Formulae and Definitions in Mathematics

Formulae and Definitions in Engineering Mathematics
......
1) Trigonometric Formulae
a) Trigonometric Formulae
1) sin 2 A +cos 2 A 1
2) sec2 A 1+tan 2 A
3) cosec 2 A 1+cot2 A
4) sin( A± B) ·= sin A cos B± cos A sin B
5) cos(A± B) cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tan A± tan B
6) tan(A± B)
1+ tan A· tan B
7) sin Q+sin D
. C+ D
2 scos-
c-.rr·· ..
2-
.
C+D . C-D
8) sinC-sin D 2 COSSill -----=2
C+D C-D
9) cos C+cos D· 2 cos
- 2- cos- 2- .
10) cosC-co. s,D

I.
s2n. C+D . C-D 2 -
Sill -
11) '2 sin A cos B

<
: (+_ )+sin( A -B) .,.
/ - !
sinAsinB = cos(A -B )-cos(A j- B)

--·-- ··
13) 2 cos A cos B = cos(,k-'='BrFcos(A +B)
. A A _ 2 tan A·
14) sin 2A 2 Sill cos - 1+tan 2 A
•- ·I -,-- 1 2A
15) cos 2A cos2 A....:sin 2 A=2cosiA-1=1-2 sin2 A= -tan 2
· · 1+tan A
2tanA
16) tan 2A
l-tan 2 A
17) sin 3A 3 sin A -4 sin 3A
18) cos 3A = 4 cos 3 A -3 cos A

3tanA-tan3 A . A .
19) tan 3A = ..1.
\. ,tl& t
· -
f!
(1)
)
Engineering Mathematics 2 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
1-cos2x
JA(_ sin 2 x = .,
1
c:
l+cos2x
21) cos2 X: • 02
22) sin -lx + cos- 1x = rt/2

. 23) tan-1x+cOt-1x = nj 2
'
24) cosec-1x+sec -1x = rt/2
"
b) Allied Angles Formulae
Angle - n/2-e n/2+9 n-e 1t+9 2n-e 2n n+ e
sin. ;-sine cos e cose sine -sin e - sine sine
cos cos 8 sine -sine -cos e -cos e C0!=9 cose
tan -tan 9 cote -cote -tan e tan e -tan e tan e
c) Sine Formulae
a b c
1) --=--=2R
sin A sin B sinC
d) Cosine Formulae
b2 +c2 -a2 B
1) cos A
2bc
c2 +a2 -b2 A C
2) cos B
2ca
a2 +b2 -c2
3) cos c =
2ab
e) Projection Formulae
If a, b, care sides of triangle and A, B, Care angles
1) a bcosC+ccosB
2) b = ccosA+acosC
3) c acosB+bcosA
2) Logarithm
1) If ax = N then loga N = x, a *1
2) loga a = 1 log 1 = 0 log e = 1
log oo = oo logO=-oo
3) log (mn) log m +log n
4)
log( ) = log m -log n
1
5) i) loga b = Iogb a
loge a
ii) Iogb a =
loge b
6) log e(any number) = any number
3) Differential Calculus
a) Limits
sinO lim tan9 lim _a_ =
1) lim-= lim =1 2) = 1
9 0 9 9 o sm9 00 . 9 9-.0 tan 9
xn -an . ax -1
3) lim = nan-1 4) lim-- · = log a
x· 0 x-a X 0 X
5) lim ex -1 = 1 6) lim (1+xi 1x = e

X 0 X X-> 0
7) . lim =O (p > 0) sj lim (1+J =ex

x xP n
n---+ co _
b) Derivatives
d d
1) -sinx
dx · = COS, X 2) -cosx = -sin x
dx
d d
3) dxtanx = sec2 x. 4) dx Cot X = - cosec2 x
d
5) sec x---== sec x tan x 6) dx cosec x = - cosec x cot x
d 1
7) dx logx =
X
8) xn = nxn-1
d X d X
9) dxe = ex 10) dxa = ax log a
n [f(x)Jn·- 1 -f'(x) 12) dv du

11) :x[f(x)]n = u-+v-
dx dx
du dv
d u v--u-
13) dxv = dx dx dw dv du
v2 14) uv-+ uw-+ vw--
dx dx dx
d du ds .
15) -u = -·- (Chain Rule)
dx ds dx
c) Derivatives of Inverse Functions

