PROJECT REPORT
ON
“ENERGY SCAVENGING FROM
VIBRATIONS”
ABSTRACT
The process of acquiring the energy surrounding a system and converting it
into usable electrical energy is termed as power harvesting ,With
piezoelectric materials ,it is possible to harvest from vibrating system .It
has been proven that micro to mill watts of power can be generated from
vibrating systems .
Contents
1. Introduction
1.1 Distributed Wireless Sensor Network
1.2 Power generation Sources
2. Objective
2.1 Background
2.2 Mechanical Vibrating System Design and Construction
2.3 Battery Charging Circuitry
3. Methodology
3.1 Vibration Energy Harvesting
3.2 Vibration Powered Generator
3.2.1 Electrostatic
3.2.2 Electromagnetic
3.2.3 Piezoelectric
3.3 Piezoelectric Generator Power
3
4.3.3 Application
4.4 Piezo-Electric Sensors
4.4.1 Principle of Operation
4.4.2 Electrical Properties
4.4.3 Sensor Design
4.4.4 Sensing Material
4.5 Piezoelectric Buzzer
4.6 Super Capacitor
4.7 Zener Diode
4.8 Full Wave Rectifier
4.9 Charging Circuit
4.10 Micro Power Module
5. Result and discussion
5.1 The Future of Power Harvesting
5.2 Current Scenario
5.3 Scope
5.4 Energy Harvesting Application
6. Conclusion
6.1 Contribution from Project
6.2 Recommendation
7. References
5
6
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
8. Piezoelectricity 33
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Cp is the elastic constant of the piezo electric cermic.
K31 is the piezo electric coupling coefficient.
W is the frequency of driving vibrations.
Wn the resonance frequency of generator.
tc is the thickness of one layer of of the piezo electric ceramic.
K2 is a geometric constant that relates average piezo electric material
strain.
€ is dielectric constant of piezo electric material.
R is the load resistance.
V is the voltage across load resistance.
Cb is the capicatance of piezoelectric bimorph.
D is the electrical charge density displacement.
ε is permittivity .
E is the electric field strength.
S is strain, s is stiffness and T is stress.
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Chapter-1
Introduction
These devices are most effective in different vibration regimes and are thus
not competing, but rather complimentary configurations. The non-resonant
energy harvester is more efficient where the input contains very low
frequency (< 10 Hz), irregular vibrations with amplitudes larger than the
device critical dimensions. Irregular vibrations are defined as inconsistent
or discontinuous motions (such as the movements of a body).
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Chapter-2
Objective
2.1 Background:
Energy harvesting or the process of acquiring energy from the surrounding
environment has been a continuous human endeavor throughout history,
e.g. the use of watermills in ancient Greece, and of sailboats by
Phoenicians and Egyptians, circa 4000 B.C. These days there is an
increasing interest to harvest energy at a much smaller scale, i.e. energy
scavenging. For applications such as the ones found in many embedded
systems the power requirements are often small (less than 100 mW).
Piezoelectric materials are great candidates for energy scavenging using
vibrations from the surrounding environment, e.g. vibrations generated by
the traffic through bridges, or the motions of people as they walk.
Piezoelectric materials become electrically polarized when subjected to
mechanical strain and the degree of polarization is proportional to the
applied strain.
Chapter-3
Methodology
In order to able to convert Vibration energy into electrical energy there has
to be a movement between the mechanical parts of the generator.
The vibrations consist of travelling waves and it is often not possible to
find a relative movement within the reach of a small generator.
The most common approach to couple the mechanical movement to the
generator is to an inertial system, having a spring connected to the
Vibrating frame and a mass suspended by the spring (Fig 1).
This way, the motion of the mass with respect to the frame can be
converted to power by the electromechanical generator. The generated
power will be delivered to an external load.
1. Electrostatic
2. Electromagnetic
3. Piezoelectric
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3.2.1. Electrostatic
I = dQ/dt = d(C(z)V)/dt
3.2.2. Electromagnetic
3.3.3.Piezoelectric
This type of scavenger makes use of the fact that a piezoelectric material
generates an electric field when it is stressed mechanically.This electric
field is related to stress by the materials “g” coefficients, whose units are
[V/m]/[ N/m2].
The first is to modify the cantilever geometry to produce more strain. This
can be accomplished by making a cantilever beam which is longer and
narrower or by increasing the proof mass. But because of the brittle nature
of piezoelectric ceramics, too much strain will damage them.
Second approach is to increase the width/thickness of the piezoelectric
material, but this stiffens the beam, reducing overall strain and increasing
resonant frequency. Most biomedical applications target frequencies in the
10s of Hz, so a low resonant frequency is essential.
