up to a maximum value given as

V1  V 2
P max 
X
(16)

which occurs for  = 900.

 When the maximum power transfer load is reached, any attempt to increase the
real line power by further increasing , will shift the power transfer into the
unstable region, and in fact the power will decrease. At this point, the system
steps out of synchronism, the transmission collapses and the transmission
limit or static stability limit for the line would have been reached. The system
stepping out of synchronism means that the generator and bus load at the
sending-end run at one frequency, whilst the generator and bus load at the
receiving-end run at another frequency.

 The power angle across a long transmission line seldom reaches 10 0 , and
seldom exceeds 40 0 across a whole system.

V1V 2
 Given that Ptrans  sin  , the direction of megawatt flows between any
X
two points in a system is determined by the sign of the power angle,  , between
the two points.

 Phase-shifting transformers, both fixed and variable, are available to control


power flow by adjusting  .

 A positive sin  , that is, V1 leading V2 , results in megawatt flow in direction left
to right, i.e., from the sending-end to the receiving-end. But if the power angle 
increases in a negative sense ( V2 leading V1 ), the power becomes negative,
that is, power is transmitted in the reverse direction from right to left, i.e., from the
receiving-end to the sending-end.

 In short, the real power flow is from the point with the most leading angle to the
point with the most lagging angle, whilst VAR flow is from the higher voltage on a
line to the lower voltage.

 Real power or MW and VAR flows need not be in the same direction.

 Voltage magnitudes do not therefore determine the direction of the


megawatt flow in an AC transmission system, but rather the voltage phase
difference does.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 37
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

 However, in a HVDC transmission system, they do, as seen in the real power
2 2
V1  V2
equation P  . The sending-end voltage magnitude V1 must exceed
2R
that of the receiving-end voltage V2 in order for power to flow in the proper
direction.

 The static stability limit of the line, that is, the maximum power the line can
transmit, can be increased, within limits, by (a) bundling or (b) series
compensation where series capacitors are added to compensate for the series
inductive reactance of the line. In that case, the new maximum transmittable
power after series compensation is given as:
V1  V 2
P max comp  ; where X comp  X L  X C
X comp

 From Fig 11 above, it can be seen that if a line is loaded near the static stable
limit, and an additional power is required on it, (for example, following the loss of
another line or due to a fault), the angular displacement between the sending and
receiving-ends may exceed the stable limit. This factor is taken into consideration
in determining the protection used on long lines, so that the relays can sense
stability limits and trip before instability occurs.

 Following a power system disturbance, oscillations occur, during which


generating machines’ power angles increase and decrease within a time period
determined by the inertia of the machines connected to the line. In such cases,
the swings produced by a disturbance may cause the angular displacement of a
line to exceed the stability limit on heavily loaded lines. This factor is also
considered in establishing the loading limits of transmission lines.
 Eqn (11) reveals that the maximum transmittable real line power
V1  V 2
P max  increases with the square of the voltage level of the line.
X
2 P2  Q2
Moreover, the power loss Ploss  R  I  R 2 decreases inversely with the
V
square of the transmission line voltage. There is thus a double reason for the
use of high transmission voltages. But transmission voltages are limited by
factors such as the availability of transformation equipment, line insulation, and
switchgears capable of operating at extremely high voltages.

V1V 2
 As can be inferred from the equation Ptrans  sin  , the power flows on
X
a line are proportional to the angular phase displacement between the sending
and receiving ends of the line, and inversely proportional to the series line

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 38
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

reactance. This gives a clue to how power division between parallel lines may be
controlled.

 If a long transmission line with greater power-handling capability and higher


impedance is paralleled with a short transmission line with low load capability, the
load will divide inversely proportional to the impedances of the line. Consequently,
the short line with low load-handling capability may overload before the capacity
of the larger line is reached. If the voltage on the high-impedance line is
increased or decreased (by means of, say, a voltage regulator), the load division
will not be affected, but increased VAR flows will result, with their attendant
losses.

Example 9:

Find the maximum transmittable power over a 20-km line transmitting 1000 MW power
at a transmission voltage of 20 kV. Assume the line reactance X  8.72  / phase , and
neglect line resistance.

Solution 9:

Assuming no change in the sending-end and receiving-end voltages, the maximum 3-


phase transmittable power is

P max 
V1  V 2 V
  3 
2
20 / 3 

2022
 45.9 MW (3 - phase)
X X 8.72  / phase 8.72

The difficulties in trying to squeeze 1000 MW through this line must obviously be
appreciated.

6.5.4 Concept of Electrical Stiffness or Synchronizing Coefficient

The “electrical stiffness” or synchronizing coefficient of a power line is defined as

P
P sync  ( MW / rad ) (17)


It is a measure (see Fig above) of the incremental increase in power, P, resulting from
an incremental increase in the power angle  .

By noting that the definition of Psync is identical (in the limit 0) to the derivative
dp / d , we get

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 39
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

dP V 1  V 2
P sync   cos  ( MW / rad )
d X
(18)

Note that the electrical stiffness approaches zero when we get close to the stability limit (
  90 0 ). For this reason, it is not recommended to operate a transmission line
close to its power limit.

Example 10:

Consider a 140-kV lossless transmission line having reactance of 40  per phase and
operated with a flat rated voltage profile of 140 kV at both ends. If the real power flow is
100 MW, find the power angle  and the electrical stiffness Psync .

Solution 10:

The per-phase real power transmitted is

V1  V 2 100 (140 / 3 ) 2
Pph  sin    sin 
X 3 40
   11 .78 0

The electrical stiffness is given as

dP V 1  V 2
P sync   cos  ( MW / deg ree )
d X


140 / 3  2

cos11 .78 0
40
 159 MW / deg ree
This result shows that if we increase the power angle by a degree from 11.78 0 to 12.780,
the 3-phase power will approximately increase by 159 MW.
6.5.5 Real Line Power Losses

A real line will, of course, have a certain resistance R , which will cause a certain ohmic
power loss Ploss . This power loss can be written in the form:

2
Ploss  R  I ( MW / phase) (19)

This real power loss is in practice of greater importance than the reactive loss. Let us
study how the real power losses vary with the line flows. Let Vav , I av , Pav and Qav
represent average values measured, for example, midline.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 40
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Then the following relation exists between these average variables:

S  Pav  jQav  Vav  I av (20)

We thus have

Pav  jQav Pav  jQav


I av  and I av  (21)
Vav Vav

Multiplication of the two currents above gives

2  P  jQ   P  jQav  Pav  Qav


2 2
I av  I av  I av   av  av    av   (22)
 V  2
 av   Vav  Vav

2
Substituting this value of I av into Eqn (19), we obtain the following approximate real
power loss formula:

2 Pav 2  Qav 2
P loss  R  I av  R 2 (23)
Vav

2 P2  Q2
6.5.6 Deductions from Real Line Power Loss Ploss  R  I  R  2 .
V
 This formula is important, because it reveals that the real and reactive line
powers contribute to the real power losses. From the point of view of power
loss, one should therefore minimize the reactive line flow.

 The real line power losses are proportional to the sum of the squares of the real
and reactive line flows and inversely proportional to the voltage magnitude
square.
 In practice, the minimization of reactive power flow in the line is accomplished by
generation of the reactive power at the bus where it is needed. If no generator is
available (and it must be remembered that an overexcited generator generates
reactive power), then one often installs shunt capacitors for this purpose.

Example 11:

A three-phase 140 kV, 100-km transmission line consists of three conductors of radius
R  25 mm arranged in such a manner that the space between the conductors D  5 m ,
has the following line parameters:

R: 9.10 /phase
X: 50.5 /phase
Y: j1.67  10 4 siemens/phase

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 41
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

If the receiving-end voltage is V2  140 kV rms and the receiving-end power is


S 2  100  j 60 (three-phase MVA), and assuming the line to be electrically “medium”,
compute the following

a) sending-end power S1 and


b) approximate real power loss Ploss
c) the real transmission loss, if the line is compensated and the reactive power
produced locally

Solution 11:

Using the impedance and admittance values in the equivalent lumped circuit below:

Fig 12: Equivalent Lumped Circuit of Transmission Line

(a) We compute in a step-by-step fashion the sending-end power S1 :

STEP 1: Find the receiving-end current I 2 .

Using Eqn (2), we obtain the receiving-end power per phase as

 100 60
S 2  P2  j Q2  V 2 I2   j  33.33  j 20.00
3 3

If V2 is chosen as the reference phasor, we thus have

 33.33  j 20.00
S 2
I2     0.4124  j 0.2474 (kA / phase)
V2 140 / 3

STEP 2: Find the sending-end voltage V1 :

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 42
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

The shunt current I sh 2 is given as:

140
I sh 2  V 2  Y  ( j1.67  10  4 )  j 0.0135 (kA / phase)
3

We next compute the current I ser through the series branch.

I ser  I 2  I sh2  0.4124  j0.2339 (kA / phase)


The voltage drop across the series branch is

V  I ser ( R  jX )  (0.4124  j 0.2339)  (9.10  j50.5)


 15.56  j18.70 (kV / phase)

The sending-end voltage is then computed from

V 1  V 2  V
 96.39  j18.70 kV / phase
 166.95  j 32.39 kV (line to line, with a factor of 3 )
0
 170 10.98 kV (line to line)

STEP 3: Find the sending-end current I 1 .

The shunt current I sh1 is obtained as:

I sh1  V 1  Y  0.0031  j 0.0161 (kA / phase)


The sending-end current thus equals

I 1  I sh1  I ser  0.4093  j 0.2178 (kA / phase)

STEP 4: Finally find the sending-end power S1.

S 1  V 1 I 1  (96.39  j18.70)(0.4093  j 0.2178)


 35.38  j 28.64 ( MVA / phase)
 106.14  j85.93 ( MVA 3  phase)

RESULT:

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 43
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

By comparison of the sending-end and receiving-end powers, it can be concluded that


(106.14 – 100) = 6.14 MW real power and (85.93 – 60) = 25.93 MVAr reactive power
(all are 3-phase powers) were lost in transmission.

(b) The approximate real power loss can be computed using the average values for
the line voltage and line power flows.

V 1  V 2 170  140
V av    155 kV (line to line)
2 2

P1  P 2  106.1  100  103 MW


P av  (3 - phase)
2 2

Q1  Q 2 85.9  60
Q av    73 MVAr (3 - phase)
2 2

The approximate loss formula is found from Eqn (23) as

Pav 2  Qav 2 1032  732


P loss  R  2
 9.10  6.04 MW (3 - phase)
Vav 1552

NOTE: The exact but tedious computation of the exact transmission loss power yielded
6.14 MW, whilst the approximate loss formula yielded 6.04 MW, an error less than 2%.

(c) If the line is compensated and the 60 MVAr reactive power produced locally, then
the real transmission loss would be:

Pav 2  Qav 2
Ploss  R 2
.
Vav

Since the 60 MVAr power has been compensated locally, it does not have to be carried
on the line. The new real power loss is then

Pav 2 103 2
Plosscomp  R  2
 9.10  4.0 MW (3 - phase)
Vav 155 2

NOTE: The real losses, after compensation, would decrease from 6 MW to about 4
MW, that is, a 33% reduction. Note that in using the formula of Eqn (18), we assumed

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 44
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

the same average voltage as in (b). This is not quite correct, of course, but it must be
remembered that the formula is approximate.

6.6 Voltage and Frequency Dependency of Load

An important feature characterising all loads is their dependency on voltage and


frequency. During faults and other abnormal situations, the voltage may vary greatly,
resulting in major load fluctuations. Even minor changes in voltage and frequency can
cause load changes of practical significance. We shall discuss two important load types,
impedance loads and motor loads.

6.6.1 Voltage Dependency of Impedance Loads

Lighting, heaters and similar loads fall under the category of impedance loads. It is
desired to know by how many percent the real load will change if the voltage on an
impedance load Z  R  jX is changed by a certain percentage.

From the complex power equation


2
S  P  jQ  VI *  V Y *

(24)
2 1 2 R  jX
 P  jQ  V V
R  jX R2  X 2

2 R
PV (25)
R X2
2

2 X
QV (26)
R X2
2

Clearly, the real and reactive loads are proportional to the square of the voltage
magnitude. For a small voltage change  V , we have for the real power

P P R 2
  2V 2  P (27)
V V R X2 V

Eqn (27) can be rewritten as

P V
2 (28)
P V

The result of Eqn (28) shows that a small relative change in voltage results in twice the
relative change in active power.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 45
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Example 12:

Consider an inductive load of impedance Z  R  jX . By how many percent will the real
load drop if the voltage is reduced by 1%.

Solution 12:

P V
2  2  1.0  2 % .
P V

Hence a 1% drop in voltage causes a 2% drop in active load.

6.6.2 Frequency Dependency of Impedance Loads

The reactance depends on the frequency f according to the relation X  2fL . Thus
from Eqn (28), we have

P P P X     R
  2fL 
2
    V (29)
f f X f X  R  X  f
2 2

du dv
v u
Applying the mathematical differentiation formula d  u   dx dx to the first term of
dx  v  v2
Eqn (29), we obtain

P P P X   R  
     V
2
2 
  2fL
f f X f X R  X  f
2

 2
 2  2 
 2 
  R  X X R V    R V X R  X  
2

2 
  
        2L 


2
R X 2 2




 
 0  2 XR V 2
4 RXL (30)
   2L    V
2


 R  X
2 2 2
  R2  X 2
2
 
2 2 RX 2
 V

f R2  X 2  2

P 2X 2
  P
f 
f R2  X 2 
Rearranging the last expression of Eqn (25), we obtain

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 46
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

P X2 f
 2 2
P R X 
2
f  (31)

We note that

X2
 sin 2   1  cos 2 
 R2  X 2  (32)

where cos  is the power factor. Eqn (31) therefore reduces to

P f
 2 sin 2  (33)
P f

NB: The result of Eqn (33) indicates that a relative increase in frequency leads to a
relative decrease in active load demand, and vice versa.

Example 13:

How would a 1% drop in frequency affect the real load in the previous example, if the
load is assumed to have a power factor of 0.8?

Solution 13:

P f
Using Eqn (28),  2 sin 2  . For a power factor cos   0.8 , then sin   0.6 .
P f
Thus

P f f
 2 sin 2   2(0.6) 2
P f f
f
 0.72
f

Thus a 1% reduction in frequency results in a 0.72% increase in load.

6.6.3 Voltage Dependency of Motor Loads

Induction motor load dominates the group of motor loads. Its dependence upon voltage
and frequency is somewhat more complicated to analyse. We demonstrate it better with
an example.

Example 14:

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 47
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

A 480 V 3-phase induction motor powers a compressor whose torque is assumed to be


speed-independent. The motor runs at an initial speed corresponding to a per-unit slip of
s  0.03 . How will the motor load change, if the voltage drops by 1%?

Solution 14:

The equivalent per-phase circuit of the induction motor is shown below, neglecting the
magnetizing impedance Z m .

where Rs  stator resis tan ce / phase  0.290 


X s  stator reac tan ce / phase  0.500 

Rr  rotor resis tan ce / phase referred to stator side  0.150 
X r   rotor reac tan ce / phase referred to stator side  0.200 
The motor torque is as shown below.

Fig 13: Torque-Slip Characteristic of an Induction Motor

As is typically the case, the motor is operated in the linear stable region. The motor
torque Tmech in this linear portion of the curve is

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 48
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

2
90 V
Tmech  s (34)
N s R 
r

where N s = synchronous speed in rpm


s = per unit slip
V = phase voltage

Initially, the motor operates in point A at slip s   0.03 . Following the voltage drop, the
torque curve changes to the dashed line, and the motor will now operate in point A at
larger slip s  .

