NARAYANA ENGINEERING COLLEGE::NELLORE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

II B.Tech I SEM Sub: FM

UNIT – I

INTRODUCTION & HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

 Fluid mechanics is the branch of science which deals with the behavior of the fluids at rest as well as in motion.

Fluid Statics  Deals with fluids at rest.

Fluid Mechanics Fluid Kinematics  Deals with fluids at motion, forces causing motions are not considered.

Fluid Dynamics Deals with fluids at motion, forces causing motion are considered.

 Properties of fluids  Density, Specific Weight, Specific Volume, Specific Gravity

 Density (or) Mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume.

Mass of fluid (Kg) Kg

Density (or) Mass Density (ρ) = =
3
Volume of fluid (m ) m3
 Specific Weight (or) weight density of a fluid is the ratio between weights of the fluid to its volume.

Weight of fluid (Kg) N

Specific weight (or) Weight Density (w) = =
Volume of fluid (m3) m3
 Specific volume is defined as the volume per unit mass of a fluid.

Volume of fluid (m3) m3

Specific Volume = =
Mass of fluid (Kg) Kg
 Specific gravity is defined as the weight density of a fluid to the weight density of a standard fluid.

Weight density (density) of liquid

For Liquids, Specific gravity =
Weight density (density) of water

Weight density (density) of gas

For Gases, Specific gravity =
Weight density (density) of air
 Viscosity of fluid is defined as the property of fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of
fluid over adjacent layer of the fluid. SI unit of viscosity is Newton-sec/m2
 Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element is directly proportional to the rate of
shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity (µ).
 Types of fluids: The fluids may be classified into the following five types:
 Ideal fluid: A fluid which is incompressible and is having no viscosity is known as Ideal fluid.
 Real fluid: A fluid which possesses viscosity is known as Real fluid.
 Newtonian fluid: A real fluid which the shear stress is directly proportional to rate of shear strain is known
as Newtonian fluid.
 Non – Newtonian fluid: A real fluid which the shear stress is not directly proportional to rate of shear
strain is known as Non – Newtonian fluid.
 The pressure at any point in a fluid is defined as the force per unit area.
 Pascal’s law states that intensity of pressure for a fluid at rest is equal in all directions.
 Hydrostatic law states that rate of increase of pressure in the vertically downward direction are equal to the
specific weight of the fluid (w).
 Pressure at any point is equal to the product of density of fluid (ρ), acceleration due to gravity(g) and vertical
height from free surface of liquid (h).

Pressure at any point, p = ρ x g x h

 Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute vacuum pressure.

PAbsolute = P Atmospheric + P gauge

 Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of measuring instrument, in which
the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.
 Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.
 Manometer is a device used for measuring pressure at a point in a fluid.
 Classification of Manometers:

Manometers
 Simple Manometers
 Differential Manometers
o Piezometers.
o U – Tube differential manometer.
o U – Tube Manometer.
o Inverted U – Tube differential
o Single Column Manometer
manometer.
 Vertical single column manometer.
 Inclined single column manometer
  The forces acting on fluid at rest are due to pressure of fluid normal to the surface and due to gravity (self
weight of fluid)

Hydrostatic Forces on surfaces

Type of surface Total Force (F) Centre of Pressure (h*)

Vertical plane surface

Horizontal plane surface --

Inclined plane surface

Curved surface --
Fx & Fy – Hor. and Ver.
Components of F

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 UNIT – II

BUOYANCY AND KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW

 When the body is immersed in the liquid, the liquid exerts an upward force which is called as force of buoyancy
(or) Buoyancy.
 The point through which force of buoyancy is supposed to act is called centre of Buoyancy.
 The point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted is known as Meta – centre.
 The distance between the Meta – centre and centre of gravity is known as Meta – centric height.
 The meta – centric height is given by

 Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and submerged body are tabulated below,

Equilibrium Floating body Submerged body

Stable Equilibrium M is above G B is above G
Unstable Equilibrium M is below G B is below G
Neutral equilibrium M and G are at same point B and G are at same point
Where M = Meta centre; G = Centre of gravity; B = Centre of buoyancy
 Fluid kinematics is a branch of science which deals with motion of particles without considering forces causing
motion.
 A flow field is a region in which the flow is defined at all points at any instant of time.
 The description of fluid flow includes the velocities of fluid particles at any time, which can be done by any of
the following methods,
 Lagrangian method.
 Eulerian method.
 Types of Fluid flows: The fluid flow can be classified as,
 Steady and Unsteady flow.
 Uniform and Non – Uniform flow.
 Laminar and Turbulent flow.
 Compressible and Incompressible flow.
 Rotational and Irrotational flow.
 One, two and three dimensional flow.
Steady flow The fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure, density at a point do not change with time.
Unsteady flow The velocity, pressure, density at a point changes w.r.t time.
Uniform flow The velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space.
Non – Uniform flow The velocity at any given time changes with respect to space.
Laminar flow Fluid particles move along well – defined paths and all stream lines are straight and parallel.
Turbulent flow Fluid particles move in a zig – zag way.
Compressible flow The density of fluid changes from point to point.
In compressible flow The density of fluid changes from point to point.
Rotational flow The fluid particles rotate about their own axis while flowing along stream lines.
Irrotational flow The fluid particles do not rotates about their own axis while flowing along stream lines.
One dimensional flow is a type of flow such that the flow parameters such as velocity,
One dimensional flow
pressure may be expressed as functions of time and one space coordinate only.
The flow parameters such as velocity, pressure may be expressed as functions of time and two
Two dimensional flow
spaces coordinates.
The flow parameters such as velocity, pressure may be expressed as functions of time and
Three dimensional flow
three spaces coordinates.