The third approach seems to be the most viable: tuning the resonant
frequency of the device to match the frequency of excitation. In cases
where the excitation frequency changes (which is true in most practical
applications— particularly biomedical), this calls for either wide-
bandwidth designs which are optimized for a wider range of frequencies or
adaptive self-tuning mechanisms which can detect excitation frequencies
and adjust the cantilever’s resonant frequency to match. The only practical
wide-bandwidth design approach involves multiple cantilevers with
different resonant frequencies. The obvious problem with this approach is
that it increases size and decreases the power-to-volume ratio. Since size is
of utmost importance in a biomedical application, we are left with adaptive
Self tuning. There are two methods of self tuning, which Roundy calls
“active” and “passive”. Active tuning mechanisms run continuously to
match the cantilever’s resonant frequency to the excitation frequency.
Electronic springs are an example. Passive tuning mechanisms tune the
cantilever and then turn off. In other words, no power is required to
maintain the desired resonant frequency once it has been set. An example
would be a variable/moveable proof mass or a mechanism that adjusts the
length of the beam. It has been mathematically shown that active tuning
mechanisms will never be practical because the power gains they provide
will never be enough to offset the power they require to operate .
Therefore, passive tuning is the only viable approach.
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where [d] is the matrix for the direct piezoelectric effect and [dt] is the
matrix for the converse piezoelectric effect. The superscript E indicates a
zero, or constant, electric field; the superscript T indicates a zero, or
constant, stress field; and the subscript t stands for transposition of a
matrix.
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3.10 Materials
Chapter-4
Details of Project report work
4.1 Background
Any vibration based energy harvester can be primarily divided into three
parts. The first part consists of the power generator module which converts
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4.3.1.1 Silicon
4.3.1.2 Polymers
Even though the electronics industry provides an economy of scale for the
silicon industry, crystalline silicon is still a complex and relatively
expensive material to produce. Polymers on the other hand can be produced
in huge volumes, with a great variety of material characteristics. MEMS
devices can be made from polymers by processes such as injection
molding, embossing or stereo lithography and are especially well suited to
micro fluidic applications such as disposable blood testing cartridges.
4.3.1.3 Metals
Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements. While metals do not
have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical
properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high
degrees of reliability.
Both bulk and surface silicon micromachining are used in the industrial
production of sensors, ink-jet nozzles, and other devices. But in many cases
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4.3.3 Applications
Sensor
Actuator
Structure
Silicon pressure sensors e.g., car tire pressure sensors, and disposable blood
pressure sensors
Fig 8 : Piezoelectricity
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1. Transverse Effect
A force is applied along a neutral axis (y) and the charges are generated
along the (x) direction, perpendicular to the line of force. The amount of
charge depends on the geometrical dimensions of the respective
piezoelectric element. When dimensions a,b,c apply,
Cx = dxyFyb / a,
where a is the dimension in line with the neutral axis, b is in line with the
charge generating axis and d is the corresponding piezoelectric coefficient
2. Longitudinal Effect
The amount of charge produced is strictly proportional to the applied force
and is independent of size and shape of the piezoelectric element. Using
several elements that are mechanically in series and electrically in parallel
is the only way to increase the charge output. The resulting charge is
Cx = dxxFxn,
where dxx is the piezoelectric coefficient for a charge in x-direction
released by forces applied along x-direction (in pC/N). Fx is the applied
Force in x-direction [N] and n corresponds to the number of stacked
elements .
3. Shear Effect
Again, the charges produced are strictly proportional to the applied forces
and are independent of the element’s size and shape. For n elements
mechanically in series and electrically in parallel the charge is
Cx = 2dxxFxn.
In contrast to the longitudinal and shear effects, the transverse effect opens
the possibility to fine-tune sensitivity on the force applied and the element
dimension.
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1.Piezoelectric ceramics
2.Single crystal materials
A Piezo buzzer is made from two conductors that are separated by Piezo
crystals. When a voltage is applied to these crystals, they push on one
conductor and pull on the other. The result of this push and pull is a sound
wave. These buzzers can be used for many things, like signaling when a
period of time is up or making a sound when a particular button has been
pushed. The process can also be reversed to use as a guitar pickup. When a
sound wave is passed, they create an electric signal that is passed on to an
audio amplifier.
In this project a vibrating Module interact with the Piezo buzzer and it
convert Mechanical Vibrations into Electricity.
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Electrical Specifications:
• Sound Pressure Level: 97dB min. / 30cm / 9VDC
• Oscillating Frequency: abt. 2.9 or 3.05KHz / 9VDC
• Current Consumption: 20mA max. / 9VDC
• Operating Voltage: 5 to 20VDC.
