Doing Algebra in Grades K-4

Author(s): Zalman Usiskin

Source: Teaching Children Mathematics, Vol. 3, No. 6, FOCUS ISSUE: Algebraic THINKING
(February 1997), pp. 346-356
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41196752
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 DOING
nLGGBRfì IN GRRD65 K-4
thirty-five years ago the movement togeneralized patterns, (4) placeholders, and (5) rela-
incorporate geometry into the elementarytionships. Any time that any of these ideas are dis-
grades began. To many elementary school cussed, from kindergarten upward, there is oppor-
teachers, the mention of the word geometry tunity to introduce the language of algebra.
brought back memories of a high school geometry
course that dealt with abstraction and proof. TheUnknouins
thought of teaching children this geometry wasConsider the following questions:
naturally viewed with incredulity.
What number, when added to 3, gives 7?
But in time, teachers came to realize that the
Fill in the blank: 3 +
geometry being touted for the primary school deals
ШЕШШЕШШШ^ШЕШШШЕШШШ
with shape and size and drawing and counting. It Put a number in the square t
fits in not only with the arithmetic that is the back- true: 3 + D = 7
bone of the curriculum but also with art and social Find the ?: 3 + ? = 7
studies. And much of its terminology, such as cir- Solve: 3 + x = 7
cle, triangle, square, and angle, are in our everyday
language and part of basic literacy. Geometry In each question is an unknown. It is a number
today begins for many children in preschool. represented by that word, or by a blank, or a
square, or a question mark, or the letter x. Some
Today, the word algebra inspires much the same
argue
reaction as geometry did in 1960. It spawns mem- that only the last example is algebra. But
ories of "word problems," of complicated equa- only convention causes us to use "jt" instead of "?"
or " D " or "
tions and expressions, of what may have seemed to
be meaningless manipulations of meaninglessverbal description of a situation, as in
symbols on a page. Even those teachers possessing question, "What number, when added
great confidence in teaching arithmetic and geo-7?" may seem to be the least algebraic
metric concepts and skills may shy away from the way that many people did algebra
mentioning any algebra. To many teachers, intro-invention of modern symbolism in the
ducing algebra in the primary grades is the epito-use of x and у to represent unknowns
Descartes in the early 1600s.) Thus
me of working with mathematical concepts too
early, before students are ready. sense that you are doing algebra when
The thesis of this article is that it is neither students to find an unknown in a situatio

unwise nor unproductive to do some algebra in

Formules
grades K-4. The first part introduces terms and
If we have the formula A = LW for the area of a rec-
shows that some algebra is being taught to, and
tangle and we ask students to find A when L = 5
learned by, virtually all students, even though the
teacher may not realize it. The second part W = 7, we are doing algebra. If we ask students
and
describes the algebra in grades 2-4 from the cur-to find n when 5 X 7 = n, whether we are doing
algebra
riculum of the late 1970s studied by all students in is not clear.
the Soviet Union, to exemplify one way in which If the teacher asks, "What number can I replace
these ideas have been implemented. n by and make this a true statement?" the teacher
is treating the statement as algebra. If the teacher
asks, "What is the answer?" then the teacher is
UJhat Is ftlgebra? treating the question as arithmetic. The point is
Algebra is a language. This language has five
that much of the difference between arithmetic
major aspects: (1) unknowns, (2) formulas, (3)
and algebra is in the ways questions are couched.
It is not hard to do algebra, even with very young
students.
Zalman Usiskin is a professor of education at the University of Chicago and director of the
University of Chicago School Mathematics Project, Chicago, IL 60637. He is a member of the
NCTM Board of Directors.
Generalized patterns
My father was a bookkeeper by trade, and he