From Eqn (34), we obtain


2
V
s   s  2 (35)
V 

From the data, s   0.03 , V   1.00 pu and V   0.99 pu (1% drop in voltage) . Thus the
new slip is
2
V  1.00 
2
s   s  2
 0.03     0.0306 pu
V   0.99 
The real load P drained from the network equals

 R
P   Rs  r  I
2
 (36)
s 
 

where the stator current is obtained from

V
I 
  2 2 (37)
 R  Rr    R  X  
 s
s   s r

 

Using the numerical values given for the equivalent circuit, we obtain

I   1.0084 I 

NB: The voltage drop causes a 0.84% current rise, quite a typical situation in the case
of an induction motor. Remember the opposite situation in the case of an impedance
load.

From Eqn (36), we finally get

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 49
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

 
 R  Rr  I  2
 s s 
P 
  
 0.290  0.150 / 0.0300  1  2
 
P   R   0 .290  0. 150 / 0.0306  1. 0084 
 R  r  I  2
 s
s  
 

 P   0.998P 

CONCLUSIONS:

1. The motor will reduce its power drain by only 0.002  100 %  0.2 % for a voltage drop
of 1%. Compare the 2% power reduction in the case of an impedance load.

2. The above example also shows that impedance loads give a better power
reduction than motor loads under such conditions.

3. Power utility companies, in times of generation shortage, resort to so-called


“brownouts” in order to match their load to available generation. They
accomplish this by slightly lowering the operating voltage.

7. The Control of Voltage Profile – The Reactive Power Balance Problem

The issue of control of the voltage profile to within acceptable limits of deviation is
closely related to the problem of maintaining the reactive power balance. As the load
current in a power supply network changes, so does the voltage drop across load, and
hence the variations in the supply voltage across consumers’ terminals.

In operating a power system, it is important to keep the sending-end and receiving-end


voltage magnitudes V1 and V2 constant, the reason being that all electric load
objects are voltage-related. The effects of voltage variations on a few electrical
equipment are outlined below.

Lighting fittings are sensitive to the supply voltage variations; too high a voltage greatly
reduces the service life of lamps, while too low a voltage impairs illumination, and so
one would want to avoid fluctuations in the light flux. An appreciable reduction in supply
voltage of electric furnaces makes it impossible to complete the melting of metal and
may entail heavy economic damages.

The torque of induction motors (used mainly for electric drive purposes) varies as the
square of the supply voltage. The standard stipulates that the supply voltage fluctuations
of the motors should not exceed  5% of the rated value, because a decrease in the
voltage of a motor causes the braking of its rotor and an increase in the current and
stator circuits (leading to overheating of the motor), whereas an increase in the voltage

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 50
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

brings about an undesirable reduction of the power factor and also a rise in the motor
speed and stator circuit current in excess of the rated values.

7.1 Control of Line Voltage Profile

It must be remembered that the generator emf is proportional to the rotor field current.
And so the voltage control is achieved by means of automatic excitation control (AEC) of
the individual generators. A typical AEC system is shown in the figure below.

Fig 14: Automatic Excitation Control (AEC) System

The generator bus voltage V is sensed and compared in a voltage sensor-comparator


with the reference voltage Vref . The error voltage given by

V  V  Vref
(38)

is amplified by the transducer and sent on as an actuating signal to the field current
source. The latter will increase or decrease the field current, depending upon the sign
and magnitude of the error voltage.

The closed automatic excitation control (AEC) loop, together with the closed automatic
load-frequency control (ALFC) loop, constitutes the two basic control channels of
synchronous generators. They are essentially non-interacting, that is, the control of
one does not significantly affect the other one.

Because the AEC loop involves only electrical variables, whereas the ALFC loop also
includes mechanical variables (stem valve settings), the AEC loop has a much faster
response than the ALFC loop.

7.2 Control of Reactive Line Power Flows

The previous analysis has shown a strong interrelation between real line power and the
difference in phase angles between the sending-end and receiving-end voltages. The
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 51
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

reactive line power also shows an equally strong relationship with the difference in
voltage magnitudes.

This can be seen clearly from Eqns (7) and (8) which are repeated below:

2
V  V 1 V 2 cos 
 1  V 1  V 2 cos  
V
Q1  1 (MVAr/phase)
X X
(39)

2
V V cos   V 2
Q2  1 2 
V2
 V 1 cos   V 2  (MVAr/phase)
X X
(40)

7.2.1 Deductions from Reactive Line Power Equations

 The reactive line power flow on a line depends in magnitude and direction on the
difference in magnitudes of the end-point voltages. The magnitude of the reactive
power flow increases with increased difference V1  V2 .

 In normal operations, cos  is fairly close to unity (refer Example 7). The factor
inside the parenthesis in both Q -formulas thus tends to be proportional to the
voltage difference (V1  V2 ) .
 Expressed differently, the reactive line power flow tends to be from higher to
lowest voltage, and the greater the voltage difference, the stronger the flow.

 Although real power is the same at each end, the reactive powers are different.
The reactive loss in the line accounts for the difference. We may define an
average reactive power flow as:

2 2
Q  Q2 V 1  V 2 (MVAr/phase)
Q av  1 
2 2X
(41)

 Formula (36) indicates that if V1  V2 , the megavar flow is in the direction from

left to right, i.e., sending-end to receiving-end. For V1  V2 , the megavar flow

reverses, i.e., form receiving-end to sending-end.

 In case of a “flat” voltage profile, that is, V1  V2 , then Eqn (39) and (40)
inform that
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 52
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

2
V1
Q1  Q2  1  cos   (“flat” voltage profile) (42)
X

This means that equal amounts of megavars flow into the line at both ends.

Example 15:

Let us refer to Example 7 and study the reactive power flow in a transmission line of
impedance 0.2041 p.u., where a real power flow of 100 MW (1.00 p.u) was transmitted.
Let us treat the following three cases:

i. V1  V2  1.00 pu (flat voltage profile)


ii. V1  1.20 pu ; V2  1.00 pu
iii. V1  1.00 pu ; V2  1.20 pu .

Solution 15:

i. We had earlier computed the power angle  = 11.780. We thus get directly from
Eqns (12) and (13),

Q1 
V1
 V 1  V 2 cos    1.00 (1.00  1.00 cos11 .780 )  0.103 puMVAr
X 0.2041

Q2 
V2
 V 1 cos   V 2   1.00 (1.00 cos11 .780  1)  0.103 puMVAr
X 0.2041

Note here that when the voltage profile is kept flat, reactive power flows into the
line from both directions, as indicated by the negative sign for Q2 . Clearly, the
line (i.e, its reactance) consumes 0.206 p.u. MVAr in this case.

ii. For the different voltage levels at sending- and receiving-end, we first compute
the new load angle from Eqn (11) as:

V1  V 2
P sin 
X
1.20  1.00
 1.00  sin 
0.2041
   9.790

Having calculated the new load angle, the reactive power flows as a result of the
voltage levels would be calculated as:
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 53
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Q1 
V1
 V 1  V 2 cos   1.20 (1.20  1.00 cos 9.790 )  1.262 pu MVAr
X 0.2041

Q2 
V2
 V 1 cos  V 2   1.00 (1.20 cos9.790  1)  0.894 pu MVAr
X 0.2041

iii. Even though voltage levels at sending- and receiving-ends are different, the load
angle will be the same as in (ii). The reactive power flows are:

Q1 
V1
 V 1  V 2 cos    1.00 (1.00  1.20 cos 9.790 )  0.894 pu MVAr
X 0.2041

Q2 
V2
 V 1 cos   V 2   1.20 (1.00 cos 9.790  1.20)  1.262 pu MVAr
X 0.2041

POINTS TO NOTE:

 It is interesting to note that by changing the voltage levels of the two buses, via
the automatic excitation control (AEC), a strong effect is noted in the reactive
power flow but no effect whichever on the real power flow. There will, however, be
a slight effect on the power angle .

 In case (i) when the voltage levels were “flat” at 1.00 p.u., the line absorbed a
reactive power loss of (0.103 + 0.103) = 0.206 p.u. MVAr

 In cases (ii) and (iii) when the voltage levels were different at the sending and
receiving-ends, the reactive power loss increased to (1.262 – 0.894) = 0.368 p.u.
MVAr.

 This loss is consumed by the series line reactance. Eqns (11), (12) and (13) were
derived on the assumption of lossless line, i.e., zero resistance, and the real
power losses will thus be zero.

7.3 Summary on VAR Flows

1. VAR are required in an a-c power system due to capacitive and inductive
reactances of power system transmission lines, equipment and customer loads.

2. VAR in excess of those required to satisfy circuit requirements represent an


incremental power loss in the system.
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 54
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

3. VAR-generating sources can be used to limit VAR flows due to low-power-factor


loads and to control voltages on station buses

4. Proper selection of transformer taps at interconnected stations will minimize VAR


flows between the stations and reduce the attendant drops and losses.

5. If proper reactive power balance can be maintained, the voltage profile will
remain controlled. However, If the proper reactive power balance is not
maintained, the voltage profile will drift (just like the frequency will drift if real
power balance is not maintained).

6. The voltage change as a result of reactive power imbalance is particularly


noticeable during night hours. The reason is that, the reactive generation in the
shunt capacitors of the lines tend to provide a reactive power surplus (during the
day hours, this reactive power is consumed in the motor loads). Consequently,
the bus voltages tend to increase.

7.4 Voltage Control in the Interconnected System

Significant savings can result from interchanging energy between systems where there
is an appreciable difference in generation costs of the systems considering such
transactions. For this and other reasons, there has been a great deal of interconnection
between power systems, so that large interconnected power pools have been
developed.

Although there are several advantages to power system interconnection, more stringent
requirements on load and frequency control must be imposed if pool operation is to be
successful. Without precise control of generation and frequency, undesired tie-line flows
will result. In addition, the effects of trouble on one of an interconnected group of
systems will be seen on the other system.
Apart from the question of control of the real power flow in the line, there is the issue of
voltage regulation in the interconnected system network or of the alternator terminal. As
previously analysed, there is a strong correlation between the reactive line power flows
and voltage magnitudes. This can be seen clearly from Eqns (12) and (13) which are
repeated below:

2
V  V 1 V 2 cos 
 1  V 1  V 2 cos  
V
Q1  1
X X
(12)

2
V V cos   V 2
Q2  1 2 
V2
 V 1 cos   V 2 
X X
(13)

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 55
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

The reactive power flows in the power system always cause an increase in current,
2 P2  Q2
which results in increased losses in the system. Refer P loss  R  I  R  2 . At
V
heavy loads on a line, the losses due to VAR flows can become very significant. In
addition, as a result of the increased current in a circuit with VAR flows, the voltage drop
due to the line impedance is greater, and so voltage regulation or control is disturbed.

7.4.1 Voltage Variations Due to VAR Flows

For example, in a d-c transmission line, the voltage at the receiving-end of the line V R
is always less than the voltage at the sending-end V S by the line impedance drop (the
product of the line current I and the line resistance R L ).
Mathematically,

V S  V R  I  RL
V R  V S  I  R L
 V S  V
(43)

The case for AC transmission lines is much more complex. The line impedance drop V
depends on the power factor of the load attached to the line, and so the receiving-end
voltage is as given in the formula:

V R  V S  V
(44)
 V S  ( IR cos  X sin  )
The inductance of a line is distributed throughout its length and capacitance exists
between conductors (line capacitance) and also between conductors and ground
(ground or earth capacitance). This is also distributed throughout the length of the line.

As so due to the line and ground capacitances, a capacitive VAR input is required
in a line of appreciable length, even with unity-power-factor load, to supply the
charging current of the line. The amount of charging current is determined by the total
capacitive reactance of the line and always leads the voltage in phase position.
However, as current flows along the line from the sending to the receiving end, it
encounters inductive reactance.

At light loads (during lunch hours, night hours, etc), the shunt capacitive current may
exceed the load current, and the line will operate at a leading power factor from the
sending end. Voltage variations (drops or rises) will result from the current through the

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 56
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

capacitive reactance, inductive reactance and line resistance. Since these drops add as
vectors, the result can be that the voltage at the receiving (load) end is higher than that
at the sending end (Ferranti Effect).

As the load current increases, the voltage drop through the series inductive reactance
increases while the capacitive current remains. Consequently, at some load, the
capacitive and inductive components are equal, and for any further increase in load, the
inductive reactance drop will exceed the capacitive reactance effect. Under these
conditions, the line drop will exceed that which would exist if only resistance were
present. As a consequence of the line inductance and capacitance, a transmission line
always requires VAR input, which may be either leading in light load conditions or
lagging in heavily loaded conditions.

At the receiving-end of a line, the power factor is determined entirely by the power
factors of the load connected to the line, including the station transformers, which are
inductive and require lagging VAR. If the load is anything other than unity power factor
(i.e., purely resistive), additional VAR supply will be required. With heavy loads and at
low power factor, the VAR requirements can equal or exceed the load (watt)
requirements.

It can thus be appreciated how voltage regulation is closely linked to the reactive power
flows in the power system. And so for effective voltage control, there is the need for
reactive-power generating and regulating devices that provide or compensate for a
controllable generation, reception and reallocation of reactive power.

7.4.2 Reactive Power Compensation

As has been explained, voltage control is closely linked to reactive power flows in the
power system. And so for effective voltage control, there is the need for reactive-power
regulating devices (generating or absorbing) that compensate for a controllable
generation, reception and reallocation of the reactive power.

The controllable generation and reception of reactive power is attained by means of


generators and synchronous compensators. Capacitor banks are used to provide only
for the controllable generation of reactive power. In addition to generators and
synchronous compensators, use is made of reactors in the case of the controllable
reactive power reception.
The controllable reallocation of reactive power is carried out by means of supply
transformers equipped with automatic on-load tap changing facilities, and line
regulators.

Table 1: Compensating Equipment and Their Purpose

Equipment Purpose

Generators controllable generation and reception of


reactive power

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 57
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Synchronous condensers controllable generation and reception of


reactive power
Transformers equipped with automatic controllable reallocation of reactive power
on-load tap-changing facility
Reactors controllable reception only of reactive power
Capacitor banks (shunt and series) controllable generation only of reactive power

7.4.2.1 Generators as VAR Sources

Probably the greatest source of controllable VAR available to a power system operator
is the generating equipment. Many machines are rated at something other than unity
power factor, say, 0.8. This means that the MVA rating of a 100-MW generator is 125
MVA. Assuming that there are no other limitations, such as maximum or minimum bus
voltages, the generator would be able to supply approximately
Q  S sin   125  0.6  75 MVAr at full-load without exceeding its MVA rating.

Generators can supply either leading or lagging VAR merely by field-current


adjustments. When a generator is carrying electrical load, the ability to operate it
“leading” to absorb lagging VAR (underexcited) may be limited, because with reduced
excitation, the power angle is increased and the machine may pull out of step.

The amount that a generator can operate in the “lead” is determined to a great extent by
how fast the field voltage control can respond. Modern machines with electronic voltage-
control systems can operate safely in the “lead” with low excitation to a much greater
degree than is possible with machines equipped with rheostatic or other relatively slow
field-controlled systems.

The table below gives the VAR available at various power factors from a generator at
100% MVA rating.

Table 2: VAR Available at various Power Factors From a Generator

% Power factor MW (%) MVAR (%)


100 100 0
95 95 30
90 90 43
85 85 53
80 80 60
75 75 66
70 70 70
65 65 76

In most cases, the settings of the regulating exciters of generators are chosen in such a
manner that steady state and transient stabilities are ensured. In addition, account is
taken of the dependence of the available reactive power of the generators on their real
load; the reactive power decreases as the real power increases.
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 58
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

7.4.2.2 Synchronous Condensers as VAR Generating Sources

These machines can supply either leading or lagging VAR merely by field-current
adjustments. They can go to full rating in providing leading VAR (overexcited operation)
and approximately 50% to 80% of rating in absorbing lagging VAR (underexcited
operation).