1 d 1
1) sin-1 x = 2) dx cos- 1 x =
dx .J1-x2 .J1-x2
d . 1 d 1
3) -tan -:-·1 x = 4) dx cot- 1 x = -- -
dx · . 1+x2 1+x2
d 1
5) sec-1 x = 1 6) -cosec-1 x
dx x.Jxz -1 dx x.Jx 2 -1
4) Integration Formulae
a) Integration Formulae
xn+1 1
1) J xn dx = n+ 1 + c(n:t -1) 2) f -dx = log x + c
X
ax
3) J e dx = e 4) f ax dx =
log a
5) f log X dx = X log X - X 6) f sin x dx = - COS X
7) Jcosxdx sinx 8) f tan x dx = log sec x
9) J cot x dx = log sin x 10)

f sec 2 x dx = tan x
11) J cosec 2 x dx = - cot x 12)

f secxtanxdx = sec x
13) J cosec x cot x dx = - cosec x 14) J sec x dx = log (sec x + tan- )

'.
15) J cosec x dx = log (cosec x - cot x) 16)
1
17)
J dx = log(x+.Jx 2 -a 2 ) 18)
.Jx2 -a 2
20) J -a2 dx = 2a log x+

x2 1 +aa
\ - I
21) 1· tan- 1 -
-
a
(X
. a
)
. 22)
23)
24) J .J x. n+a
2 2 dx
-
Engineering Mathematics 5 Formulae & Definitions In Mathematics
f'(x)
25) J ex [f(x) + f'(x)]dx = ex f(x) 26) J f (x) dx = log f(x)
[f(x)f+l .
27) J fdx = 2f (x) 28) J [f(x)f f'(x)dx,;, n+l
-vf(x)
29) J ef(x)f'(x) dx = ef(x)
30) J eax cos bx·dx = eaxb .(a cos bx + b sin bx) = eax cos[bx-tan - ( b )]
·
2
a + .2 .Ja 2 + b2 a
31) J eaxsin bx·dx eaxb (asinbx -bcosbx) = eax sin[ bx-tan ( b )]

-
a2 + 2
.J a 2 + b2 . a
32) J u ·v·dx = u J v dx -J [J v dx dxJ

33) J uvdx u v1 -u'vz+u"v3 _
dashes Derivatives and suffices = Integration
b) Definite Integrals
b b b a
1) J f(x) dx = f f(t) dt 2) J f(x) dx -J f(x) dx
a a a b
a a b ·c b
3) J f(x) dx Jf(a-x)dx 4) J f(x) dx = J f(x) dx+ J f(x) dx, a <c <b
0 0 a a c
2a a if f(x) is even
l2Ja f(x) dx
5) J f(x) dx = J [f(x) + f (2a -·x)]dx 6)
a
f f(x) dx
.
= 0
•
0 0 -a 0 if f(x) is odd
5) Pascal's Triangle
Pascal's triangle gives the.coefficients of the terms in the expansion of (a+ b t
0
(a+b) : 1
1
(a+b) : 1 1
(a+b)2 : 1 2 1
(a+b) 3 : 1 3 3 1
Engineering Mathematics 6 Formulae & Defiflitions in M_athematics
1 4 6 41
• Binomial theorem
n(n -1)
= a" +na"-1b+---an-2b2 +.....+b"
2
6) Complex Numbers
a) Definition
A number of the form z = x + iy, where x and y are real numbers and i =H is
called complex number.
If z = x + iy is a complex number then x is called real part of z and is denoted by
Re (z) and y is called imaginary part of z and is denoted by Im (z).
If Re (z) = 0 then z = iy is called purely imaginary number.
If Irn (z) = 0 then z = xis called purely real number.
b) Demoivre's Theorem
Let 0 E (2 and n E Q
(cos8+isinet cos n8+ i sin ne
c) Euler's Formulae
1) eix COS X+ isin X
2) COS X-i sin X
3) COS X
4) sin x
2i
d) Logarithms of Complex Numbers