T€fìCHING CHILDREN MflTHeWÏÏICS

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taught me a number of shortcuts for doing arith- their ages? If Marisha is 7, then Bob is 9. If
metic. For instance, to multiply a number by 19, 1 Marisha is 4, then Bob is 6. We do not have to
could multiply the number by 20 and then subtract know their ages to know how they are related.
the number. The algebraic description is short. If n If Bob's age is represented by В and Marisha's age
is the number, 19/2 = 20« - n. This special case of is represented by M, then we could write the
the distributive property of multiplication over following:
subtraction is called just the "distributive property"
В = M + 2 (Bob is 2 years older than Marisha.)
for short. Notice how much shorter the algebraic
description is than the description in words. B-M = 2 (The difference in their ages is 2.)
Furthermore, the algebraic description bears a M = В - 2 (Marisha is 2 years younger than Bob.)
visual resemblance to the arithmetic. For instance,
Any of these representations is correct. Although
if you buy 19 notebooks at $2.95 each, substitute
there are many ways to write the relationship
$2.95 for n.
between В and M , they are equivalent. This equiv-
19 • $2.95 = 20 • $2.95 - $2.95 alence is easier to determine in the algebraic
descriptions than in the English descriptions in
Many people can calculate the right side using parentheses beside them.
mental arithmetic. It equals $59.00 - $2.95, or
$56.05.
The algebraic description just given suggests
[in Cxomplc of fllgebra
that algebra is the most appropriate language for
writing down general properties in arithmetic. You
in the Carly Grades -
may tell students, "You can multiply two numbers The Curriculum in lhe
in either order, and the answer will be the same." Former Soviel Union
But you can write "For any numbers a and b, a •
In early 1984, the University of Chicago Schooltv?*'":**'*"'
b = b • ¿z." The specific instance 6* 12= 12*6
Mathematics Project (UCSMP) resource compo-
looks like the algebra and does not look at all like
nent, under the direction of Izaak Wirszup, began
the verbal description.
translating the entire Soviet elementary mathemat-
So you are doing algebra if you discuss general-
izations, such as "Add 0 to a number, and the
ics curriculum. In the Soviet Union, the first year K: :
of school used to be for seven-year-old children.
answer is that number. Add a number to itself, and
First graders were 7, second graders were 8, and
the result is the same as two times the number."
third graders were 9. (In general, wth graders were
But instead of writing them down in English, you
age /2 + 6. This author could not resist doing some
use the language of algebra (0 + n = n; t + t = 2t).
algebra!) UCSMP has published hard-cover copies
of the translations of the books for grades 1-3,
Placeholders which are for American children in grades 2-4.
Most people have played Monopoly or other board
Algebra is interspersed through each of these
games in which the following kind of direction
books. is
given: "Roll the dice. Whatever number you get,
In interpreting what follows, one should note an
move forward twice the number of spaces."importantIn difference between these Soviet materi-
algebraic language it means "If you roll als
d on
andthe
many materials published in the United
dice, then move forward 2аГ States and Canada. The Soviet books generally
Spreadsheets use algebra. Take the number
containin
a variety of questions on each page. The
one cell of an array, subtract it from a number in chosen
examples a here are never the only type of
second cell, and put the difference in a third cell.
question that the student is asked to encounter on a
As in the dice situation, we do not needgiven
to know
day. Page numbers are from the published
what numbers we have to understand the direc- English translation, which is generally as true as
tions. If the number in the first cell is x and the
practical to the original Russian.
number in the second cell is v, then the number in In the space available here I cannot give all of
the third cell is y - x. the kinds of questions in the Russian grades 1, 2,
Consequently, whenever one plays a "pick aand 3 materials. The questions I have chosen illus-
number" game - pick a number, add 3 to it, sub- trate the careful way in which algebra is devel-
tract 5, and so on - one is verbally doing algebra,oped. With each question I include the particular
for one is thinking of a number, any number, and sense of the variable that it helps to develop. I indi-
dealing with it. cate the page length of the translation and the page
number of the question so that the reader can esti-
Relationships mate when in the school year the question might be
Bob is 2 years older than Marisha. What could be covered.

F€ßRUflRV1997 ВЙ^Ч*: •

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 Soviel Grade- 1 Mathematics
(United Stoles Grade 2), 205 Poges
Page 6: Unknowns. The number is placed in a box that will later be used as an unknown.

Page 1 1 : Unknowns

Page 12: Unknowns and relationships. The relationship between addition and subtraction is developed
from the earliest introduction.

|+|1 |=|
1-111=1
Page 15: Unknowns. The expressions at the right are hints.