Synchronous condensers are actually synchronous motors that are operating on no-load
(without a connected mechanical load) for the purpose of power factor correction or
improving the voltage regulation of a transmission line. It is the only motor that can work
at leading power factor (through over-excitation) and at the same time supply
mechanical power.

The reactive power taken by synchronous motors depends on two factors, namely, the:

1. DC field excitation and


2. mechanical load delivered by the machine.

Maximum leading power is taken by synchronous motors with maximum field excitation
and zero load. Synchronous motors cannot be used where there are sudden
applications of heavy loads, because such loads will pull the rotor out of step with the
rotating magnetic field. And so they are generally used for driving loads requiring
constant-speed operation and infrequent starting and stopping such as d-c generators,
blowers and compressors.

The principal advantages of the synchronous motors are:

1. The ease with which the power factor can be controlled by either producing or
absorbing reactive power. An over-excited synchronous motor having a leading
power factor can be operated in parallel with induction motors having lagging
power factor, thereby improving the overall power factor of the supply system.
2. Their performance can be regulated continuously and smoothly over a wide
range.
3. They are more practical than capacitors, because such motors may be used to
deliver a mechanical load in addition to operating with a leading power factor.
4. The speed of the synchronous motor is constant and independent of load. This
characteristic is mainly of use when the motor is required to drive another
alternator to generate a supply at a different frequency, as in frequency-changers.

The main disadvantages of synchronous motors are:

 Some arrangement must be provided for starting and synchronizing the motor
 A DC supply is necessary for the rotor excitation. This is usually provided by a
small DC shunt generator carried on an induction motor
 Synchronous motors contribute to the current flowing into a short-circuit fault on
the system, and may call for additional expenditure in switchgear.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 59
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

 They are more expensive that static capacitors, and their use is justified only for
voltage regulation of high-voltage transmission systems.

Apart from voltage regulation with load, the matter of compensation is basically
economic, and power factor improvement is justified only if there is a related tariff
concession.

7.4.2.3 VAR Flows Due to Unbalanced Voltages

Besides the inherent nature of transmission line that causes VAR flows, another factor
affecting VAR flows in a power system is the transformer winding ratios at substations of
an interconnected system. Proper selection of transformer taps can materially reduce
unwanted VAR flows. For example, assume two substations supplied from the same
high voltage transmission line and operated in parallel on the secondary side.

Fig 15: Net VAR Flow in One Phase Due to Unequal Voltages on Substation

If the transformer taps at one station are set for a higher secondary voltage (lower turns
ratio) than those at the other station, a reactive-current component will flow from the
station with higher voltage to that with lower voltage, limited by the circuit reactance, in
an amount that will cause an IX L drop equal to the voltage difference between the two
stations. The three-phase VAR flow resulting from the voltage difference would be
3I 2 X L .
It should be pointed out that control of the flow of VAR is generally a local problem, in
contrast to the control of the flow of power, which is a system problem. Because of the
numerous interacting factors for VAR flows, including:

 transformer taps
 capacitor installations
 reactors
 generator voltage control and
 transmission-line reactive generation

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 60
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

a mismatch of VAR requirement in one area can result in high or low voltage in that
locality, but have little or no effect on remote portions of the system. Because of the
diverse problems, the automatic economic control of voltage and VAR can be expensive
from a control-equipment standpoint.

7.4.2.4 Shunt Reactors as VAR Absorbing Sources

As mentioned earlier, during light loading conditions of a long high-voltage line, the
capacitive charging current may cause the receiving-end voltage to exceed the sending-
end voltage and may, in some cases, become excessive. This situation is the exact
opposite of that which occurs under heavy load conditions where series capacitors are
used for compensation. It should be recalled that inductive reactance is opposite in
effect to capacitive reactance.

In order to compensate for the voltage rise resulting from capacitive charging currents,
shunt reactors are installed at station buses or across tertiary windings of transformer
banks. Such installations draw lagging current and correct for the voltage rises that
occur in line under lightly loaded conditions. A shunt inductive reactor for line-to ground
installation is similar to the primary winding of a high-voltage step-down transformer, but
no secondary windings are included. The winding must have a sufficient number of turns
to provide desired inductive reactance.

By drawing lagging currents, shunt reactors directly offset the leading currents due to
line charging. Shunt reactors are switched into circuits in increments (blocks) as and
when needed to satisfy the requirement of the system under existing load conditions.
Switching of such devices can be either manual or automatic. If such devices are left in
service at all times, they can worsen rather than help voltage conditions.

7.4.2.5 Capacitor Banks as VAR Generating Sources

Static capacitors may be connected directly in parallel across loads to supply leading
reactive power for lagging power factor of motors or other inductive equipment, and on
station buses to compensate for lagging VAR requirements of station power
transformers and of the lines from the station. Capacitors are also installed on
distribution lines to compensate for customer VAR requirements. They should be
connected on the load side of the transformer to reduce the size of the transformer and
its losses.
It must be appreciated that maximum benefit from the reactive power control equipment
is obtained by compensation at each individual load. This means the use of low voltage
small rating capacitors. The static capacitors are further subdivided as:

 Series capacitors
 Shunt capacitors

They are named primarily after the method of connection of the capacitor. Shunt and
series capacitors are switched into circuits in increments (blocks) as and when needed
to satisfy the requirement of the system under existing load conditions. Switching of

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 61
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

such devices can be either manual or automatic. If such devices are left in service at all
times, they can worsen rather than help voltage conditions. With the development in the
technique of static capacitors, there has been considerable decrease in the cost per
kVAr.

7.4.2.5.1 Series Capacitors:

Series capacitors have no control over the flow of current. It is always the system load
current which passes through them. Series capacitors are connected in series in a line.
In such cases, the current through the series capacitors varies as the load current
varies, and the voltage rise across the series capacitor bank ( IX C ) will offset the
voltage drop resulting from the series inductive reactance ( IX L ) of the line.

Under fault conditions, the voltage across series capacitors may far exceed the rated
value. Therefore the series capacitors have to be protected under system fault
conditions and need quite elaborate protective equipment. The installation of series
capacitors is thus confined to long extra-high-voltage transmission lines.

In addition to reducing voltage regulation of a line, the use of series capacitors can
materially increase the line’s static stability (power-carrying capability) by reducing the
angular phase displacement between the sending and receiving ends. The capacitive
reactance counteracts partly the inductance of the line, thus reducing the effective value
of “ X  ”. The improvement in the power factor of the line is only consequential.

7.4.2.5.2 Shunt Capacitors:

Shunt capacitors are very commonly used in all voltages and in all sizes. The
fundamental effects of shunt capacitors may be summed up below as:

 Reduction of line current


 Increased voltage level at the load
 Reduced system losses
 Increased power factor of source current
 Reduced loading on source generators and circuits
 Reduced system investment per kilowatt of load

All these benefits accrue from the basic fact that the capacitor reduces the reactive
current flowing in the whole system, i.e., from generators to the point of installation.

Shunt capacitors draw almost a fixed amount of leading current, which is superimposed,
on the load current. This reduces the reactive component of the load current, partly or
wholly, as may be chosen, thereby improving the power factor. Reduced current and
improved power factor reduce voltage drop in the various components of the power
system, and voltage improvement results.

When a shunt capacitor is switched into a circuit, a heavy inrush of current arises, which
is of large magnitude but short duration. The rms value of the current is computed from
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 62
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

V
I (45)
 L / C

Normally, the capacitors are designed to withstand such inrush current. It has to be
seen, however, that the magnitude of the inrush current is appreciably less than the
short time current rating of the controlling breaker, which should also have the
necessary ability to handle these high frequency highly damped currents. The
magnitude of the inrush currents is limited by insertion of current-limiting reactor into the
circuit.

7.4.3 Summary of Location and Purpose of Reactive Compensation

Table 3: Summary of :Location And Purpose of Reactive Compensation

Location Purpose
Series reactor before a high-voltage current-limiting, protection
Series equipment against surges
Compensation Series capacitor in transmission lines to increase transmission line
capacity (or static stability
limit)
Shunt capacitor at station busbars voltage increase (regulation
Shunt from low to rated voltage)
Compensation Shunt reactor at station busbars voltage decrease (regulation
from high to rated voltage

7.5 Voltage Drop in Interconnected System

When power is transmitted across an interconnected system, there will be a voltage


drop in the interconnection system, the magnitude of which depends on two factors:

 Impedance of the interconnector and


 Power factor at which the power is transmitted.
The voltage drop in the interconnection system may be accommodated in a number of
ways. These include:

1. Adjusting the substation busbar voltages (through increased excitation of the


generator field windings) so that the difference in busbar voltages is equal to the
voltage drop in the interconnected link and transformer. This method, however,
has the disadvantage that, the loads connected to those busbars whose voltages
have been adjusted, will be affected.

2. Equipping the power transformers in the interconnection systems with automatic


on-load tap-changing facility, which automatically supplies the voltage drop by
adjusting the secondary emfs and hence terminal voltages of the interconnected
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 63
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

transformer to within statutory limits. In this way, the busbar voltages may be
maintained constant.
Seasonal (5 – 10%), daily (3 – 5%) and short-period (1 – 2%) adjustments are
done in accordance with the corresponding variations of load. Occasional or
seasonal adjustment may be effected manually by off-load or off-circuit tap-
changing, the common range being  5% in 2½% steps. The daily and short-time
adjustments are generally by means of automatic on-load tap-changing gear.

3. Employing a synchronous phase modifier to adjust the relative phase of the


voltages at the sending and receiving end of the interconnector link, whilst
holding the terminal voltages of the transformer constant.

7.6 Voltage Regulation at the Alternator Terminal

A constant voltage at the alternator terminal is essential for satisfactory operation of the
main supply or any grid. As modern alternators have large reactance, the voltage
regulation is inherently poor, and a large drop in terminal voltage occurs at heavy loads.
The percentage reactance is made large in order to provide alternators protection
against fault in the stator windings or near the alternator terminals.

The following accounts for the deviation of the alternator terminal from its normal value:

 Change in speed of the alternator


 Variations of the load of the alternator
 Change of power factor of the load, etc

The deviation is due to voltage drops ( Voltage drop  IR cos  IX sin  ) and can be
explained as follows:

1. Since the stator winding has some resistance, there will be an IR -drop when a
current flows through it. Thus if the generated voltage is constant, the terminal
voltage will decrease as the load is applied, the amount of decrease being equal
to the IR -drop.
2. The current through the winding sets up a flux, a portion of which leaks. This
magnetic flux leakage alternates with the current and gives the winding self-
inductance. Then there will be an IX -drop, which is also effective in reducing the
terminal voltage.
3. The voltage variation in an alternator is produced mainly by the demagnetizing
action (armature reaction) of the armature current. In a DC generator, the
armature produces a magnetizing force which distorts the flux distribution in the
air gap. The extent of the flux distortion is dependent upon the amount of current
flowing through the armature and the position of the brushes. The flux distribution
in the air gap of an alternator depends on the amount of stator current and on the
phase relation existing between the current and voltage, that is, the power factor.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 64
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

A special regulating equipment is thus needed to maintain consumer’s voltage which


must be independent of load conditions of the machines, to ensure stability of the power
system and to share equally the reactive components of the load when a number of
generators are run in parallel.

In the case of AC generators, the alternator voltage is adjusted by generator excitation in


accordance with the load, since the excitation voltage of the alternator and its resultant
terminal voltage are dependent upon the field current of the exciter. The voltage
regulation is achieved by varying the exciter field current, as this is most economical, but
with no effect on the real power output. However, with DC generators, changing the field
voltage will transfer the load from one generator to another.

7.7 Power Factor Correction – Reactive Power Control

It must be remembered that in power systems, the demand for power arises out of
electromagnetic circuits of motors, transformers and inductance of transmission lines,
electric furnaces, uncorrected fluorescent lighting, etc.

Because of the inductive nature of the loads, the kVAs drawn from the utility are larger
than the kWs, and the current I lags the voltage V . See Fig 16 below. Only the
component of the current that is in-phase (i.e., I cos  ) with the voltage provides useful
work given by P  VI cos  . The out-of-phase component (i.e., I sin  ) increases the total
current that the utility must supply, leading thus to higher I 2 R -losses and voltage drops.

The effect of power factor on voltage regulation will be clear from the following practical
case.

Fig 16: Phasor Diagram for Voltage Drop in Power System

The expression for the voltage drop, in its simplest form, may be written as:

Voltage drop per phase  I ( R cos  X sin  ) (46)

where I = rms value of phase current


cos  = load power factor
sin  = load reactive factor
IR cos  = resistive component of voltage drop

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 65
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

IR sin  = reactive component of voltage drop


R = phase resistance of line
X = phase reactance of line
Z = impedance per phase = R  jX

When the power factor of the load is 0.8 lagging, the contribution to the voltage drop by
X sin  will be 60%.This contribution will further increase as the power factor
deteriorates. It is this seen from the above consideration that voltage regulation problem
frequently reduces to that of circulation of reactive power. However, unlike active power,
reactive power can be produced, transmitted and absorbed at any point in the system.

Where it is not economical to control voltage drop through conductor sizing, circuit
design or other means, voltage regulators are employed. Voltage regulators are
frequently used by electric utility companies in their distribution system feeders and are
seldom needed within commercial buildings.

Most of the machines used in electrical work are inductive (e.g. motors, transformers),
and draw current, which lag the voltage by the so-called phase angle. The total current
I drawn has two components: the active or power component I W is in-phase with the
voltage, and the “idle” or reactive component I Q is 900 out-of-phase with the voltage V
.

The reactive component I Q is responsible for the setting up of magnetic fields, causing
energy to surge to and from the load during alternate quarter cycles, whereas the power
or active component I W of the current is responsible for doing useful work (e.g.
developing machine output), and is constant for a given load.

Fig 17:Relationship between the active I W and reactive I Q components of the total
current I and the voltage V

If the phase angle between the total current and the voltage is reduced, without altering
the active component, the total current is reduced. It can thus be seen that for a given
load, the same work can be done with less current by increasing the power factor.

This reduction in current has so many practical implications or advantages:

 Where large loads are supplied, it means that conductor and cable sizes can be
reduced for the given load, resulting in considerable savings in investment cost
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 66
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

 Reduced current means lower temperature rise and reduced power losses ( I 2 R )

 Voltage control or regulation is improved, as the voltage drop ( IZ ) would be low,


and it would be easier to maintain voltage within specified limits
 Improved efficiency of equipment or system, i.e., the full capacity of equipment
like transformers, CBs, conductors, switches, buses, etc can be utilised.

 Energy losses ( I 2 R ) in conductors and thus electric energy costs are also
reduced.

7.7.1 Why Power factor Correction

Unless the out-of-phase component of the current is suitably compensated at the


various points in the power system, the system will have a poor power factor. And so
for the same active power transmitted, a poor power factor increases the
amperage burden on lines, transformers, generators, etc.

This results, as explained earlier, in increased transmission losses which are directly
proportional to the square of the current flowing. It also causes enhanced voltage drops
in the various components of the system. The cumulative effect appears in the form of
poor voltage conditions at the consumer’s terminals.

Hence utility supply companies impose punitive charges or penalties on consumers with
power factor below a fixed value (say 0.8). This is to compel the consumer to employ
various means to improve the power factor. Consumers thus have an economic interest
to improve the power factor of their facilities. The trend has been to improve power
factors to between 0.9 and 0.95, or even better as the cost of electricity rises.