1) log(x+i y) logx 2
+ y2 + {2 n1t+tan -l I)
2) log(x +iy) = logx 2 +y 2 + ita,_-1 I
X
e) Hyperbolic Functions
ex ;-e-x
1) cosh x = 2) sinh x =
2 2
3) sin (ix) = i sinh x 4) sinh (ix) = i sin x

5) cos (ix) = cosh x 6) cosh (ix) = COS X
7) tan (ix) =itanhx 8) tanh (ix) itanx
9) cot (ix) = - i coth x 10) coth (ix) = ..,-icotx
11) sec (ix) sech X 12) sech (ix) = sec x
13) cosec (ix) = - i cosech x 14) cosec (ix) = - i cosec x
f) Osborn's Rule
This rule is useful for finding hyperbolic formulae by using trigonometric formulae.
In any trigonometric formula, replace the trigonometric function by hyperbolic function
and change the sign of the term involving product of two sines.
1) cosh 2 x.-8inh 2 x 1
2) 1-tanh2 x sech 2 x
3) cosh 2x :::: cosh 2 x+ sinh 2 x
4) sir.h 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
5) sinh(x± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y

6) cosh(x± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
g) Inverse Hyperbolic Function

1) sinh -1x = log(x +.JXZ + l)
2) cosh- 1x = log (x+-vx 2 -1)

3) 1 1og l l+ x l
-
2 1-x
h) Derivatives - of Hyperbolic Functions

d . • 2) . .:...· cush x sinh x
1) dx Stn!l X = cosh x d:x;.
d d 2
3) -tanhx = sec h 2 x 4) dx ·-' ·v = - cosech x
..... ,,....tJ..
dx
d d
5) dx- S<>Ch
··· X - sec hx tanh x 6) -d cosech x
X
= - cosech x coth x
7) Successive Differentiation
a) Successive Differentiation
dn
1) -[a x ]
dxn = a X (lOSe ar
d n (eax ]
_ an eax
2)
dx n =
3) y = (ax+b)m, where rn is any real number
dn
-[(ax+b)m] rn(rn-1) ...(rn-n +1) an (ax+ b)m-n
dxn
4) y = (ax+ b r m' where rn is positive

11
dn [ 1 ] (-1) (rn+l)(rn+2) ...(rn+n..-1)an
dxn (ax+ b)m ' = (ax+ b)m+n
Special Cases
dn ffi I a n (iU<+ b)m-n

Case I : If rn is positive integer and rn > n -[C ax+ b)m] = · ( · •·.)
dxn rn-n !
Case II : rn = n dn [(ax+bt] = n! an
Case III: !'n [(ax+b)m] = 0 If rn is positive integer and m < n
Case IV: dn [ 1 J
(- lt n!an
dxn ax+ b = (ax+ b)n+1
dn (-lt-1 (n-1)! an
1) d,0" [log( ax+ b)] =
(ax+bf'
dn
2) -dxn [sin(bx+c)] b 11 sin(bx + c + n
2
1t)
dn
3) -d
xn
[cos(bx+c)) = bn cos( bx+c+ n
2
1t)
4) ddn [eax sin(bx+c)] = rn eax sin(bx+c+n8)
xn
dn
5) -d [eax cos(bx+c)] = rn eax cos(bx+c+n8)
xn
b
8=tan- 1 -
a
b) Leibnitz's Theorem
Let u and v be functions of x possesses nth order dervative. Then
8) Expansions of Functions
a) Taylor's Theorem .
1) f(x+h) f(x) + h f'(x) + f"(x) + f'"(x) + ...
2 3
2) f(x+h) f(h) +X f'(h)+;! f"(h) + ! f"'(h) + ...
2
3) f(x) = f(h)+(x-h) f'(h)+ (x; ) f"(h)+ ...
b) Maclaurin's Theorem
f(x) = f(O)+x f'(O) + f"(O) + ...fn(O) + ...
c) Indeterminate Forms
There are seven indeterminateforms viz. g, : , Oxoo oo-oo
I I 0° oo 0 ' 1
I
0 0
L'Hospital's rule: ,-;_; ;-
0
if lim f(x) = lim g(x) =0 or lim f(x) = lim g(x) = oo
x a x a a x a
lim f(x) lim f'(x)
Then
x a g(x) x
1
a g (X)
d) Standard Expansions
. . x2 x3 x4
1) eX = 1+X+ + 3f + 4f + ...
21
x2 x3 x4 xS
2) 1-x+ 2! - 3f + 4! - 5! + ··· .J
y
3) sin x
x2 x4 x6 .
4! - 6f + ...
4) COS X = 1- ! +
2
I
Engineering Mathematics 10 Fonnulae & Definitions in Mathematics
x3 2xs 17 7
5) tanx x+3+ 15 + 315 x + ...
x3 x5 x7
6) sinh x X+ 3f + 5! + 7f + ...
x2 x4 x6
7) cosh x = 1+ 2f + 4! + 6! + ...
8) tanh X
x 3 2 5 17 7
X -3 + 15 X - 315 X + ...
x2 x3 x4 xS
9) log (1 + x) = x-2 + 3-4+ 5-...
x2 xSx3 x4
1Q) log(l-x) = - -...
-x-2-3 4 5
. n(n -1) 2
11) (1+xt
,..
= 1+ nx + . !
2
x + ...
1
12) =1-x+x2 -x 3 + ...
1+x ·
--
l
13) = 1+x.+x2 +x3 + ...
1-x
14) Binomial expansion
.....+ "Cr xn-r a r + ....+ ncan