4 + 1 =5 5-1

3 + Q=5 5-2
Ц|+П=5 5-3
~~|+П=П 5-4
Page 2 1 : Unknowns

3+Q=4 Q + 4 = 5 5-Q=4
2+Q=3 Q + 3 = 4 3-Q=1
Questions on a page are numbered starting on page 32. From here on, I show question numbers with page
numbers.

Page 44, problem 1 : Relationships. Basic facts are practiced in a wide variety of situations.

Increase by 3. Decrease by 3.

7|2|6|1 |3|4|5|[ÍÕ|8|7|5|
Page 50, problem 5: Unknowns. The first line is shown as an example.

7 + 3-1 =10-1 =9 9 + 1 -2=Q-

6-2 + 3=Q+3 = 8-4 + 3 = Q+3
^^^^^^I^^H TCñCHING CHILDR6N MñTH€MñTICS

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Page 54, problem 1 : Relationships. Throughout, pictures illustrate the ideas.

ШШш
Ш. IU Q Яlini1!2!3!4!5!6!7!
7
Page 60, problem 2: Unknowns. This problem is the first introduction of the letter л.

Addend 1 4 1 3 I ~ I
Addend 6 ._
-
Sum

Page 60, problem 4: Unknowns. Stud

using related facts.

4. Nina has 9 red and pink

How many pink poppies do

Page 61, problem 3: Unknowns. The s

Луу
Л lilППЛ
Í1B9 bii ■
v ■■■*
iiii^
X+b = y 5 + Х=У о + Х=У

Starting from page 77, tasks are numbered consecutivel

larger than 10.

Page 85, problem 44: Unknowns. The same ideas used w

numbers larger than 10.

10 + 2 = 12 3 + 10 = 1
12-2 = 10 13-10= □ D"D=C
12-10 = 2 13-3= □ D"D=IZ
F6BRUñRV 1997 ^^^^^^^^^^Я

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 Page 144, problem 291: Relationships

There were 9 books on the shelf. I _. i i

How many books will there be on ТПвГб W8f9

the shelf if 2 more books a

4 more books?

5 more books? Now there are

9 more books? '

Write y
Page 186,
unknown.

Fill in t

67*Q=72 81*[]=90
52 * Q = 34 47 * Q = 63
Hussion Grade-2 Mathematics
(United States Grade 3), 275 Pages
The first distinctive feature of this book, as seen from a United States perspective, is that the book start
where the previous book left off. A substantial amount of review is embedded within or among new
material.

Page 10, problems 49 and 50: Unknowns. The Russian language is written in the Cyrillic alphabet, which
shares some but not all letters with the Latin alphabet, so students need to be taught the Latin letters along
with mathematics.

49. In mathematics we use Latin letters, for example, x, to denote unknown

numbers. Memorize four more letters: Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd
5O.a + 8 = 12 4 + b=15 c+7 = 20

Page 12, problem 61: Unknowns. Mixed practice is the rule rather than

Solve the following equations:

c-8 = 14 20-x=7 48-a=17 b-24 = 9

Page 15, problem 76: Unknowns

Make up problems based on the following e

(1) a- 12 = 35
(2)54-x=18
Now solve them.

Page 16, problem 83: Placeholders and generalized patterns

83' W [9] What does the letter с represent?

What does the letter d represent?
What does the expression c-d repres
T T Give the numerical values of the lette
Calculate the values of the expression
У] [У values of the letters.
с - d

^^^^^^^^^^H T€fiCHING CHILDREN MRTH€MflTICS

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Page 26, problem 129: Generalized patterns. Notice that "a student" generalizes the specific students
Borya and Kolya, just as a and b generalize the numbers.

(1) In January Borya read 10 books, and in February he read 8 books. How
many books did Borya read during these two months?
(2) In January Kolya read 6 books, and in February he read 4 books. How
many books did Kolya read during these two months?
(3) In January a student read a books, and in February he read b books. How
many books did the student read during these two months?

Page 40, problem 151: Generalized patterns. This question is meant to introduce the algebraic descrip-
tion of the commutative property of addition. Students do the additions and are shown the generalization
in algebraic language.
9 + 17 16 + 28
17 + 9 28 + 16

47 + 36 a + b I

36 + 47 b+а | a + b=b+a
Page 49, problem 199: Relationships. This problem is an early introduction of the notion that a variable
can vary (the origin of the word variable).