The reduction in angle between the total current and the voltage is achieved by
compensating for the “idle” lagging component with a leading component of a capacitor.
This is known as power factor correction.

7.7.2 Caution in Power Factor Correction in Power Systems

Care must, however, be taken not to over-compensate or over-correct the power factor,
by using too large a capacitor that produces a large current to rather lead the voltage
and so produce an idle current as before and increase the load or system current. Over-
correction of power factor is sometimes avoided by the use of a device to automatically
cut out the capacitor when the machine is on light load.

The overall power factor of a customer’s internal electrical distribution system is usually
corrected below unity for the following reasons:

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 67
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

1. The cost of correcting the power factor to unity as opposed to the more modest
correction between 0.95 and 0.99 may be much higher, and the return on
investment for the optimal correction may be too small to justify.
2. A correction to a power factor of unity under one set of operating conditions may
result in a leading power factor under differing load conditions. A leading power
factor could result in an excessive line voltage increase in many systems. Such
systems would need automated equipment to switch or less capacitance and
hence change the power factor correction as the load changes in nature.

The automatic systems must be chosen with care, because many will try to over-correct
the power factor when a significant part of the load is solid-state motor drives, possibly
causing the system voltage to rise to excessive levels.

Voltage control can thus also be achieved through a careful correction of the power
factor of the system or equipment.

7.7.3 Location of Power Factor Correction Equipment

It is desirable from technical point of view that the static capacitors are always located
at or near the load or equipment that is responsible for the low power factor. In
that way, transmission of reactive kVArs is then removed from a greater part of the
network. Also the capacitors and loads are disconnected simultaneously to avoid
overcompensation. Larger systems may require power factor correction for each
major bus.

From economic aspect, however, this location is not always advisable. Most industrial
consumers have a considerable number of small loads of varying size, which makes it
difficult to apply the proper amount of compensation to each installed load. Moreover,
the entire load is not usually connected at the same time.

The capacitor installation on each load will thus be poorly utilized. It may thus
sometimes be preferable to compensate a large number of small loads centrally by one
capacitor installation. In such a case, the load factor of the factory should always be
considered to work out the size of the capacitor unit or bank required.

Even if medium and large supply consumers are able to compensate satisfactorily within
their on premises, there is still a great demand for kVAr from uncompensated motors,
inductance of lines, transformers, household appliances, fluorescent lighting etc. Here
again, it is desirable to produce the kVArs as close to the loads as possible, for instance,
at each transformer of a distribution circuit.

Considering the comparative expense of circuit breaker equipment for high voltage
capacitor banks, it will usually prove more economical to assemble the capacitors into
larger banks and install at the local distribution substations or secondary grid
substations.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 68
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

If synchronous condensers are to be used for improving the power factor of transmission
lines, then the best location of these will be at the receiving end. Synchronous
condensers thus installed will relieve both the transmission line and the generators from
excessive current. However, if the synchronous condensers are installed near the
generator, then only the generator will be relieved from the excessive lagging current
component, and the transmission line will have to carry more than normal current.

7.7.4 Causes of Low Power Factor in Power Systems

1. All AC motors (except overexcited synchronous motors and certain types of


commutator motors) and transformers operate at lagging power factor.

2. Due to typical characteristics of the arc, arc lamps operate at low p.f.

3. Arc and induction furnaces etc., operate at a very low lagging p.f.

4. Due to improper maintenance and repairs of motors, the p.f at which motors
operate fall.

5. When there is increase in supply voltage, which usually occurs during light load
periods, the magnetising current of inductive reactances increase and the p.f. of
the electrical plant as a whole decreases.

7.7.5 Summary of Effects of Low Power Factor

The effects of low power factor on a number of power system equipment are outlined
below.

1. Effect on Transmission Line

For the same power to be transmitted over the line, it will have to carry more current at
low power factor. As the line is to carry more current at, its cross-sectional area will have
to be increased, which increases the capital cost of the lines. Also, increased current
increases the line loss ( I 2 R ), the line voltage drop ( IZ ) is increased and the efficiency
is lowered .

2. Effect on Transformers

For decreased power factor, the kW capacity of the transformer is decreased and the
voltage is in it is increased. Loads taking a lagging current cause transformers to
operate with a poor voltage regulation. In other words, the terminal voltage of the
transformer decrease with a greater lagging power factor or greater load current, even
though the transformer is supplied with a constant voltage.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 69
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

3. Effect on Busbar and Switchgear

The cross-sectional area of the busbar and the contact surface of the switchgears must
be enlarged for the same power to be delivered at low power factor.

4. Effect on Generator

Loads taking lagging current cause alternators to operate with a poor voltage regulation.
In other words, the terminal voltage of the alternator decreases with a greater lagging
power factor or greater load current, even though the alternator is driven at a constant
speed with a constant field excitation. With the low power factor, the kVA as well as kW
capacities are lowered. The power supplied by the exciter is increased, the generator
copper losses are increased as well, and so their efficiency.

5. Effect on Prime Movers

When the power factor is decreased, the alternator develops more reactive kVA or the
wattless power generated is more. But a certain amount of energy is required to develop
it, which is supplied by the prime mover. Therefore the part of the prime mover is idle
and represents dead investment. Also, the efficiency is decreased at low p. f.

7.7.6 Power Factor Improvement Using Capacitor Bank

Consider the power factor correction in the Fig below. If for a given load, the phase
angle between the current is to be reduced from 1 to  2 , the capacitor must provide a
leading current I C of magnitude equal to the reactive component I 1 I 2 to neutralise this
lagging component.

Fig 18: Power Factor Improvement Using Capacitor Bank

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 70
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

I c  CV  P I1  P I 2  CV  I 1sin  1  I 2 sin 2

sin  sin
 C  I1  1 I 2  2 (47)
V
The size Q in kVAr of the capacitor unit or bank required may be determined from the
formular:

Q  P(tan 1  tan 2)
(48)

Where

Q = kVAr required
P = active power
cos 1 = power factor before compensation
cos  2 = power factor after compensation

7.7.7 Power Factor Improvement Using Synchronous Motor

Besides being used as a power factor-correcting device, the synchronous motor has the
added advantage of driving a load. Consider a typical example.

Example 16:

The machining operations in an industrial plant require 500 kW at 0.5 lagging.

(a) What is the required kVA rating of a capacitor to improve the power factor to 0.9?

(b) If a 500-hp 89% efficient synchronous motor operating at 0.8 leading pf is


installed in place of the capacitor, calculate the:

(i) synchronous motor kVA rating


(ii) resulting or overall kVA of the system
(iii) resulting pf of the system

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 71
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Solution 16

(a) Consider the Fig below.

Fig 18: Power Factor Improvement Using Capacitor Bank

1  cos 1 0.5  60 0  2  cos 1 0.9  25.84 0

QC  Q1  Q2
 P tan 1  tan  2 
 500(tan 60 0  tan 25.84 0 )
 624 kVAr

Thus kVA rating of the capacitor = 624 kVA

(b) Consider the Fig below.

Fig 19: Power Factor Correction Using Synchronous Motor

(i) Power intake by the motor is

Pout 500  0.746


Pm (in )    419 kW
 0.89

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 72
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Pm (in ) 419
 Sm    524 kVA
cos  m 0.8

Thus kVA rating of the synchronous motor = 524 kVA

(ii) Reactive lagging power intake by the plant before correction by synchronous
motor is

   
Q1  P tan 1  P tan cos 1 0.5  500 tan 60 0  866 kVAr

The leading reactive power supplied by the synchronous motor is

 
Qm  Pm(in ) tan  m  Pm (in) tan cos 1 0.8  419  tan 36.9 0  314 kVAr

Hence the lagging kVAr allowed after correction by synchronous motor is

Q2  Q1  Qm  866  314  552 kVAr

The synchronous motor does extra work and must draw power from the system.
And so with the installation of the synchronous motor, the total power PT intake
of the overall system is

PT  P  Pm (in )  500  419  919 kW

Thus the overall or resulting kVA of the system is

2 2
S 2  PT  Q2  (919) 2  (552) 2  1072 kVA

(iii) The resulting (improved) power factor of the system is

PT 919
cos  2    0.86
S 2 1072

8. Maintaining Optimum Power Routing – Load Flow Analysis

In the previous sections, we analysed the factors which influence the real and reactive
power flows on an individual single transmission line. It is considerably more difficult to
analyse the power flows in interconnected systems. For example, assume 200 MW of
power are demanded by the load on a particular bus to which, say, four incoming lines
are connected. The 200 MW power will be delivered via the four incoming lines. A few

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

questions arise. How will these lines share the load? What portion of the load will be
supplied by the various generators in the system?

Load flow analysis (LFA) is the collective term for a number of computer-aided analysis
procedures aimed at determining the actual power flow patterns in a given system and,
more importantly, how to control these patterns in a given systems.

8.1 Objectives of Load Flow Studies

Load flow studies are performed to investigate the following:

1. Flow of real and reactive power (MW and MVAr) in the branches of the network -
based on certain assumptions or specifications regarding loads and generations.
2. Voltages (magnitude and angle) at all system buses.
3. Checking that no transmission line is overloaded. “Overload” can mean operation
too close to the transmission limit of the line or (in the case of underground
cables) overheating.
4. Effect of rearranging circuits and incorporating new circuits on system loading
5. Effect of temporary loss of generation and transmission circuits on system loading
6. Effect of injecting in-phase and quadrature boost voltages on system loading
7. Optimum system running conditions and load distribution
8. Optimum system losses
9. Optimum rating and tap range of transformers
10. Rerouting of power in case of emergencies.
11. Improvement from change of conductor size and system voltage.

The load flow studies are normally performed for

 minimum load conditions – possibility of instability due to high voltage levels and
self-excitation of induction machines and
 maximum load conditions – possibility of synchronous instability.

Having ascertained that a network behaves reasonably under these conditions, further
load flows are performed to attempt to optimize various quantities. The design and
operation of a power network to obtain optimum economy is of paramount importance,
and the furtherance of this ideal is greatly advanced by the use of centralized automatic
control of generating stations.

Load flow analysis (LFA) of power systems containing hundreds of buses and
transmission lines is a rather complex procedure. It is possible, however, to demonstrate
some of the basic features of LFA by considering very simple but instructive networks.

Let us choose, for the purpose of our analysis, a simple two-bus system shown in Fig (a)
below, with generation available only at Bus 1 and load demand at Bus 2 only. Also
shown in Fig (b) is a network model of the system.

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Fig 20: (a) Simple Two-Bus System (b) Its Equivalent Network Model

8.2 Load Flow Analysis – Not a “Standard” Circuits Problem

One immediately identifies the LFA problem as an electric circuits problem. The
“standard” procedure, however, in solving circuits problems is to first represent the
active sources as either voltage or current sources. Network equilibrium equations are
then written in which either the network voltages or currents take on the role of
unknowns. The “loads” are invariably represented by impedances, and if these and other
circuit impedances are assumed known and constant, the resultant network equations
turn to be linear.

For instance, assume that the load in Fig above could be specified in terms of a load
impedance Z D . We could then model our two-bus system in the Fig shown below.

Fig 21: Load Impedance Model

For simplicity, the shunt impedance elements for the transformer and the transmission
line have been neglected. The current in the circuit would be:

Eg
I (49)
ZG  ZT  Z L  Z D

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

If E g were known, the formula will yield the current. With a knowledge of the current,
the bus voltages could then be easily computed. From a knowledge of the bus voltage, it
would then be easy to compute all powers of interest.

In summary, the load flow analysis would be straightforward, simple and linear, where
linearity implies that I is proportional to E g . The linearity feature would still prevail, if
we were to extend the analysis to a multi-bus system with many generators and loads.
Instead of the linear equation (49), we would then have a linear system of equations.

The load flow analysis in a power system can never be performed in the above simple
manner for the following reasons:

1. A power system load never behaves in a manner to make it possible to


represent it by a constant impedance.
2. In a real situation, the generator emf E g is never explicitly known.

Therefore we must write our network equations in terms of variables that can be easily
measured and have practical significance. In power systems work, the variables of
practical significance are:

1. real and reactive powers and


2. bus voltage magnitudes.

A typical LFA thus involves network equations written in terms of voltages and powers,
and not voltages and currents as exemplified in Eqn (49).
However, as will be demonstrated by example, this representation of network equations
in terms of voltages and powers, will cause the LFA equations to be nonlinear. And this
nonlinearity will eliminate the possibility of an analytical solution to the load flow
equations in most cases. We can, however, arrive at numerical solutions by the aid of
the computer.

8.3 Load Flow Analysis – Using The Analytical Approach

It has already been established that the reactive power flow in a system depends, to a
large extent, on the voltage profile. Reactive power tends to flow from higher voltages to
lower voltages. In review, if we wish to elevate the voltage level of a particular bus, we
should inject reactive power into the bus from appropriate sources. A VAR-source
connected to a bus thus, in effect, becomes a means of voltage control of that particular
bus.

In the simple two-bus system shown earlier, bus 2 lacks a reactive source. Therefore we
have no direct means for voltage control of that bus. However, bus 1 can obtain reactive
power from the generator. And so an increase in the generator reactive power output will
result in a voltage elevation of bus 1.

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

The increase in reactive power generation is achieved by an increase in the field current
excitation. And so by manipulation of the excitation control of the generator, we can
control the voltages of both buses, but only in unison – not independently.

Example 17:

Let us demonstrate the above type of situation by performing a load flow study of the
simple two-bus under the following set of assumptions:

1) The voltage of bus 2 must be kept at constant magnitude V2  1.00 pu .


2) The load demand from bus 2 is S D 2  (8  j 5) pu .
3) The line impedance equals Z L  (0.005  j 0.030) pu / phase

Solution 17:

We have the following relationships between line current I , load bus voltage V2 , and
the load power S D 2 .

SD2  V 2  I  (50)

For the current, we thus have


S
I D2
( A / phase) (51)
V2
The two bus voltages are related in the following way:

V1  V 2  I Z L (V / phase)
(52)

Substituting for the current, we thus obtain


S D2
V1  V 2  Z L  (V / phase)
V2
(53)

All variables on the right hand side of Eqn (53) are specified. If we choose V2 as the
reference phasor, the voltage at bus 1 can be solved as:

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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

S D2
V1  V 2  Z L
V 2
(8  j 5)
 1.00  (0.005  j 0.030)
1.00
 1.19  j 0.215
 1.20910.24 0 (V / phase)

Once V1 is known, we can compute the power S G1 injected into bus 1.


S G1  V 1  I
 (1.19  j 0.215)(8  j 5)
 (8.44  7.67) p.u.

To summarise the results:

V 1  1.190  j 0.215
 1.20910.24 0 p.u.

S D2

8  j5
I  
  8  j5
V2 1.00
 9.43  32.010 p.u.


S G1  V 1  I  (1.20910.24 )  (9.4332.01 )
0 0

 11 .4042.25 0
 8.44  j 7.67 p.u.

The results can be summarised in the power flow graph in the Fig below:

Fig 22: Flow Graph for Example 14


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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Some Points to Note:

 The voltage drop is expressed as a difference between rms values of the two bus
voltages) and equals:

V  V 1  V 2  1.209  1.00  0.209 p.u.

 The voltage drop does not equal the drop

V 1  V 2  Z L  I  (0.005  j 0.030)(8  j 5)  0.287 p.u.

 The power loss in the line is

S loss  S G1  S D 2
 (8.44  j 7.67)  (8  j 5)
 0.44  j 2.67 p.u.

 This analysis procedure is quite straightforward and the value sought for V1 is
obtained from a simple formula. Once the two bus voltages are known, all other
variables of interest can be found most conveniently. This is true in all types of
load flow analysis

8.4 Load Flow Analysis – Using The Iterative Computation

The above example, although performed on a very simple system, contains features
which characterise load flow analysis of large-scale grids. As a rule, the load flow
analysis problem is not as simple as the previous example leads us to believe.