n!
where
r!(n-r)!
n(n+1)
15) 1+2+3 ...+n =
2
16) 12 + 22 + 32 ...+n 2-
-
n(n+1)(2n+1)
6
9) Sequences
A function whose domain is the set of natural numbers and range a set of real
numbers is called a real sequence. i.e. a order set of numbers at, a 2,•. an is called a
sequence and is denoted by {an}or (an) if the number of terms are infinite it is called
infinite sequence.
a) Bounds of a Sequence
a) Bounded above sequences
A sequence {an}is said to be bormded above if there exists a real number k such that
-an K for all n E N
b) Bounded below sequences
A sequence {an}is said to be bounded below if there exists a real number k such t.ltat
an ;::: k for all n E N
c) Bounded sequences
A sequence is said to be bormded if it is both bormded be]ow and bounded above.
f?) Limits of a Sequence

Definition
A sequence {an}is said have a limit 'l' if for each E >O, there existS a I?s tive ip.teger N
(depending on e) such that I an -11
< e,. for all n 2 N i.e. the term approach the value l as n
becomes larger and larger.
i.e. an -) l as n -) oo or lim an = l
n
c) Definition : Convergent Sequence

A- sequencer which tends to finite limit is said to converge and is called convergent
sequence.
Note:
1)·:A Iin;rit of a sequence if it exists is unique.
2)·:Every convergent sequence is bormded.
3) Every bormded sequence need not be convergent. (-1t is not convergent sequence
but it is bormded.
d)·Definition : Monotonic Seguence

1) A sequenc {an}is said to be monotorrically increasing if an an+l for all n.
2) A sequence {an}is said to be monotorrically decreasing if an ;::: a n+ t for all n.
. A sequence which is either monotorric increasing or monotorric decreasing is called
monotonic sequence.
Note:
1) A monotonic increasing sequence, and bormded ab·ove, is convetgent.
2) A monotonic decreasing sequence, and bounded below, is convergent.

3) A monotonic increasing sequence, and not bounded above, diverges to ""·
4) A monotonic decreasing sequence, and not bounded below, diverges to -oo.
e) Limits of Some Standard Sequences

1
1) lim nil = 1
n-+
11
2) lim (1+ ex for all x

noo n)
0 if -1<r <1
3) lim rn =
n---too {00 if r>1
Note: If{an}and {bn}are two convergent sequences such that
lim an == A and lim bn = B

Then
1) {an + bn}is convergent and converges to A + B.
2) Sequences {an ·bn}is convergent and converges to A·B.
3) Sequence {:} is convergent and converges to (provided B =1- o).
10) Infinite Series

If {an}be a sequence of real numbers, then a 1 +a 2 + .... an +... is called an infinite
series.
00
It is denoted by L an or simply by L an.