а 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

с 7 12 19 26 34 41 48

а-с

Does the minuend vary? How does the subtrahend vary? How does the
difference vary?

Page 54, problem 226: Relationships and generalized patterns. The same kinds of questions that w
asked with addition and subtraction are asked with multiplication and division.

a b a* b b' а

6 2

_8_j4

^_3

Page 57, problem 243: U

symbol, : .

Calculate the products:

7*2 = 8*3= 9*2 = 10*3=
14:7= 24:8= 18:9= 30:10 =
14:2= 24:3= 18:2= 30:3 =

How is the first factor obtained? How is the second factor obtained?

REßRUfiRV 1 997 ^^^^^^^^^^^1

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 Page 58, problem 249: Unknowns

x-2 = 6 5-a=10
3-0 = 9 /c-3 = 6

Page 71, problem 319: Generalized patterns. From these questions, the ch
that к • 1 = 1 • к = к for all numbers k.

7-1 32 -(48 -47) (70 -69) -14

89 • 1 (61 - 24) • 1 27 • (30 - 29)
1-83 1 • к
27-1 к • 1

Page 80, additional exercise 19: Placeholders. Periodically

in order are bunches of other review questions. The follo

Write the mathematical expressions:

(1) the sum of the numbers 7 and 8, 15 a
(2) the difference of the numbers 24 and 5
(3) the product of the number 15 and 3, b
(4) the quotient of the numbers 6 and 2, a
(5) subtract the number с from the sum o
(6) subtract the sum of the numbers a and

Page 103, problem 417: Generalized patterns

(1)5 girls and 7 boys were playing in the y

teams for a volleyball game. How many c
team?
(2) Make up a similar problem based on the equation x = (12 + 16) : 4.

Page 155, problem 596: Relationships. Multiplication by multiples of 10 is dealt with through patterning.

1 b I 0 I 1 I 2 I 3 I 4 IT"
20 -b

l с I 3 I 2 h lo
с -30

I Page 158, problem 617: Unknowns. Here part of an example is given and the student is expected to fin
I ish it and then later do complete examples.

Solve the equation (1 2 - x) + 1 0 = 1 8.

Explanation: Here, the second term (10) and the sum (18) are known, but
the first term is unknown.
Let us find what the first term equals:
12-x=18-10
Finish solving the problem.

^^^^^^^^^^^^B T6FICHING CHILDREN MfìTHÉMfìTICS

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Page 215, problem 872: Unknowns. Symbols for inequality are present from the previous year. This ques- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^|
tion shows how inequality is related to equality. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^|
Fill in the box so that the equalities and inequalities are tru
80 : 4 > 80 : Q 84 : 4 = 80 : 4 + Q ^
75:25<75:Q 72:3 = 60:3 + Q ^^^^^^^H
Page 238, problems 960 and 961: Unknowns. Very gradually the complexity of the problems has ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
increased. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B
960. 90 kg of tomatoes packe
stalls to be sold. 10 boxes w
of tomatoes were d
961 . Make up a problem ba
13*6 + x=94 ^^^^^^^^|
Page 275: problem 1117: Unknowns and placeholders ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
90 • a < 720; 80 : b > 1 0. From the values of the letter[s] a and b given in ^
the table, select those which make the inequalities true. ^^

a 0 1

b 8 10

Russian Grodc-3 Mathematics ^^^^^^^H

(United Slciles Grade 4), 283 Pages ^^^^^H
This book also starts where the previous book left off. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
Page 32, problem 126: Unknowns. This question immediately follows three examples. ^^^^^^^^^