Firstly, an analytical approach proves very unpractical, in fact, impossible in the general
case of complex power systems with more generator units, transmission lines, tie-points,
etc. Secondly, by means of an iterative computing process, one tries to obtain a
numerical solution of sufficient accuracy. However, the iterative computations may or
may not converge.

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

8.4.1 Convergence of the Iterative Process

Let us rework the example under the following slightly changed specifications.

Example 18:

1) The load demand from bus 2 is unchanged, that is,


S D 2  (8  j 5) pu .
2) The voltage of bus 1 rather is kept at V1  1.00 pu , instead of 1.209 p.u.
(that is, a reduction in the generator bus voltage)
3) The line impedance remains Z L  (0.005  j 0.030) pu / phase

Compared with Example 5, the voltages V1 and V2 have changed roles as known and
unknown, that is, V2 (load bus voltage) must now be determined for the same load.

Solution 18:

The solution procedure presented in the previous example does not well in this case, as
will be found. In equation (52), V1 is now known and V2 is an unknown quantity. As can
be determined, when V1 is known, the equation in fact reduces to a nonlinear, second
order, complex equation in V2 .

To solve this nonlinear second order equation, we shall choose a simpler approach
utilizing what is referred to as an iterative computation. It works as follows:

We make an initial reasonable guess at V2 . Let us call this V2 ( 0 ) . Using Eqn (51), we
can now solve for I .

We obtain:


(0)
I  S D2
 
V 2 (0)

From Eqn (53), we are then able to compute a new value for V2 . Let us call it V2 (1) .
Thus

( 0)
V 2(1)  V 1  Z L  I

 V1  Z L  S D2

V 2(0)


(54)
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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

This new value for V2 must be more accurate than the originally guessed value.
Starting with this updated value for V2 , we repeat the total process and obtain a still
better value V2 (1) , etc. After k iterations, this repetitive or iterative process obviously
yields the V2 -value

( k 1)
V 2( k )  V 1  Z L  I

 V1  Z L  S D2

V 2( k 1)


(55)

This equation represents a computational rule or algorithm. How many iterations need to
be made? To find out, let us make an initial guess:

V 2(0)  V 1  1.00  j 0
The algorithm of Eqn (55) yields the following sequence of computed values:

Number of Bus Voltage


Iterations V2
0 1.000 + j0.000
1 0.810 – j0.215
2 0.715 – j0.190
3 0.677 – j0.215
. .
. .
. .
12 0.619 –j0.215
13 0.618 –j0.215
14 0.618 –j0.215

Within 3-decimal accuracy, the 14th iteration does not improve the computed V2-value.
The iterative process has numerically converged on the solution. The above iteration
scheme is named after Gauss. It is characterised by slow convergence, but the
algorithm is simple. There are other algorithms that converge much faster. Clearly, this
type of repetitive computation should be delegated to a digital computer.

To summarise the results:

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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

0
V 2  0.618  j 0.215  0.654  19.18 p.u.
 8  j5
S D2
I    14.43  51.190 p.u.
V2 0.618  j 0.215
 j 51.190
S G1  V 1  I  1.00  14.43e  9.04  j11 .24 p.u.

The load flow picture is shown below:

Fig 23: Flow Graph for Example 15

Points to Note:

 The voltage drop is now V  V 1  V 2  1.000  0.654  0.346 p.u. , an


obvious increase compared with a voltage drop of 0.209 p.u. in the previous
Example 13.

 The new loss power is

S loss  S G1  S D 2
 (9.04  j11 .24)  (8  j 5)
 1.04  j 6.24 p.u.

Consequently, the new loss power of ( 1.04  j 6.24 ) p.u. represents an increase,
compared with a loss power of ( 0.44  j 2.67 ) p.u. in the previous example.

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

8.42 Non-Convergence of the Iterative Process

Let us demonstrate with an example.

Example 19:

Let us rework the previous Example 14 with one single change – an increase in the load
demand.

1) The load demand from Bus 2 (load bus) is increased, that is, from ( 8  j 5 )
to S D 2  (10  j 5) pu .
2) The voltage of Bus 1 is still kept at V1  1.00 pu .
3) The line impedance remains Z L  (0.005  j 0.030) pu / phase

Solution 19:

Using identical algorithm that was used in Example 14, the iterations now look as
follows:
Number of Bus Voltage
Iterations V2
0 1.000 + j0.000
1 0.8100 – j0.275
. .
. .
23 0.123 – j0.275
24 -0.105 + j0.234
. .
39 0.203 – j0.275
40 0.712 – j 0.217
. .

It can be seen that there is no convergence! What is the physical explanation? The
computer tries to inform that there is no solution. We have actually asked for the
impossible. Stated differently, it is simply not feasible to deliver the increased power (
10  j 5 ) via a line with impedance ( 0.005  j 0.030 ), if we simultaneously specify that
the bus voltage V1 must equal 1.00 p.u.

Whenever an iterative computation process does not converge on a solution, it is


imperative to recheck the power and voltage specifications in order to verify that
physical laws have not been violated. It should be added that convergence might not
be achieved for other reasons as well. For example, if the initial guess is too far
removed from the solution, the computations may diverge although the problem does
possess a physical solution. For example, one may try to solve Example 15 using initial
poor guess of V2 ( 0 )  0.20 pu (instead of 1.00 p.u.).

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

8.5 Load Flow Analysis – Involving Reactive Bus Power Injection

Example 18 teaches an additional important lesson. If one compares the flowcharts of


Examples 17 and 18, it will be observed that the voltage drops in the two cases are
0.209 and 0.346 p.u., respectively.

As we lower the voltage on the Generator Bus 1, it is getting increasingly difficult to keep
up the voltage on the Load Bus 2, and simultaneously maintain the specified (increased)
load power (10 + j8) on the Load Bus.

The physical explanation for this phenomenon is as follows: As we lower the voltage
profile, the line current must be correspondingly higher in order to give the same
specified load power. It must be noted that the current increased from 9.43 p.u. in
Example 17 to 11.43 p.u in Example 18. As a result, the voltage drop along the line
increases drastically. In fact, as we attempted in Example 19 to increase the load
demand from (8 + j5) to (10 + j5) p.u., the Load Bus 2 simply collapses.

Let us consider Example 18. Because the line impedance is predominantly reactive, the
buses voltage drop V1  V2 increases as the phase angle 2 (between the load bus
voltage and the current) increases. This phase angle is determined by the load S D 2 ,
and increases with the reactive part, Q D 2 , according to the formula:

1  Q D 2  1  5 
 2  tan    tan    32.010
 PD2  8
The voltage drop can be reduced if  2 could be reduced. If we actually make  2
negative, (making I lead V2 through reactive power injection), we can make the load
bus voltage V2 not only equal to the generator bus voltage V1 , but even large than
V1 .

In short, we need to inject reactive power into load bus 2 if we want to increase (or
“support”) its voltage. As has been pointed out before, if we lack a generator at bus 2 to
provide the needed Q -injection, we can obtain the needed reactive generation from a
bank of shunt capacitors. The latter arrangement is shown in the Fig below:

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Fig 24: Flow Graph Showing Capacitive Injection at a Bus


The capacitor delivers QG 2 p.u. MVAr to load bus 2. Clearly, if QG 2 exceeds the load
demand of 5 p.u. MVAr, then the surplus reactive power will be flowing into the line. This
means then that the current I will lead the voltage V2 , and we will have achieved our
aim.

Example 20:

We want to determine the exact reactive generation QG2 needed to maintain a “flat” unity
voltage profile. That is, we specify V1  V2  1.00 pu . The load demand shall remain
unchanged at the previous level S D 2  8  j 5 pu .

Solution 20:

Since the line power, as measured at the receiving end, now equals S D 2  jQG 2 , we
obtain for the line current


V 2  I  S D 2  j QG 2
(56)

Thus the line current (after shunt capacitor compensation) is given as

S D 2  j QG 2
I (57)
V 2
The voltage relation of Eqn (52) is still valid. Substitution of the above I value into Eqn
(52) yields

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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

V1  V 2  I  Z L
S D 2  j QG 2
V2 ZL
V 2
(58)

We now choose V2 as our reference phasor, that is, we set V2  1.00 . Upon
substitution of numerical values into Eqn (58), we obtain:

S D 2  j QG 2
V1  V 2  Z L
V 2
8  j5  j QG 2
 1.00  (0.005  j 0.030)
1.00
(59)

The specification calls for V1 equal to unity. Thus Eqn (59) becomes

1.00  1.00  (0.005  j 0.030) 8  j (QG 2  5) 


Upon separation of the real and imaginary parts, we obtain

1.00  1.040  0.030(QG 2  5)  j[0.240  0.005(Q G 2  5)]

Using the formula a  jb  ( a 2  b 2 ) , we are led to the relation


(60)

1.00  1.040  0.030(QG 2  5) 2   0.240  0.005(QG 2  5) 2

Eqn (60) is a second order equation in QG 2 , which can be readily solve to yield

QG 2  7.410 pu MVAr

NOTE:

Although we used an analytic solution in this simple case, we could have used an
iterative procedure instead. In a large-scale system, this would invariably be the choice.
Having found QG 2 , the completion of the analysis is simple. First we find the line current
from Eqn (57) as:

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S D 2  j QG 2 8  j5  j 7.410 0
I 
  8  j 2. 410  8. 35516 .76 p.u.
V2 1 .00

Note that the current is leading V2 . We next compute V1 from Eqn (58)

S D 2   j QG 2
V1  V 2  Z L 
V2
8  j 5  j 7.410
 1.00  (0.005  j 0.030)
1.00
 1.0014.60 0 p.u.

Note that V1  1.00 pu as could be expected. Finally we have the sending-end power
as


S G1  V 1  I
 1.0014.60 0 x 8.355  16.76 0
 8.355  2.16 0
 8.349  j 0.315 p.u.

The results are summarised in the flow chart below:

Fig 25: Flow Graph for Example 17

Observations on the Flowchart (after compensation)

 All of the reactive power demand at Bus 2 is supplied locally by the shunt
capacitor. As a result, the reactive power flow on the line has been drastically
reduced, in fact, reversed.
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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

 According to the loss formula, we should therefore expect a considerable loss


reduction. This is also confirmed from the flowchart.

 The real power loss is only 0.349 p.u. compared with 0.44 and 1.04 p.u.
respectively in the previous two cases.

 The example gives a vivid confirmation of the independence between the real
and reactive control channels. As the voltage of Bus 2 was raised from the value
0.654 p.u. to 1.00 p.u. with the insertion by the insertion the shunt capacitor, the
reactive power flow changes drastically.

 However, the real power flow is almost invariant. We assume, of course, that the
load objects do not change their power demand as the voltage level increases.
The only change is a slight reduction of the real generator output resulting from
the reduced line losses. This reduction is brought about automatically by the
actions of the ALFC system. If this adjustment were not to take place, we would
have a slight real power surplus and an increase in frequency.

9. Maintaining Optimum Generation Schedule

The automatic load frequency control (ALFC) system maintains real power balance
within the system on a second-by-second and minute-by-minute basis. This being
accomplished, the power system operator must make sure that the total system load is
divided, over longer time spans, amongst the generating units in a manner that
guarantees minimum operating costs.

In a power system, a certain load demand can be met in an infinite number of ways, but
the objective is to meet the power requirement in the most economic manner. As a
demonstration, let us consider a simple two-bus system depicted in the Fig below.

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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Fig 26: Simple Two-Bus System

A real-life power system is never that simple. However, it will serve the purpose of
demonstrating the principles of “optimum or economic power dispatch”. Let us assume
that the simple two-bus system is operating with the power configuration shown in the
Fig above. Out of the total load of (200 + 300) = 500 MW, 60% (i.e., 300 MW) is tapped
from Bus 2, whilst the remaining 40% (i.e., 200 MW) of the load exists at Bus 1.

To meet the load requirement, the two generators share the load. Because the fuel is
cheaper in generator G1, the majority of the generation (i.e., 302 MW) occurs at bus 1 in
G1, whilst G2 delivers 200 MW to Bus 2. To supplement the 300 MW load demand at
bus 2, the 100 MW is delivered to Bus 2 from G2 via the line. Note that the line losses
amount to 2 MW. Note also that power balance exists at each bus, that is, the
power entering a bus equals the power leaving that same bus.

Let us assume that the load on Bus 2 increases by 50 MW from 300 MW to 350 MW.
The question that arises is: Where should this additional power be generated? The first
and obvious assumption might be to let G1 handle the entire added increment, because
of its cheaper fuel.

The load flow picture would then look as shown below:

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 89
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Fig 27: Load Flow Pattern 1

The added line power causes the line losses to increase to 5 MW, an increase of 3 MW.
Were we to let generator G2 assume 20 MW of the added load, then the line power
would be less and the losses only 3 MW, an increase of only 1 MW.

The load flow is now shown below:

Fig 28: Load Flow Pattern 2

Which of the two generation alternatives is best? The question can best be answered, if
the generation costs in the two cases are considered. In spite of the higher fuel costs at
bus 2, the second alternative of letting G2 share in the added load may prove cheaper
overall, because of the smaller line losses (1 MW).

It seems intuitively obvious that the overall costs will be minimized at some appropriately
chosen load division between G1 and G2. In fact, a careful analysis confirms that there
generally exists one and only one power configuration that is cheaper than all
others. If we adjust our generators accordingly, then our system is aid to be operating
on optimum power dispatch.

9.1 Optimum or Economic Power Dispatch

Successful operation of power systems requires attention not only to safety of personnel
and equipment and the provision of service to utility customers without interruption, but
also power delivery at the lowest feasible cost. The problem of providing low-cost
electric energy is affected by such items as (a) efficiencies of power generating
equipment, (b) cost of installation and (c) fuel costs.

It is a fact that efficient units will develop a given amount of power with less fuel or
mechanical input than by units of lower efficiency. The first and obvious deduction is to
load efficient units before loading the less efficient units. This would be a better solution
than loading the low-efficiency units first. However, as far as economic operation of the

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 90
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

power system is concerned, the desired solution is to load the available generating units
so as to develop the required power output at the least possible overall cost.

The main economic factor in power system operation is the cost of generating real
power. The factors involved in the cost of producing electric energy can be divided into
two main categories: These are

1. Fixed costs
2. Variable costs

9.1.1 Fixed Costs

The fixed costs include

 capital investment
 interest charges on borrowed money
 labour costs and salary given to staff
 taxes and
 other expenses that continue irrespective of the load on the power system.

Power system service providers have little control over these costs

9.1.2 Variable Costs

The variable costs, which are a function of the loading on generating units, are those
costs which are affected by the:

 mechanical input (fuel or water) loading rates for the different generating units
 generation mix, i.e., combination of conventional hydro and thermal and other
energy sources to meet daily load requirements and
 control of losses caused by reactive flows
 purchase or sale of power.

Power system operators materially control these costs.


This section will thus discuss the factors in power system operation that can be
controlled and methods used to ensure that power generated to carry the power system
load is always produced in such a way that minimum costs will result. The savings that
can be achieved by proper operation of power resources can be very significant, and
they may amount to several thousands of dollars a day on large power systems.

9.2 Constraints in Economic Operation of Power Systems

The constraints to be discussed here may be categorised under:

1. primary constraints
2. secondary constraints
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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

3. dynamic constraints
4. spare capacity constraints
5. thermal constraints of the transmission line
6. bus voltage and angle constraints and
7. operational constraints

9.2.1 Primary Constraints

The primary constraints arise out of the necessity for the system to balance the load
demand and generation, and are also called equality constraints.