n= l
A sequence {Sn}; where Sn, denote the sum of first n-terms of the series ie.
Sn = at +a2 +a 3 + .... an for all n.
The sequence {Sn }is called sequence of partial sums.
00
The series L an is said to be convergent if the sequence of partial sums {Sn} is

n= l
convergent.
1) If lim Sn = finite, then L
an is said to be convergent.
n-+
2) If lim Sn -4 ± oo, then L
an is said to be divergent and diverges to ± oo.
n-+ oo
3) If lim Sn is not unique as n-4oo, then
n -+
L
an is said to be oscillatory or
non-convergent.
I
Engineering Mathematics 13 Formulae &Definitio.os.in Mathematics
Before discussing the details of convergence or divergence of an infinite series, the

following properties should be noted.
1) Convergence and divergence of an infinite series remains unaffected by the
addition or removal of finite number of terms from the series.
2) If a series in which all the terms are positive is convergent• the series remains
convergent when some or all of its terms are changed to negative.
3) If L"' an is convergent or divergent series then I"'. k an will remain respectively

n=l n=1
convergent or divergent.
Note:
Test for divergence
I£ lim an
n "'
o, then * L, an is divergent.
Tests for Convergence

a) Cauchy's Root Test
1
If L, an is a positive series such that lim (an)n = L, then the series
n"'
i) Converges if L < 1
ii) Diverges if L > 1
iii) The test fails if L = 1.
b) Comparison Test
1) If two positive term series L, Un and L, Vn such that
i) L, v n converges
ii) u n :S; v n for all values of n then L, u n also converges.
2) If two positive term series L, u n and L, v n be such that
i) L v n diverges
ii) Un Vn for all n then L, Un also diverges.
3) Limit fot:m
"' "'
If two positive term series L Un and L v n be such that lim = finite quantity
n=l n=l n "'V n
(-:t 0).
Then L u n and L, v n converge or diverge together.
i.e. If L, u n is a series which is convergent then L v n is convergent and vice a versa.
Also if L u n is divergent then L v n is divergent and vice a versa.
If lim Un = 0, test fails.
n "' Vn
Working rule to find the auxiliary series v n

n= 1
1} Find Un and note that u 0 contains the power of n only which may be positive or
nt.-gative, integral or fractionaL
nP 1
2) If Un is in the form of a kaction then we take v n = - = -- where p and q are
nq nq-p
respectively the highest indices of n in the numerator and denominator of Un·
3) If Un can be expanded in ascending powers of 1/n then we take
where l is the lowest power of .!_ in the expansion of t1n·

n
c) RatiTest D'Aiembert'Ratio Test

00
If L un
n=l
is a series of positive terms then it is convergent if lim > 1 and
noo Un+l
divergent if lim < 1.

n= Un+l
If lim = 1, the test fails and a further investigation will be required.

n = Un+ 1
d) Raabe's Test
Let L an be a series o'f positive terms and if lim

n no '(_ an+l
-1)= L.
Then, i) L an converges if L > 1

ii) L an diverges if L < 1.
And test fails if L = 1.
Note:
Raabe's test is stronger than ratio test. Nor.mally this test is us.ed if ratio test fails.
e) Cauchy's Condensation Test

If the function f(n) is positive foe- all positive integral values of n and continuously
00
decreases as n increases, then the series f ( n) is convergent or divergent according as

- n = 1'
=
L an f( an) is convergent or divergent, "a" beii1g a ·positive integer greater than unity.
n= 1
Note :This test is applied when the series involves logarithmic expressions.
f) Gauss's Test
Let f
n = 1
Un be a series of po sitive terms a nd suppose thatcan be expressed
U n+l
u\ 1;he
form= 1+ _!._ + bn, where p > 1 and bn is bounded as. n -)o o then Un converges
Un+l n nP n =1
if 1 >1 and diverges if 1 ::;;1.
g) De Morgan's Bertrand's Test

00
The series L u n of positive terms is convergent or divergent according as

n=1
n-4
lim [{n(
. Un+l
-1)-1} .
log n]> 1 or < 1.
Note : This test is to be applied when both·D'Alembert's ratio test and Raabe's test fail.
00
Alternative form : The series Lu n is convergent or divergent according as

n = 1
lim fl(n log-

n-4oo u Un+1
1)log n] 1 or > < 1.
h) Cauchy's Integral Test

00 00
Let L u = L f (n) be a positive terms where f(n) decreases as n increases and let
n=1 n=1
00
I= J f(x) dx then
1
00
i) If I is finite then L u n is convergent.

n= 1
00
il) Tf I = = then L Un is divergent.

n= 1
i) Logarithmic Test
00
The seri.'<; L of positive terms 1s convergent or divergent according as

=
Un
t
J-
n 1
lirri (n log > 1 or < 1.

n-4 oo Un + 1
Note : This test is an alternative to Raabe's test and is applied when D'Alembert's ratio
test fails and when either .
i) n occurs as an exponent in or
· lln + 1
Engineering Mathematics 16 Formulae & Definitions jn Matb matics
ii) Taking logarithm ofmakes the evaluation of limits easier.