Solve the following equations: ^^^^^^^^^^|

70:/c+18 = 23 28-x=7-12 ^^^^^^^^1
5 «x- 46 = 54 80-x=94:2 ^^^^^^^^H
Page 37, problem 147: Relationships, unknowns, and generalized patterns. This very rich qu
involves three different uses of variables simultaneously. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
Explain how the equations have been made up for each of the problems: ^^^^^^^^
(1) On one side of a balance scale there is a 500-g weight, and on the other ^^^^^^^^^
a 350-g bag of sugar. How could the scale be balanced? ^^^^^^^^^
350 + x = 500 500 - x = 350 ^^^^^^^^|
(2) On one side of a balance there is a jar of honey, and on the other a 1 -kg ^^^^^^^^^^H
weight. The scales are balanced. How much does the honey weigh if the ^^^^^^^^^^H
jar weighs 300 g? ^^^^^^^^^H
300 + x = 1 ,000 1 ,000
1 ,000 - 300 = x ^^^^^^^^Ш
(3) Look at the picture. Using the information in the pict
and figure out how much the melo

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 M If ш ц

Page 49, problem 183: Unknowns. There is no new algebraic idea h

the problem is clearly an arithmetic problem, not an algebraic one.

Solve the following equations:

a - 3,486 = 52,972 с + 4,835 = 7,283
80,451 - x= 9,146 12,407 + x= 61,548

Page 78, additional exercise 17: Generalized patterns. I have chosen the second of the three
this exercise.

Solve the problems, making up expressions for them:

(2) There were a meters of cloth in a store. One week, b meters were sold,
and at the end of the week another 380 m of cloth arrived. How many
j meters of cloth were there in the store at the end of the week? Solve the
problem for a = 540 and b = 370.

Page 82, problems 302 and 303: Formulas. These are the first instances of formulas in the series. On the next
two pages of the books, the two equivalent formulas s = v • t and t = s : v are found in similar questions.

302. At what speed is a person walking if we know that in 3 hr. he covers 12

km, walking the same distance each hour?

Speed Time Distance

? 3hr. 12 km

303. (1) Make up two problems in whi

when we know the distance and t
velocities for various types of mo
(2) How can we find a velocity if w
travel? The velocity is equal to the
may be written as a formula:
v=s:t

where the letter »/denotes the velocity, s is di

Page 94, problem 359: Generalized patterns and unknowns. The und
it is particularly important

A grandmother bought 3 skeins of white wool for

blue wool at the same price. How much did the bl
may be solved thus: 15 : 3 • 6 = 30 (rubles). But th
solved by an equation. We denote by the letter x
Then: x : 6 (rubles) is the price of the blue wool; 1
of the white wool. Since the price of the white an
x : 6 = 1 5 : 3. Solve the equation.

^^^^^^^^^^^^H T6RCHING CHILDREN MfìTH€MfìTIC5

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Page 132, special feature: Placeholders. On this page, the book departs from its usual form to include a
section titled "Games" for the first time.

Games: Thinking Up and Guessing Numbers

(1) Write any number less than 10 (but not zero).
Multiply it by 5.
Increase the product 2 times.
Add 14 to the result.
Subtract 8 from the sum.
Cross out the first digit of the result.
Multiply the remaining number by 7 and divide by 2.
You have obtained 21 . (Why?)
The easiest explanation is algebraic: x • 5 • 2 + 14 - 8 = IOjc + 6. Crossing out the first digit leaves 6,
regardless of the value of x; (6 • 1)12 = 21.

Page 160, problem 605: Relationships

Complete the tables:

b 1 4 1 4T4I I a I 2 [lofio
с 3 6 18 Ь 5 5 5

b'C a<b

How does a product change if

and the other left unchanged
times?

Page 199, additional exercise 13: Unkno

sides of the equals sign.

For what values of the letter

1
36*Ь=Ь 10*с=10 12*a = a*12
a • a = a 49 • a = 0 Ь + Ь = Ь + 6
c+c=c b*0=0 2»c=c+5

Page 262, problem 977: Placeholders

Suppose we are given a number c. Designate the n

immediately follows the number c;the number wh
the number c.

texts, but along with the review comes the intro-

It Con ße Tought?
duction of more complex questions utilizing the
Con ¡I ßc Learned? same concept.
Questions can be in a book without the expectation The careful sequencing of the algebra ideas,
that students will learn to do them. Indeed it is which gives the impression of going up a ramp
common for elementary school textbook series invery slowly but steadily, is a striking feature of the
North America to identify a concept as beingmaterials. When we went through these materials,
"introduced" in some grade, "mastered" in some our impression was that the increase in difficulty of
later grade or grades, and then "reviewed" still the questions was so slight from one day to the
later. This "spiral curriculum" gives the messagenext that very few students would be lost. But we
also felt that for many primary school teachers,
that mastery is not expected in the year of intro-
duction. The same seems to be true of the Soviet materials like these would present formidable chai-