If PGi and QGi are the scheduled electrical generations, and PDi and QDi are the
respective load demands, it is obvious that the following equations must be satisfied at
the load bus.

PGi  PDi  Pline  M i  0 (61)

QGi  QDi  Qline  N i  0 (62)

where M i and N i represent the power residuals at Bus i , and Pline and Qline
represent the power flows to the neighbouring system given by

Pline   ViV j Yij cos ij   ij 


N

j 1

(63)

Qline   ViV j Yij sin  ij   ij 


N

j 1

(64)

9.2.2 Secondary Constraints

The secondary constraints arise due to physical and operational limitations of the
respective units and components, and are known as inequality constraints.

For proper operation, each generator should have a minimum and maximum permissible
output, and the unit production should be constrained to ensure that

Pi min  Pi  Pi max , i  1, 2, .......N P


(65)

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 92
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Qi min  Qi  Qi max , i  1, 2, ....... N Q


(66)

where N P and N Q are the total number of real and reactive sources in the system. In
addition to these inequality constraints, another constraint

2 2
Pi  Qi  ( S irated ) 2 (67)

must be satisfied, where S irated denotes the complex power capacity of the generating
unit without any overheating.

9.2.3 Dynamic Constraints

Dynamic constraints arise when fast changes in generation are required for picking up
the increasing load demand. Here

dPi (t ) dPi (t ) dPi (t )


  (68)
dt min dt dt max

Similarly, for reactive power constraints

dQi (t ) dQi (t ) dQi (t )


  (69)
dt min dt dt max

9.2.4 Spare Capacity Constraints

In order to account for the errors in load prediction, any sudden and fast change in load
demand and inadvertent loss of scheduled generation, spare capacity constraints are
frequently utilised. In this constraint, the total generation available at any time should be
in excess of the total anticipated load demand and any system loss by an amount not
less than a specified minimum spare capacity Psps . Thus

Pig    Pline  Psps  PDi 


N
(70)
i 1
For groups of generators, when all plants are not equally operationally suitable for taking
up additional load, this constraint is then given by

Pig    Pline  Pspg  PDi  (71)

9.2.5 Thermal Constraints of Transmission Lines

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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

These constraints arise when power injection (  S i max ) or power withdrawal (  S i max ) is
allowed such that

 S i max  S tr   S i max , i  1, 2, .......(t r ) n (72)

where (t r ) n represents the number of branches and S tr the branch power transfer in
MVA.

9.2.6 Bus Voltage and Angle Constraints

These constraints arise in order to maintain voltage profile at load bus and limiting the
overload capacity. Hence

Vi min  Vi  Vi max , i  1, 2, .......... N (73)

 ij min   i   ij max , j  1, j  2, 3, ..........M (74)

where N represents the number of units and M the number of loads in the system.

9.2.7 Operational Constraints

In case the transformer tap position needs to be included for optimisation, the tap
position “ ai ” should lie within the range available in the transformer.

ai min  ai  ai max (75)

9.3 Economic Power Dispatch – Without Transmission Losses

By economic power dispatch or loading of an alternator, it is meant the maximum


electrical output from the alternator obtainable for a minimum input to the prime mover.
In other words, it is the name given to the process of apportioning the total load on a
system between the various generating plants to achieve the greatest economy of
operation.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 94
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

To determine economic distribution of load between the various generating units


consisting of a turbine, generator and steam/fuel/water supply, the variable operating
costs of the unit must be expressed in terms of the power output. A small incremental
increase in output correspondingly will require a small incremental increase in input to
the prime mover. Of course, the fuel requirement for a given output can be easily
converted into cost (say dollars per MWh).

It can be shown mathematically that minimum fuel (or water) input for any given total
load of two generating units will occur when they are operated at equal incremental heat
rates. Consider two alternators A and B of identical speed/load characteristics working in
parallel to share the total load Ptotal on the system. If the load shared by (or generated
at the outputs of) the two alternators respectively are Pa , out and Pb , out , then,

Ptotal  P a,out  Pb,out (76)

Let the fuel inputs to the two alternators be Fa ,in and Fb,in , so that the total input
Finput to the alternators from the prime movers be

F input  F a,in  F b,in


(77)

For the most economical loading, the fuel input should be minimised. To determine the
minimum value of Finput , the first differential of the above expression in Eqn (77) with
respect to Pa ,out is equated to zero.

d F input d F a,in d F b,in


  0 (78)
d P a,out d P a,out d P a,out

Rearranging Eqn (78), we obtain

d F a,in dF dF dP
  b,in   b,in  b,out
d P a,out d P a,out d Pb,out d P a,out
(79)

From Eqn (76),

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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Pb,out  Ptotal  P a,out (80)

d Pb,out
  1
d P a,out
(81)

Substituting Eqn (80) into (79), we get

d F a,in d F b,in

d P a,out d Pb,out
(82)

Thus it can be seen from Eqn (82) that for the minimum fuel input to the two
alternators to obtain maximum output (economic power dispatch), the
incremental fuel rates of the two alternators must be equal.

The Fig below shows a typical input-output curve of a thermal-electric generating unit,
which is a plot of fuel input in btu/h versus power output of the unit in MW. The ordinates
(y-axis) of the curve are converted into dollars per hour by multiplying the fuel input by
the cost of fuel in dollars per million btu.

Fig 29: Typical Input-Output Curve of a Thermal-Electric Unit

A characteristic of this curve is that fuel input is increased as electrical output is


increased, but not necessarily linearly. Curves of this type are developed for each
generating unit. See Fig below.

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Fig 30: Input-Output Curves for Two Typical Thermal Units

From them, it can readily be seen that efficient units will develop a given amount of
power with less input than will be needed by units of lower efficiency. It can be seen from
the Fig above, that even though the no-load fuel for unit B is greater than that of unit A,
at loads above 40 MW the heat input for unit B is less than that for unit A.

When the basis for determining the incremental rate curves has been determined, the
method can be used to determine how to operate electric generating units for minimum
production cost.

9.4 Economic Scheduling Of Plant Outputs – Incremental Fuel Cost


(Using the Method of LaGrange Multiplier )

It was deduced in Section 9.3 that for the minimum fuel input to the two alternators to
obtain maximum output (economic power dispatch), the incremental fuel rates of the two
alternators must be equal. But fuel has cost. The discussion here will be based on the
economics of fuel costs with the realization that the other costs, which are a function of
power output, can be included in the fuel cost.

As we shall see, the criterion for the distribution of the load between any two units is
based on whether increasing the load on one unit as the load is decreased on the other
unit by the same amount results in an increase or decrease in total cost. Thus we are
concerned with incremental cost, which is determined by the slopes of the input-output
curves of the two generating units.

If we express the ordinates of the input-output curve in dollars per hour, and let

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 97
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Fn = cost of fuel input to unit n, (in dollars per hour)


Pn = output of unit n, (in MW)

Then the incremental fuel cost of the unit in dollars per MWh is dFn / dPn .
For a plant with N generating units, let

N
FT  F1  F2  ......  FN   Fk (83)
k 1

N
PT  P1  P2  ......  PN   Pk (84)
k 1

where FT is the total fuel cost and PT is the total power received by the plant bus and
transferred to the power system. The fuel costs of the individual generating units are
F1 , F2 , F3 ..........FN with corresponding outputs P1 , P2 , P3 ..........PN .

The objective of economic dispatch is to obtain a minimum FT for a given PT , which


requires that the total differential dFT  0 . Since the total fuel cost is dependent on the
power output of each unit,

FT F F
dFT  dP1  T dP2  ...  T dPN  0 (85)
P1 P2 PN

With total fuel cost FT dependent on upon the various unit outputs, the requirement of
constant PT means that Eqn (84) is a constraint on the minimum value of FT . The
restriction that PT remains constant requires that dPT  0 , and so

dPT  dP1  dP2  ...  dPN  0 (86)

Multiplying Eqn (86) by  and subtracting the resulting equation from Eqn (85) yields,
when terms are collected,

 FT   F   F 
   dP1   T   dP2  ...   T   dPN  0 (87)
 P1   P2   PN 

The Eqn (87) is satisfied if each term is equal to zero. Each partial derivative becomes a
full derivative, since only the fuel cost of any one unity will vary if only the power output
of that unit is varied. For instance, FT / PN becomes dFT / dPN . And so Eqn (87) is
satisfied if:

dF1 dF2 dFN


 ,   , ... , 
dP1 dP2 dPN
(88)
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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

and so all units must operate at the same incremental fuel cost  for minimum
cost in dollars per hour.
This procedure is known as the method of LaGrange Multipliers. We shall need this
mathematical method when we consider the effect of transmission losses on the
economic distribution of loads between several plants to achieve minimum fuel cost for a
specified loading of a power system.

Actually, the incremental cost is determined by measuring the slope of the input-output
curve and multiplying by cost per btu in the proper units. When the incremental fuel cost
of each unit in a plant is nearly linear with respect to power output over arrange of
operation under consideration, equations that represent incremental fuel costs as linear
functions of power output will simplify the computations.

A schedule for assigning loads to each unit in a plant can be prepared by assuming
various values of , obtaining the corresponding outputs of each unit, and adding
outputs to find the total plant load for each assumed . A curve of  versus total plant
load establishes the value of  at which each unit should operate for a given total plant
load.

If maximum and minimum loads are specified for each unit, some units will be unable to
operate at the same incremental fuel cost as the other units, and would still remain
within the limits specified for light and heavy loads. Let us consider the following
example.

Example 21:

Incremental fuel costs in dollars per MW for a plant consisting of two units are given by:

dF1 dF2
 0.0080P1  8.0  0.0096P2  6.4
dP1 dP2

Assume that both units are operating at all times, that total load varies from 250 MW to
1250 MW, and that the maximum and minimum loads on each unit are to be 625 MW
and 100 MW, respectively. Find the

a. incremental fuel cost allocation of load between the units for the minimum cost
of various total loads
b. economic distribution of load between the units for plant output of 1000 MW

Solution 21:

(a) At light loads, Unit 1 will operate at its lower limit of 100 MW and have the higher
incremental fuel cost given as

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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

dF1
 0.0080P1  8.0  0.0080(100)  8.0  8.80 dollars / MW
dP1

When the output of Unit 2 is also 100 MW, the incremental cost for Unit 2 is

dF2
 0.0096 P2  6.4  0.0096(100)  6.4  7.36 dollars / MW
dP2

The different incremental costs do not make for economic operation. Moreover, the total
minimum output from the plants would be 100 MW + 100 MW or 200 MW, which is far
from the minimum load demand of 250 MW, and this would also create frequency
problems.

Therefore as plant output increases, the additional load must come from Unit 2 until its
incremental cost 8.80 dollars/MW, so that economic power dispatch will be attained.
Until the point is reached when the incremental costs are equal, the incremental
fuel cost  plant of the plant is determined by Unit 2 alone.

When the plant load is 250 MW, Unit 1 will still be delivering its minimum of 100 MW and
Unit 2 will supply the difference of 150 MW with incremental cost of

dF2
 0.0096 P2  6.4  0.0096(150)  6.4  7.84 dollars / MW
dP2

This value of 7.84 dollars/MW of Plant 2 is still less than the incremental fuel cost 8.80
dollars/MW of Plant 1, and this will make the operation of the plant uneconomical.

For the incremental cost of Unit 2 to equal 8.80 dollars/MW,

dF2
 0.0096 P2  6.4  8.80  P2  250 MW
dP2

and the total plant output is 100 MW + 250 MW or 350 MW. This means that given the
incremental fuel costs of the two units of the plant and the conditions attached, the plant
can only operate economically or optimally when it supplies a minimum load of 350 MW.
And so as the question stands, it will not be economical for the plant to supply a demand
whose minimum is as low as 250 MW.

The Table below summarises the scenarios given above.

Minimum Load demand PD


250 MW 250 MW 250 MW 350 MW
Unit 1 P1 100 100 150 100
1 8.80 8.80 9.20 8.80
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Unit 2 P2 100 150 100 250


2 7.36 7.84 7.36 8.80
Ptotal P1  P2  PD P1  P2  PD P1  P2  PD P1  P2  PD
(frequency (no frequency (no frequency (frequency will
problem) problem) problem) be maintained)
 1  2 1  2 1  2 1   2
(uneconomical) (uneconomical) (uneconomical (economical)
)
acceptable
Remarks unacceptable unacceptable unacceptable economic load
generation generation generation dispatch, but
minimum load
demand of 350
MW must be
guaranteed

From this point onwards, the required output of each unit for economic or optimum load
distribution is found by assuming various values of plant and calculating each unit’s
output and the total plant output. Typical results are shown in Table below.

Table: Outputs of each Unit and Total Plant Output for Various Values of plant.

Plant Unit 1 Unit 2 Plant Load


plant P1 P2 P1  P2
(dollars/MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
7.84 100 150 250
8.80 100 250 350
9.60 200 333 533
10.40 300 417 717
11.20 400 500 900
12.00 500 583 1083
12.40 550 625 1175
13.00 625 625 1250

NOTE:

It must be noted from the Table above that at plant = 12.4 dollars/MW, Unit 2 is operating
at its upper limit of 625 MW, and so additional load (625 MW) must come from Unit 1
dF1 dF1
alone, whose then determines the plant incremental cost plant. Thus for the
dP1 dP1
additional 625 MW (after Unit 2 has reached its upper limit) is as calculated:

dF1
 0.0080 P1  8.0  0.0080(625)  8.0  13.00 dollars / MW
dP1

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

The graph of plant incremental cost plant (Column 1) can be plotted against plant output
(Column 4) as in Fig below:

Fig 31: Incremental Fuel Cost Versus Plant Output


(With Total Plant Load Economically Distributed Between Units)

(b) If we wish to know the economic or optimum distribution of load between the
units for a total plant output of 1000 MW, we could plot the output of each
individual unit versus plant output as shown below, from which each units output
can be read for any plant output.

Fig 32: Output of Each Unit Versus Plant Output


(For Economic Operation or Load Distribution for Plant)

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

ALTERNATIVELY, for economic distribution of a total load of 1000 MW between the 2


units, their incremental costs must be the same.

Thus

P1  P2  1000 and

0.0080 P1  8.0  0.0096 P2  6.4


 0.0096(1000  P1 )  6.4
Solving
P1  454.55 MW

P2  545.45 MW

and upon substituti on

 plant  11 .636 dollars / MW

9.5 Savings in Fuel Cost As A Result of Economic Loading –


As Compared With Any Arbitrary Distribution of Load

The savings in fuel cost in dollars per hour effected by economic distribution of load
rather than some arbitrary distribution of load can be found by integrating the expression
for incremental fuel cost, and comparing increases and decreases of cost for the units
as load is shifted from the most economical allocation of load.

Example 22:

Determine the savings in fuel cost in dollars per hour for the economic distribution of a
total load of 900 MW between the two units of the plant described in Example 18,
compared with equal distribution of the same total load.

Solution 22:

Example 18 showed that for the most economic distribution of a 900 MW load, Unit 1
should supply 400 MW and Unit 2 should supply 500 MW, and the incremental cost for
the plant was 11.20 dollars/MWh.

If the load is to be shared equally so that each unit supplies 450 MW, the increase in
cost for Unit 1 (having to supply 450 MW instead of the economical loading of 400 MW)
is found by integrating the expression for the incremental fuel cost for Unit 1.