Mechancial Specifications:
• Operating Temperature: -20°C to +70°C
• Storage Temperature: -40°C to +85°C
Materials:
• Case: PC (UL 94V-2)
• Lead Wire: UL 1007 26AWG
• Weight: 15.0 gms
• Tone: Dual
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The time signal shows the voltage output when the piezo device is
subjected to motion with a vibrator built by the instructors. The frequency
signal (the spectrum) shows the frequency components or content of the
time signal.
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organic and aqueous electrolytes are commercialized and used in day to-
day applications.
There are two main types of double layer capacitors as classified by the
charge storage mechanism:
(1) Electrical double-layer capacitor
(2) Electrochemical double layer capacitor or super/pseudo-capacitor
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the
forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if
the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee
voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after Clarence Zener,
who discovered this electrical property.
A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is
reverse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias
breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high
current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by
circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged due to overheating. In
case of large forward bias (current in the direction of the arrow), the diode
exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-in voltage and internal
resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor
material and the doping concentrations.
A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is
specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the
so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a
reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow
the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode close to the Zener
breakdown voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage
of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide
range of reverse currents. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for
applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an
amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.
Energy generated from the piezo buzzer is A.C.But for the Charging of
battery we need DC energy.So a Diode bridge is used to convert DC from
AC.
Chapter-5
The goal of this project was to build an energy harvesting device that
would charge a battery over a period of a half hour. We realized that our
design would both have to produce a charge and hold together for a half
hour while getting vibrated the whole time
Different voltages are given to Vibrating structure to change the Vibrating
Frequency. Once we found out which voltage did best with both of our
designs, it was time to see which of the two would charge the battery best.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time(Min)
The graphs below show the data points of the battery’s charge every 5
minutes till we reached the half hour mark
.
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The idea of carrying electronic devices such as a portable radio and never
worrying about when the batteries will need to be replaced could be far
closer than one would think. This thought has caused the desire for self
powered electronics to grow quickly, leaving only one limitation before
these devices can become a reality.
The one issue that still needs to be resolved is a method to generate
sufficient energy to power the necessary electronics. However, with the
advances in power harvesting that have been outlined in this paper the
ability to obtain and accumulate the necessary amount of energy to power
such devices is clearly possible. The major limitations facing researchers in
the field of power harvesting revolve around the fact that the power
generated by piezoelectric materials is far too small to power most
electronics. Therefore, methods of increasing the amount of energy
generated by the power harvesting device or developing new and
innovative methods of accumulating the energy are the key technologies
that will allow power harvesting to become a source of power for portable
electronics and wireless sensors. One recent advance that shows great
promise for power harvesting is the use of rechargeable batteries as a
means of accumulating the energy generated during power harvesting.
Much of the early research into power harvesting looked to the capacitor as
a method of storing energy and powering electronics. However, the
capacitor has poor power storage characteristics due to its quick discharge
time, causing the electrical output of such circuitry to switch on and off as
the capacitor charges and discharges. This aspect of the capacitor is not
suitable for powering computational electronics. However, the
rechargeable battery can be charged and then used to run any number of
electronic devices for an extended period of time while being continuously
charged by ambient motion. Innovations in power storage such as the use
of rechargeable batteries with piezoelectric materials must be discovered
before power harvesting technology will see widespread use.
Furthermore, the efficiency of the power harvesting circuitry must be
maximized to allow the full amount of energy generated to be transferred to
the storage medium. The continuous advances that are being made in low
power electronics must be studied and utilized to both optimize power flow
from the piezoelectric and minimize circuit losses. Gains in this area are a
necessity for the successful use of piezoelectric materials as power
harvesting devices.
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Commercial Organizations:-
Perpetuum Ltd.
Perpetuum is a world-leading vibration energy harvesting company funded
in 2004.The products use electromagnetic energy harvesting techniques
offering a good combination of simplicity ,low cost and reliable operation.
Examples include installation at shell gas plant in Norway.
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WEB : www.perpetuum.com
5.3 Scope
Energy harvesting technologies such as piezoelectric, thermoelectric and
others will have potential applications in wireless sensor networks and low-
power devices. Although micro-level energy harvesting technologies are
very new compared to batteries, they can initially be used to recharge
batteries and gradually replace them as self-sufficient devices, By replacing
batteries, these devices eliminate toxic waste from disposed batteries and
provide the perfect solution to many countries that are implementing
stringent rules to monitor power consumption and environmental waste."