 Flow visualization is done to obtain qualitative and quantitative flow information.

 The methods for visualizing flow are Stream lines, path lines, streak lines.
 A stream line is an imaginary curve or imaginary line in the flow field, so that the tangent to the curve at any
point represents the direction of the instantaneous velocity at that point.
 A path line is the actual path travelled by an individual fluid particle over some time period.
 A streak line is the locus of fluid particles that have passed through a fixed point in the flow field at any instant
of time.
 Rate of flow (or) discharge (Q) is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a section of pipe.
Q = Area x Velocity
Units for Q are m3/sec (or) litre/sec.
 Continuity equation for two dimensional flow is given by,

Where A1, A2 = Cross – sectional areas at section 1 and section 2.

A1V1 = A2V2
V1, V2 = Velocity of fluid at section 1 and section 2.

 Continuity equation for three dimensional flow is given by,

Where u, v, w are the velocities of fluid in x, y & z

directions respectively.
 Velocity of fluid is defined as the rate of change of displacement of the fluid along that direction.

u = dx/dt; v = dy/dt; w = dz/dt

 Acceleration of a fluid element along any direction can be defined as the rate of change of velocity of fluid
along that direction.

Total Acceleration = Convective Acceleration + Local Acceleration

ax, ay, az are the accelerations in x, y and z directions respectively.

 Convective acceleration can be defined as rate of change of velocity due to change of position of fluid particles
in a fluid flow.
 Local acceleration can be defined as rate of increase of velocity w.r.t time at a given point in a flow field.
 Velocity potential function (ø) is a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative w.r.t any
direction gives the velocity component in that direction.

**Negative sign indicates decrease in velocity potential**

 Stream function (Ψ) can be defined as a scalar function of space and time, such that its partial derivative w.r.t
any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction.

 Vortex flow is defined as flow of fluid along a curved path.

Free Vortex Flow – No external torque is required to rotate the mass of fluid.

 Vortex Flow

Forced Vertex Flow – External torque is required to rotate the mass of fluid.
 UNIT – III

DYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW

 Fluid dynamics is a branch of science which deals with fluid in motion with consideration of forces acting on a
fluid.
 Forces acting on fluid element are,
 Gravity force (Fg).
 Viscous force (Fv).
 Pressure force (Fp).
 Turbulence force (Ft).
 Compressibility force (Fc).

Total Force, F = Fg + Fv + Fp + Ft + Fc

Equation of motion Conditions Resultant force/Total force (F)

Reynolds equation of motion Fc = 0 F = Fg + Fv + Fp + Ft
Navier – stokes equation of motion Fc = 0 & Ft = 0 F = Fg + Fv + Fp
Euler’s equation of motion Fv = 0 & Fc = 0 & Ft = 0 F = Fg + F p

 Euler assumed that the flow is non – viscous, non – turbulent, incompressible, steady and one – dimensional.
 Euler’s equation of motion is given by,

ρ = density of fluid; g = acceleration due to gravity; v =

velocity of fluid
 Bernoulli’s equation of motion is given by,

 pressure head;  kinetic energy; z  Datum head

 Bernoulli’s equation is applied in all problems in incompressible fluid flow where energy considerations are
involved. The flow measurement devices are as follows,
 Venturimeter.
 Orifice meter.
 Pitot tube
 Venturimeter: A Venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid through a pipe. It
consists of three parts.
a) Converging cone
 b) Throat
c) Diverging cone

 The discharge equation through Venturimeter is given by,

Q =

*a1 & a2 are cross sectional areas of 1 and 2; *h is height difference;

*g is acceleration due to gravity
 Orifice meter: Orifice meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe. It consists
of flat circular plate which has a circular shear edged hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe.

 The discharge equation through Orifice meter is given by,

Q =

*a1 is cross sectional area of secn. 1; *ao is area of orifice; *g is acceleration due to gravity
*Cd is Coefficient of discharge for orifice meter

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