450
450
 0.0080 2 
dF1    0.0080P1  8.0 dP1   P1  8.0 P1   570 dollars / h
400  2  400

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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Similarly for Unit 2 (having to supply 450 MW instead of the economical loading of 500
MW), the decrease in cost is found by integrating the expression for the incremental fuel
cost for Unit 2. Thus

450
450
 0.0096 2 
dF2    0.0096P2  6.4 dP2   P2  6.4 P2    548 dollars / h
500  2  500

The negative sign indicates a decrease in cost, as we expect for a decrease in output for
Unit 2 from 500 MW to 450 MW. The net saving in cost is 570 – 548 = 22 dollars/h.

The saving in cost of $22 per hour seems small, but this amount saved every hour for a
year of continuous operation would reduce the fuel cost by 22 x 24 x 365 = 192,720
dollars for the year.

9.6 Optimum Generation Mix – Combination of Conventional and Non-


Conventional Energy Sources To Meet Daily Load Requirements

Many power sources have several alternative sources for electric energy, such as
conventional steam-electric plants, nuclear plants, hydro, geothermal, gas turbine and
outside sources from which power may be purchased. Solar, wind power and fuel cells
are also alternative sources of electric power. Considerable work is being done to make
the energy cost of such sources competitive with that of the more conventional sources
of energy. Normally, the electrical capacities of the units of such sources are much less
than the capacities available from conventional thermal and large hydro units. The
problem is to determine at all times the combination of sources, and loads on these
sources, which will result in minimum overall production cost.

Fuel supplies for thermal plants can be natural gas, oil, nuclear sources or coal, with
varying costs for each. The load on a power system is continually changing. For
this reason, the economic supply issue must be reviewed frequently and, if
necessary, load allocations on the various power sources readjusted so that
deviations from the most economic operation will be held to a minimum.

Water supplies for hydro generation can have different values from time to time, and the
use of hydro-power must be integrated into the system power supply so that the lowest
overall costs result.

Pumped-storage generation is a special type hydro power operation in which water is


pumped to an upper reservoir during “off peak” hours when thermal generation costs are
at a minimum. The pumped water is released during “peak” hours to generate hydro
energy, and thus replace thermal generation when fuel costs would be high. It should be
pointed out that pumped-storage generation requires more energy for pumping than is
recovered during the generation cycle. However, the value of the power generated
during the peak load periods will normally more than offset the cost of the thermally
generated power used for pumping.
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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Power exchanges between interconnected systems can also be used to advantage in


minimizing fuel costs when there are significant differences in generation costs of
interconnected power systems.

9.7 Economic Power Dispatch – Factoring The Transmission Losses

The preceding discussion has centred on determining the loads to be placed on the
generating units in order to obtain equal incremental fuel cost for minimum overall cost
of generation. The problem is only partially solved, until transmission losses are
considered. As mentioned, if transmission losses could be evaluated, their effect could
be used as a multiplier on fuel cost (or water value for hydro) to compensate for the
energy lost in transmission and to arrive at a true economic loading of the system.

As has been pointed out in the previous sections, all transmission lines have resistance,
determined by the conductor material, conductor size, and length of the line. The
transmission loss is the product of the line current squared and the resistance of the
line. In the power system, the generator must produce enough energy to supply not only
the load, but also the transmission losses.

The power required to supply the transmission losses will move the generation to
a higher point on the incremental cost curve, resulting in an increase in the unit
cost of energy.

9.7.1 Transmission Loss – As a Function Of Plant Generation Output


(Loss Coefficients or B-Coefficients)

As mentioned, in determining the economic distribution of load between plants, there is


the need to consider losses in the transmission lines. Determining the transmission loss
in a simple system connecting two generating plants to one load as in Fig below, will
help us see the principles involved in expressing transmission loss in terms of power
output of the plants.

Fig 33: A Simple System Connecting Two Generating Plants to One Load

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 105


Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Although the incremental fuel cost at one generator bus may be lower than that of
another generator for a given distribution of load between the plants, the plant with the
lower incremental cost at its bus may be much farther from the load centre. The losses
in transmission from the plant having the lower incremental fuel cost may be so great
that, it may be economical to lower the load at the generator with the lower incremental
fuel cost and rather increase it at the generator with the higher incremental fuel cost.

To coordinate or factor transmission loss in the problem of determining the most


economic loading of generating plants, we need to express the transmission loss of the
systems as a function of plant loadings.

In the Fig above, if Ra , Rb , and Rc are the resistances of the lines a, b and c
respectively, the total loss for the three-phase transmission system is
2 2 2
Ploss  3 I1 Ra  3 I 2 Rb  3 I1  I 2 Rc (89)

If we assume that I 1 and I 2 are in phase, then

I1  I 2  I1  I 2 (90)

and upon simplification


2 2
Ploss  3 I1 ( Ra  Rc )  3  2 I1 I 2  3 I 2 ( Rb  Rc ) (91)

If P1 and P2 are the three-phase power outputs of plants 1 and 2 at power factors of
cos 1 and cos  2 , and if V1 and V2 are the bus voltages at the plants,

P1 P2
I1  and I2  (92)
3 V1 cos 1 3 V2 cos  2

Upon substitution of Eqn (92) in (91), we obtain

R a  Rc Rc Rb  Rc
Ploss  P1 2  2 P1 P2  P2 2
2
V1 (cos 1 ) 2 V1 V2 (cos 1 )(cos  2 ) 2
V2 (cos  2 ) 2
(93)

 P1 2 B11  2 P1 P2 B12  P2 2 B22

where

R a  Rc
B11  2 (94)
V1 (cos 1 ) 2

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 106


Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Rc
B12 
V1 V2 (cos 1 )(cos  2 )
(95)

Rb  Rc
B22  2 (96)
V2 (cos  2 ) 2

The terms B11 , B12 , and B22 are called loss coefficients or B-coefficients. The
general form of the loss equation for any number of sources is

Ploss    Pm Bmn Pn
m n
(97)

where 
m
and 
n
indicate independent summations to include all sources. For
instance, for three sources,

Ploss  P12 B11  P2 2 B22  P32 B33  2 P1P2 B12  2 P2 P3 B23  2 P1P3 B13
(98)

The matrix form of the transmission loss equation is

Ploss  PT BP (99)

where for a total of s sources,

 P1   B11 B12 B13 . . B1s 


P  B B22 B23 . . B2 s 
 2  21
P .  and B . . . .  (100)
   
.  . . . . 
 Ps   Bs1 Bs 2 Bs 3 . . Bss 

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 107


Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

9.7.2 Consideration of Transmission Losses In Economic Scheduling of


Plant Outputs For a Given System Loading (The Penalty Factor)

When two or more generating units are connected to supply a load via separate
transmission lines, the correct allocation of load between the generating units will
result, when the incremental costs, including the costs of supplying the energy
for transmission losses, are equal.

The method developed to express transmission loss in terms of generating plant outputs
enables us to factor transmission loss in scheduling the output of each plant for
maximum economy for a given system load. The mathematical treatment is similar to
that of scheduling generating units within a plant, except that we shall have to include
transmission loss as an additional constraint. In the equation

N
FT  F1  F2  ......  FN   Fk (101)
k 1

FT is now the total cost of all fuel for the entire system and is the sum of the fuel costs
of the individual plants P1 , P2 ,.....PN .

The total input to the network from all the plants is

N
PT  P1  P2  ......  PN   Pk (102)
k 1

The total fuel cost FT of the power system is a function of the power inputs. The
constraining relation on the minimum value of the total cost FT is

N N
 Pk  Ploss  PT   Pk  Ploss  PT  0 (103)
k 1 k 1

where PT is the total power received by the loads on the system, and Ploss is the
transmission loss expressed as a function of the loss coefficient and the power input to
the network from each plant. Since PT is constant, dPT  0 .

Therefore from Eqn (103)

N
 dPk  dPloss  0 (104)
k 1

Furthermore, since minimum cost means dFT  0 ,

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 108


Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

N FT
dFT   dPk  0
k 1 Pk

(105)

The transmission loss Ploss is dependent upon plant outputs, and dPloss is expressed
as

NPloss
dPloss   dPk
k 1 Pk
(106)

Substituting dPloss from Eqn (105) into Eqn (104), multiplying by system, and subtracting
the result from Eqn (105) yields

N  F P 
  T   system loss   system dPk  0 (107)
k 1 Pk Pk 

This equation Eqn (107) is satisfied provided that

FT P
  system loss   system  0 (108)
Pk Pk

for every value of k . Rearranging Eqn (108) and recognizing that changing the output
of only one plant can affect the cost at only that plant, we obtain:

dFk  1 
     system (109)
dPk  1  Ploss / Pk 

or

dFk
 Lk   system (110)
dPk

where Lk is called the penalty factor of plant k which accounts for transmission loss
or expresses the total transmission loss of the system as a function of plant generation.

The penalty factor is thus given as

1 1
Lk   (111)
1  (Ploss / Pk ) 1  loss factor

The result is analogous to that for scheduling units within a plant. Eqn (110) simply
means that minimum fuel cost for the operation of the entire system is obtained

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 109


Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

when the incremental fuel cost of each plant multiplied by its penalty factor is the
same for all plants in the system.
From Eqn (110), the products are equal to system, which is called the system incremental
cost, and is approximately the cost in dollars per hour to increase the total delivered
system load by 1 MW.

For a power system of three generating plants, for instance,

dF1 dF dF
L1  2 L2  3 L3   system (112)
dP1 dP2 dP3

It can be seen from Eqn (111) that as the loss factor increases, the penalty factor will
also increase. In order to determine penalty factors, it is necessary to develop a
mathematical model of the system, after which a computer can be used to determine
penalty factors for any load condition for each generating station or tie-line source to the
system load centre.

Having calculated the penalty factors “offline”, the incremental-cost curves are adjusted
accordingly upwards or downwards as required by the penalty factor, so that the
generating units are loaded on a strictly competitive basis for minimum cost, including
the transmission losses.

When digital computers are used for system control, penalty-factor calculations are
made at frequent time intervals, and generation-control impulses are produced, so that
the system generation is consistently maintained with the most economic allocation
between generating units.

Example 23:

A system consists of two plants connected by a transmission line. The only load is
located at Plant 2. When 200 MW is transmitted from Plant 1 to Plant 2, the power loss
in the line is 16 MW. Find

(a) the required generation for each plant and


(b) the power received by the load when incremental fuel cost  for the system is
$12.50/MWh.

Assume that the incremental fuel costs can be approximated for the following equation:

dF1 dF2
 0.010 P1  8.5 and  0.015P2  9.5
dP1 dP2

Solution 23:

(a) For a two-plant system, the transmission loss is

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 110


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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Ploss  P12 B11  2 P1P2 B12  P2 2 B22


Since all the load is directly at Plant 2 bus, varying P2 cannot affect the transmission
loss Ploss . In order words, the transmission line loss is contributed to only by the power
flow from Plant 1. Therefore

B22  0 and B12  0

When P1  200 MW , Ploss  16 MW , and so

16  200 2 B11  0  0

 B11  0.0004 MW 1
and
Ploss
 2 P1 B11  2 P2 B12  2 P1 (0.0004)  0  0.0008P1
P1

Ploss
 2 P2 B22  2 P1 B12  0
P2

The penalty factors are calculated as:

1 1
L1  
1  Ploss / P1 1  0.0008P1

1 1
L2    1.0
1  Ploss / P2 1 0

For the most economic loading such that the system system = $12.5/MWh,

dF1 1
L1    (0.010 P1  8.5)   12.5  P1  200 MW
dP1 (1  0.0008P1 )

dF2
L2    (0.015P2  9.5)  (1.0)  12.5  P2  200 MW
dP2

RESULT:

Economic load dispatching therefore requires P1  P2  200 MW , i.e., in this particular


case, equal division of load between the two plants for system = $12.5/MWh.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 111


Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

(b) The power loss in transmission is

Ploss  P1 2 B11  2 P1 P2 B12  P2 2 B22  200 2 (0.0004)  0  0  16 MW

and the delivered load is

PL  P1  P2  Ploss  200  200  16  384 MW

9.7.3 Savings in Fuel Cost By Factoring Rather Than Neglecting The


Transmission Loss In Determining Loading Of Plants

The following example is meant to show the savings in fuel when the transmission
losses are coordinated or taken account of, compared with when the losses are
neglected in the loading of the plants.

Example 24:

For the system of Example 23 with 384 MW received by the load, find the savings in
dollars per hour obtained by coordinating rather than neglecting the transmission loss in
determining the economic loading of the plants.

Solution 24:

If transmission loss is neglected, the incremental fuel costs at the two plants are
equated to give:

dF1 dF2
  0.010P1  8.5  0.015P2  9.5
dP1 dP2

The power delivered to the load is

2
PT  P1  P2  Ploss  P1  P2  0.0004P1  384 MW

Solving these two equations for P1 and P2 gives the following values for plant
generation with losses not coordinated or factored.

P1  290.7 MW and P2  127.1 MW

The load on Plant 1 is increased from 200 MW to 290.7 MW. The increase in fuel cost is:

290.7
290.7
 0.010 2 
dF1    0.010 P1  8.5 dP1   P1  8.5 P1   993.48 dollars / h
200  2  200
The load on Plant 2 is decreased from 200 MW to 127.1 MW. The decrease (negative
increase) in cost for Plant 2 is
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 112
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

127.1
127.1
 0.015 2 
dF2    0.015P2  9.5 dP2   P2  9.5 P2    871.39 dollars / h
200  2  200

The net savings by accounting for transmission loss in scheduling the received load
of 384 MW is 993.48 – 871.39 = $122.09 per hour.

9.8 Economic Interchange of Power

Another problem that is encountered by a power system operator has to do with


determining when it is economical to buy power from or sell power to other systems.
Whenever power is purchased and received into a system, the power that usually must
be produced to carry system load is reduced by the amount of power received from the
other system. Conversely, whenever power is sold, power production must equal the
system load plus the amount sold.

The preceding discussion has shown that when the power output of generating units is
increased, the unit incremental cost and also the system incremental cost increase.
Conversely, when the power is received from another system, as unit loading is
decreased, the system incremental cost also decreases.

When power is sold, the additional (incremental) production cost must be determined in
order to be able to quote a price to the prospective purchaser of the power. When power
is purchased, production costs will be reduced, and this saving has a value that must be
determined. The value of saving in a purchase transaction is called the “decremental
value”.

The definitions of these two terms are as follows:

1. Incremental cost is the additional cost incurred to generate an added amount


of power
2. Decremental value is the cost saved by not generating an amount of power.

The method used to determine the incremental cost of a sale transaction is to take the
average of the existing system incremental cost and the new incremental cost, and to
quote this average figure to the prospective buyer. As an example, assume that the
existing cost is $0.030/kWh. If sale of 100 MW is contemplated, and the cost with the
new system load condition is assumed to be $0.035/kWh, then the average incremental
cost would be ($0.030 + 0.035)/2 = $0.0325/kWh.

Exactly the reverse process is used when a power purchase is considered. Assume that
the existing cost is $0.030/kWh, and it is desired to purchase 100 MW of power. This
amount of received power would reduce the system cost to $0.025/kWh. The
decremental value (average saving) would then be ($0.030 + 0.025)/2 = $0.0275/kWh.
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 113
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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

In considering transactions involving the purchase or sale of power, as in determining


how generating units should be loaded for maximum economy, the effect of transmission
losses must be considered. As has been pointed out, to determine properly how
generating units should be loaded, the unit incremental cost is multiplied by the
penalty factor to calculate the worth of the power at the system load centre.

When power is being received from another system via a tie line, it is handled exactly as
though it were coming from a generating unit at the tie point. The price at the tie point is
multiplied by the penalty factor to determine the worth of the purchased power at the
load centre as compared with that from generating units in the system.

Conversely, when power a power sale is being evaluated, the reverse is true. In this
case, power is being transmitted from the load centre to the tie point with the purchasing
system, and it is desired to determine the worth of the power at the tie point. In order to
make this determination, the value of the power (system incremental cost) at the load
centre is divided by the penalty factor.