F€6ñUññv 1 997 ^^^^^^^H^Q9

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 lenges for the reasons mentioned at the beginning
of this article: fear of algebra coupled with the
Implications
The reality in the United States and Canada is not
view that primary-age students cannot learn this
the same as the reality of the former Soviet Union.
material.
In our countries, teachers have far more freedom,
Another striking feature of the materials is that
resulting in more diverse curricula at all grade lev-
the algebra supports the arithmetic at every junc-
els. Our system is not as pressured, because col-
ture; it is not separated from it. In fact, by explicit-
lege is open to almost anyone who has the desire,
ly dealing with such generalizations as a • b = whereas in the former Soviet Union one had to
b • a, with relationships in tables, and with trans-
pass tough examinations to be eligible, and it was
lating from the written native language into math-
perceived that preparation for these examinations
ematics, the student learns concepts underlying
must begin early in the elementary school. In most
the arithmetic that would be difficult to describe
places, we have a "keep everyone in the pool"
without algebra.
rather than a "sink or swim" philosophy. So it is
By the time a student left the Soviet third grade, not obvious that a school in North America could
equivalent to our fourth grade, that student had
teach a significant amount of algebra in grades
encountered more algebra than many, if not most,
K-4, even if the desire was present, because some
students in North America have encountered after
teachers, students, and parents might rebel.
a basal series grade 8.
My experience as a researcher and curriculum
Furthermore, the student had seen variables in
developer has yielded hard data to support that if a
all their basic manifestations: as unknowns, in for-
К -6 curriculum is strengthened to correspond to
mulas, to generalize patterns, as placeholders, and
what is offered in the former Soviet Union, a sig-
to describe relationships. Three years later - at
nificant number of students are ready to succeed in
age 12 - the Soviet student studied algebra as a
algebra in grade 7. But this outcome occurs only if
separate subject for the first time. It is not difficult
algebra is perceived by teachers and students in
to understand, therefore, why every student in the
grades K-6 as being important to learn, if time is
former Soviet Union took algebra at an age at
made available and dedicated to its study, and if
which only a small percent of students in the
every teacher builds on the work of previous years
United States and Canada currently take it.
rather than starts from scratch or spends all the
time in review.
Basal textbook series that provide this founda-
tional material for elementary school students are
¿r Plan Nowin the
to Participate now available on the commercial market in this
country. It is our concern that because some teach-
:.¿&0F* World's Largest Math Event Ш ers, students, and parents still view this mathemat-
ics as beyond the reach of most students, the
Пк'Пк1- Mathematics: The Language of the I'niverse
change that is possible might not be realized. The
!)ak- nfWLMI- III- 3') April ПТ
only question now is whether teachers, administra-
• K-12 students and teachers throughout the tors, and parents will embrace these ideas and
world will celebrate mathematics on 30 April materials as being appropriate and necessary for
1997 by participating in a math-related activity. the students being served.

• You can help make this event a success by

involving your students. Choose one or two Bibliography
activities to challenge your students and explore Moro, M. I., and M. A. Bantova. Russian Grade 2 Mathematics.

them on WLME day. Trans, by Robert H. Silverman. Chicago: University of

• Details on how to participate are with the
February 1997 NCTM News Bulletin.
• WLME III is the climax of Mathematics Education
Chicago School Mathematics Project, 1992.
Moro, M. L, M. A. Bantova, and G. V. Beltyukova. Russian
Grade I Mathematics. Trans, by Robert H. Silverman.
Chicago: University of Chicago School Mathematics Project,
1992.

Month, which is celebrated in the U.S. and
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/TfT^ 1 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF MATHEMATICS
f/j'' /TfT^ 1906 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191-1593
1 у^Л/Ф^ ) (703) 620'9840 # fax (703) 476"2970
1 Y^^r^y nctmenctm.org • http://www.nctm.org
rslCTIS/ll Fax on Demand (800) 220-8483
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Silverman. Chicago: University of Chicago School
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