As energy harvesting technologies harness ambient and renewable sources
of energy, growing awareness among consumers to use environmental
friendly technology further strengthens demand. Low output power and
below-par efficiency of energy harvesting systems currently limit the
application scope of energy harvesting technology. It faces difficulty in
penetrating the market as it is still in the early prototyping or early
commercialization stage, as opposed to battery technology, which is well
established. Along with developments in materials and control electronics,
researchers and manufacturers concentrate their efforts on the exploration
of various kinds of energy sources and improve the performance
characteristics. Starting with low-power sensor applications, they can be
gradually used to power portable devices and utilized in buildings for
lighting and temperature control. Additionally, improvements in energy
harvesting technologies would allow these devices to provide reliable and
constant power for industrial, automotive, aerospace, defense and medical
applications. Although the future looks promising for these emerging eco-
friendly energy harvesting technologies, their acceptance in the market
depends on many factors such as performance metrics, consumer
awareness of harnessing ambient energy, funding for R&D and
collaboration between manufacturers and technology developers. Energy
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Chapter-6
Conclusion
There is little doubt that the field of vibration energy harvesting continues
to expand apace. With the predicted proliferation of wireless sensor
networks, an alternative (or at least complementary) approach to battery
power is required. If there are sufficient ambient vibrations available, then
it is possible to generate an electrical supply by using a micro-generator to
harvest the mechanical excitation. There are three main approaches that can
be used to implement a vibration-powered generator. Each of the
technologies described in this review has their own advantages and
disadvantages and these are now summarized.
Piezoelectric Generator
These offer the simplest approach, whereby structural vibrations are
directly converted into a voltage output by using an electrode piezoelectric
material. There is no requirement for having complex geometries and
numerous additional components. Piezoelectric generators are the simplest
type of generator to fabricate and can be used in force and impact coupled
harvesting applications. There is a wide range of piezoelectric materials
available for different application environments. One major advantage is
that this transduction principle is particularly well suited to micro
engineering, since several processes exist for depositing piezoelectric films
(thin and thick). The piezoelectric method is capable of producing
relatively high output voltages but only at low electrical currents.
The piezoelectric materials are required to be strained directly and
therefore their mechanical properties will limit overall performance and
lifetime. Also the transduction efficiency is ultimately limited by
piezoelectric properties of materials employed. The output impedance of
piezoelectric generators is typically very high (>100 k).
Electromagnetic Generator
These offer a well-established technique of electrical power generation and
the effect has been used for many years in a variety of electrical generators.
There is a wide variety of spring/mass configurations that can be used with
various types of material that arewell suited and proven in cyclically
stressed applications. Comparatively high output current levels are
57
Electro-Static Generator
Ambient vibration sources were measured and it was found that vibration
levels Suitable for harvesting exist in the frequency range below 300 Hz. A
simple dissipative model was developed to interpret the vibration spectra.
Based on the dominant damping terms of the structure, optimal input
vibration frequencies(operating points) are identified (for maximum power
harvesting), to which the resonant energy harvester resonance frequencies
are aligned. Damping dependency on frequency is carefully considered.
The selected operating point will depend on the device size (micro- vs.
macro scale) and the operating environment (e.g., vacuum or atmospheric),
since the dominant damping components differ for these conditions.
Only piezoelectric material properties that affect the maximum power
generated are the elastic stiffness and density. Since these properties vary
little for typical piezoelectric ceramics, the choice of material will have
little affect on the maximum power extracted. Furthermore, the
piezoelectric mode of operation has negligible effect on the maximum
power extracted. However, the electrical response (voltage and current) is
dependent on the piezoelectric coupling. The piezoelectric material choice
and mode of operation will have a significant effect on the voltage/current
performance and need to be considered once application-specific electrical
requirements are imposed.
6.2 Recommendations
Low-level, low-frequency vibrations in the ambient have been targeted for
harvesting in this project. The resonant frequencies of the harvester need to
be aligned to this low frequency. High quality factors are achievable with
MEMS resonators. However, for high quality factors, very narrow response
peaks are obtained, which need to be aligned with the dominant frequency
component of the vibration source. Given the variability of ambient sources
and micro fabrication processes, it is likely desirable to incorporate a
frequency-tuning mechanism into the harvester design.
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This Project has focused on the design and modeling of a single harvester,
which is a component of the power sub-system of the wireless node. The
next step is to implement the harvester design with the rest of the power
sub-system, consisting of conditioning circuitry and a storage device
(battery), among others.
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Chapter-7
References
11.Roundy, S.; Leland, E.S.; Baker, J.; Carleton, E.; Reilly, E.; Lai, E.;
Otis, B.;
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13.“Electret” http://www.wikipedia.org/Electret
14. S. Roundy, P. Wright, J. Rabaey. “Energy Scavenging for Wirelss
Sensor Networks: with Special Focus on Vibrations”.