Example 25:

Assume a system incremental cost of $0.03/kWh at the load centre. A purchase of 100
MW is being considered at a quoted price of $0.026/kWh. The penalty factor from the tie
point to the load centre has been determined to be 1.15. Evaluate the economics of the
purchase.

Solution 25:

To evaluate properly the economics of the proposed purchase, it will be necessary to


determine both the cost of the purchased power at the load centre and the decremental
value of the purchase to the system.

The cost at the load centre would be = quoted price x penalty factor = $0.026 x 1.15 =
$0.0299/kWh. If the system generation is reduced by 100 MW due to purchase and the
system cost is reduced to $0.027/kWh, the decremental value (average saving) would
be = (original cost + new cost)/2 = ($0.03 + 0.027)/2 = $0.0285/kWh.

In this case, there would be no savings in purchasing the power, because the cost of the
purchased power ($0.0299/kWh) is greater than the decremental value ($0.0285/kWh).

Example 26:

Another situation might be developed in which a system with an incremental cost of


$0.03/kWh at existing load was asked to supply 100 MW to another system with an
incremental cost of $0.042/kWh at its existing load.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 114


Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Assuming that the selling systems’ incremental cost went to $0.035/kWh with the
additional load, and that the penalty factor to the tie point is 1.02 at 100-MW delivery,
evaluate the economics of the sale.

Solution 26:

The seller’s quoted price (incremental cost) would be

 original cost  new cost   1   0.03  0.035   1 


          0.0318 / kWh
 2   penalty factor   2   1.02 

The purchasing system would determine its decremental value as follows: Assume that
if its generation is reduced by 100 MW, its system cost would be reduced to $0.038/kWh
and that the penalty factor from the tie point to the load centre is 1.05.

The buyer’s decremental value for the purchaser would be

 original cost  new cost   0.042  0.038 


    penalty factor      1.05  0.042 / kWh
 2   2 

The difference between the buyer’s decremental value and the seller’s incremental cost
would be ($0.042 – 0.0318) = $0.0102/kWh.

In purchase and sale transactions of the type discussed, it is customary to split the
savings between the buying and selling systems. In other words, the average of the sum
of the buyer’s decremental value and the seller’s incremental cost would be determined
as in the case outlined.

Buyer’s decremental value = $0.042/kWh


Seller’s incremental cost = $0.0318/kWh
Average = (0.042 + 0.0318)/2 = $0.0369/kWh

The purchasing system would pay $0.0369/kWh and would save the difference between
what it would have cost to generate the power and the cost of the purchased power, that
is, ($0.042 – $0.0369) = $0.0051/kWh, which represents at 100-MW delivery, a saving
of $510 per hour. The seller would benefit by the same amount.

10. The Role of The Power Systems Operator

The control of power systems is one of the major responsibilities of power system
operators. System voltage levels, frequency, tie-line flows, transmission line loadings,
line currents and equipment loading must be kept within limits determined to be safe in
order to provide satisfactory and quality service to the power system customers. Voltage
Prepared by E. K. ANTO 115
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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

levels, line currents and equipment loading may vary from location to location within a
system, and control is on a relatively local basis. For example, generator voltage is
determined by the field excitation of each generating unit. However, as pointed out
already, if generator voltages are not coordinated, excess VAR flows will result with their
attendant losses.

Again, loading on individual generating units is determined by the throttle control on


thermal units or gate controls on hydro units. Each machine responds individually to the
energy input to its prime mover. Transmission-line loadings are affected by power input
from generating units and their loadings, the connected loads, parallel paths for power to
flow on other lines and their relative impedances.

It is thus essential for power system operators to monitor voltages and transmission
line loads continuously at various locations, and to take necessary action by issuing
instructions for:
 raising or lowering voltage to maintain the voltage level and thus keep losses to
the barest minimum or
 altering generation to match system load and thus maintain system frequency
and keep system lines and equipment operating within rated limits.

Providing reliable service from a power system is another responsibility of power system
operators. This factor receives a great deal of attention in the design and construction of
power system equipment and transmission and distribution lines. Generation and
substation equipment are carefully designed to give many years of reliable service, and
have design provisions to withstand transient overvoltages due to lightning or switching
surges.

Equipment are also designed to withstand the mechanical and electrical stresses that
may result when they are subjected to high fault currents. System design provides for
sufficient capacity in lines and station equipment, so that equipment failure will not
ordinarily result in customer load being interrupted in the event of loss of a line,
transformer bank, circuit-breaker bushing or similar trouble.

After the power system has been designed and constructed, it is the responsibility of the
systems operator to operate the system so that the design limits are not exceeded, to be
alert to conditions that may exist that could affect reliability, and to be ready to take
action to prevent hazardous situations from developing.

Following trouble, when service is lost or equipment is unavailable, the system operator
should proceed to restore the system to as near normal operation as possible, so that its
reliability is maintained at the highest possible level.
11. The Effect of Voltage Regulators on Rotor Angle Damping

The principle of a constant revolving field is very important in understanding polyphase


synchronous and induction machines. When a polyphase induction motor is connected
to a polyphase (three-phase) power source, a revolving magnetic field of constant
magnitude will be produced by the currents in the armature windings, and this field will

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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

revolve synchronously (at the same electrical speed) with the system frequency. This
revolving field sweeps past the conductors in the rotor, inducing voltages which cause
currents to flow in the rotor conductors. These currents (or their fluxes) react to produce
a torque, causing the rotor to revolve – always at a speed slower than that of the
armature revolving field due to inertia of the rotor unit.

It is the position of the armature revolving field at any instant that is used as a reference
in determining the torque or rotor angles of synchronous machines. When acting as a
generator, the machine rotor is driven by an outside power source (prime mover), and as
long as the driving force does not exceed a maximum value, the rotor field will be
advanced slightly from the armature revolving field.

The angular difference is the torque or rotor angle, and it increases as the load on the
machine is increased. If the maximum rotor angle is exceeded, the magnetic forces will
no longer be able to hold the rotor in synchronism, and the machine will go out of step
with the running system (run out of synchronism). When and it increases as the load on
the machine is increased.

As has been stated previously, the power output of a generator is changed only by
altering the power input to the prime mover. The effect of increasing mechanical power
input (necessitated by increased load on the system) to a synchronous a-c generator is
to advance the rotor to a new position relative to the revolving electric field of the stator.
Conversely, a reduction of mechanical input (necessitated by reduction in load) will
retard the rotor. See the Fig below:

With mechanical input, the rotor will advance with respect to the stator field, and
electrical output will result (Fig a). When a mechanical load is applied to the shaft of a
machine, the rotor will retard with respect to the stator, and electric power will be
absorbed (Fig b). In other words, the angle of the rotor with respect to the revolving
stator field determines whether a synchronous machine operates as a generator or as a
motor.

The greater the mechanical input (occasioned by increased electrical load) to a


generator, the greater the rotor angle leading and the greater the electrical output (Fig

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Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

a). The greater the mechanical load on a motor, the greater the rotor angle lagging and
the greater the electrical input (Fig b).

12 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Regulation

The basic aim of regulation is to match generation to load demand through the use of
automatic controls on inputs to the prime mover, whilst ensuring that consumers are
supplied with sufficient amount of power of satisfactory quality.

The regulation obtained by a speed-responsive governor system, in which the power


output of the turbine is varied by the adjustment of the speed governor setting through a
speeder motor to obtain generation-demand balance, is called primary regulation.

On the other hand, if the pulses applied to the speeder motor to raise or lower the
turbine output, are initiated automatically by a signal that is dependent on the frequency
deviation f , then secondary regulation is obtained. Secondary regulation thus
involves control actions intended to vary the settings of the speeder motors.

Economic dispatch, which provides generation loading for minimum cost, is obtained
when instructions from a load scheduler to the governor are realised in accordance with
the incremental costs of the various generating units. Working out the instructions that
meet the demands of economics, is called tertiary regulation.

13. Hierarchical Control Structure in Power Systems

An electric power system is a complex configuration of systems and networks that


provide consumers with power. By system configuration is meant a diagrammatic
representation of the position of electric stations and major electric networks
incorporated in a power system or individual subsystems of an interconnected power
system. Network configuration refers to a diagrammatic representation of
interconnections between electric power stations and load centres.

Associated with power systems are all processes involving, generation, transmission
and distribution of power, including the initial stages of power resources extraction and
the final stages of power usage. The power system thus constitutes an indispensable
basis for the development of the economic and industrial infrastructure of the nation.

The power transmitted from point to point in an interconnected network is dependent


ultimately on the steam supplies to the prime movers (turbines), to which the generators
are coupled. In an interconnected system, the proportion of power transmitted along a
particular power path may be controlled, but the total power flow remains dependent on
the load conditions.

The power systems are interconnected with transmission lines that are used to transfer
power from one system to another. There are intersystem tie lines through which
power exchange is effected. Power systems feature hierarchical structures with

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

respective levels of authority responsible for the supply of power to either an area, a
large load centre or to an individual residential or industrial facility.

The nation-wide level is represented by a National Power Grid, which is connected to


the various levels by means of an interconnected power system. The control of the
power transmitted over the national grid is centralised in Ghana in the control rooms of
the generating stations of the VRA in Akosombo, Kpong and Aboadze.

14. Optimal Control of Power Systems

At any particular instant, a power system may be at a particular state, which may be
defined by a set of events or processes (operating conditions). In turn, these events or
processes may be described by in terms of state variables such as power, voltage,
current, frequency, etc.

As a physical quantity, a power system may be described in terms of system variables


which are dependent on its configuration and plant characteristics. Using system
variables which are assumed constant within a certain range of variation of operating
conditions, we can determine the relationships which depict these operating conditions
in mathematical form.

A power system may be in normal operating conditions which provide for the required
standard of supply at optimum values of state variables. As a further distinction, a power
system may be in abnormal (emergency) conditions characterised by the occurrence of
credible contingencies. Under such circumstances, state variables may deviate for a
certain period of time from their scheduled values. Finally, a power system may be in a
post-fault state, i.e., a condition that occurs after restoring it to normal.

In handling optimum controls, one must utilise formalisation methods or models that
require finding the extremum conditions for a complex objective function J, which
depends on a number of state variables yk of the properties of the power system.

J  f ( y1, y 2 , y 3 ,........ y k ,......, y n)


(18)

It is usually not easy to find practical optimisation criteria for both existing and projected
systems. Depending on the objective function J, various conditions may be placed on
the state variables or functionally-dependent parameters yk to obtain the optimum value
of the objective function.
For example, if the objective function is system losses, the state variables will represent
the factors that determine the system losses. In this case, the conditions to be imposed
must be such as to obtain minimum system losses as the optimum value.

Finding solutions to the optimisation problems relating to management and control of


power system operation and expansion considerably depends on the study into the
accuracy of the methods of mathematical modelling. To choose the useful mathematical

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 119


Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

model (description) and the respective iteration method, it is necessary to determine the
overall error, including errors introduced by the model and method, as well as the errors
that result from the inaccuracy or uncertainty of source data and the round-off of the
obtained results.

The present-day method of calculation of steady-state operating conditions basically


deal with the general network theory problems, the determination of conditions under
which unique solutions are found for load-flow and convergence problems, and with
various modifications of the Newton Method, including the Newton-Raphson Method and
others.

For calculation of the steady-state operating conditions, use is made on a large scale of
the Newton Method, and on more rare occasions, of the Gauss-Seidel Method. Any
model, which is an analytical instrument aimed at the attainment of a certain goal,
cannot be completely adequate replica of the studied object, i.e., the power system.

Power system forecasting, planning methods and system parameters and associated
disturbances, etc., are statistical in nature, and this must be taken into account when
calculating system operating conditions. The effect of this statistical nature is to make
the estimation of system operating conditions even more difficult, as the power system
becomes more complex, plant and equipment are expanded, links between system
components grow, automatic regulation and control schemes are expanded, and so on.

Presently, there are computer software programmes for the optimisation and planning of
the operating conditions of power plants, transmission lines, system voltage controls,
etc.

14.1 Optimisation of Power Generation

The optimisation problem associated with a pattern of a power system can be


formulated as follows: Given operational constraints, one seeks to find minimal fuel cost
C of production and distribution of power within the system. The function of C is a
nonlinear function of system operating conditions.

Subject to operating constraints are a set of controllable variables and functions thereof.
The set includes loads on stations and network facilities, water consumption for hydro
power plants, fuel rate for certain types of thermal plants, etc. The constraints can be
expressed in the form of equations which depict, for example, power balance for a
system, or inequalities which may deal with maximal or minimal magnitudes of station
loads. There may be either linear constraints (say, those relating to power balance) or
nonlinear constraints which may apply to fuel rate.

The following observations may be made concerning the optimisation problem


associated with a generation schedule of a power system:

 Multivariable nonlinear functions are employed to represent the problem

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

 The variables and their functions are subject to a large number of constraints
and
 There are a number of solutions to the problem from which the best one is
selected.

The optimisation problem is in the scope of nonlinear programming methods. The


problem complexity is high, since there are a large number of equations and real-time
solutions are required.

The proper operation of an automated dispatch control system requires the use of
modern means of data processing gathering, transmission recording and display.

14.2 Optimisation of Network Voltage

Concerning optimisation criteria relating to voltage parameters, electric networks can be


broken down into two groups, namely, subtransmission and distribution. The
subtransmission networks include electric networks responsible for the transport of
power and do not directly connect the consumers. The distribution networks are electric
networks which connect the consumers.

Voltage transmission in subtransmission network is carried out on the basis of the


criterion of a minimum of total transmission losses. In distribution networks, however,
optimum operating conditions must provide fro the desirable quality of voltage across
the consumer buses with minimum transmission losses.

The solution of the voltage optimisation problem to subtransmission network is possible


when account is taken of the voltage quality requirements to be met by distribution
networks. To this end, the magnitudes of the nodal voltages of subtransmission and
distribution networks are maintained at different levels as well as the characteristics of
the existing regulating devices are normally constrained by the appropriate inequalities.

The problem of optimisation of voltage profiles existing on electric networks is solved by


planning the required voltage levels and maintaining them at the previously selected
reference nodes, whose voltages are characteristic of the voltage quality in the
subtransmission and distribution networks.

It is good practice to select the optimum voltage levels at the reference buses by solving
a combined problem of optimisation of network electric parameters. There are two
approaches to the problem as follows:

 Operating conditions are optimised separately in terms of real power and


voltage-reactive power
 Operating conditions are optimised simultaneously in terms of real power and
reactive power flows and voltage levels at the reference nodes.

In the first approach, during the first operation step, one must solve the problem of
optimum allocation of real power among the stations of a power system so that fuel rate

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Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
Lecture Notes for Electrical Engineering Course: POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

is held at a minimum. Under that condition, to obtain the desirable quality of voltage
requires that the limit ranges of variation of the voltages at the reference nodes be
specified. The second operational step concerns the problem of optimisation of the
operating conditions in terms of voltage and reactive power, whilst taking into account a
preset allocation of the real power flows.

In the second approach to the voltage optimisation problem, the operating conditions are
optimised in terms of real and reactive power flows and voltage levels at the reference
nodes. Here use is made of a regression analysis method to establish relationships
between the parameters characteristic of the operating conditions under consideration.
This method requires that periodical measurements be carried out and the
measurement results handled in order to obtain the numerical values of the regression
coefficients. It must be noted here that a change in the network configuration results in a
variation of the regression coefficients. This advantage restricts the use of this method to
those distribution network areas, which are responsible for the power supply to the
consumers of a permanent mix and which have their network configuration unalterable.

Prepared by E. K. ANTO 122


Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Eng., Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, GHANA

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