Un+ 1
j} Alternating Series
infinite series in which the terms are alternately positive and negative is called an
alternating series.
e.g. 1-21+31-41+ .... L..J

( )n-1 1
-1 n 1.s an a lternati.ng sen.es.
= n= 1
k) Leibnitz Test (Alternating Series Test)
An infinite series 'f, (-1)"- 1

Un in which_ the terms are alternately positive and
n= 1
negative is convergent if each term of the _series is numerically less than the preceding
term and lim Un = 0.
n
I) Absolute Convergence
The series L Un which contains both the positive and negative terms is said to be
n= 1
absolutely convergent if the series L I unl is convergent.

n= 1
e.g. "L.".J u n = 1- 1 + "212 - 1 +... 1.s an abso1ute1y convergent sen.es.

2 23
m) Conditional Convergence
If the alternating series L Un is convergent but the series L I unl is divergent, then
n = l n = l
the series L Un is said to be conditionally convergent.

n = 1
e.g. "L.."J Un = 1 1 + 1 - 1 +... 1.s convergent

2 3 4
and L I u n I = 1++ ...++ ... is divergent.
Given series is conditionally convergent.
11) Matrices
a) Definition of Matrix
It is the rectangular arrangement of numbers in rows and columns.
It is denoted as A(mxn) i.e. A matrix with m rows and n columns.
Engineering Mathematics 17 Fonnulae & Definitions jn Mathematics
Note - We can calculate the value of a determinant but not of a matrix.
b) Definition of Elementary Transfonnations

1) Rij,Cii : i.e. interchange of the elements of ith row (or column) with all the
·elements of jth row (or column).
2) KRi, KCi : i.e. multiplication by a non zero scalar to every element of any row or
column. ·
3) Ri + KRi, Ci + KCi : i.e. addition to the elements of ith row (or column) by the
equimultiples of the elements of any other row (or column).
c) Definition of Rank of a Matrix

A number r greater than zero (r > 0) is said to be the rank of matrix A if
i) there exists at least one non-zero minor of order r,
ii) Every minor of order r + 1 is zero.
d) Minor of a Matrix
It is the determinant of a square submatrix of a matrix.
e) Sub Matrix
It is the matrix obtained by deleting any rows and/or columns from the original
matrix.
f) Definition of NonnalFonn
By performing elementary transformations on a matrix we can reduce it to one of the
following forms known as the normal form.
l.lr] ,_ p.r, OJ, [I0r ] ' [l0r O

0J
where,'Ir' is the identity matrix of order r, 'r' is the rank of matrix.
g) Definition of Inverse
H A is a nonsingular square matrix then their exists a trix B such that AB = BA =I •
then B =A - 1B is called as inverse of A.
12) Fourier Series

Definition : H f(x) is a periodic function with period 2n;. defined in the interval
c :s; x c + 21t and satisfies the Dirichlet's conditions then f(x) can be represented by a
series
f(x) = a;+(at cosx+bt sinx)+(a2 cos2x+bz sin2x)+ ...

ao
i.e. f(x) T + LJ (an cosnx+bn sinnx)
n=l
1c+2rr
where n f f(x) dx
c
1c+2rr
nf f(x) cos nx dx
c
&2rr
bn = !
1t
jt(x) sin nx dx
.
c
This representation of f{x) is called Fourier series and a 0 , an,bn are called the Fourier
coefficients.
Note 1 : sin- 1x cannot have a Fourier series expansion in any interval, since it is not a
single valued function.
Note 2 : tan x cannot have a Fourier series expansion in (0, 2n), since it becomes
infinite at x = nl 2
Dirichlet's conditions
i) f(x) and its integrals are finite and -single valued.

ii) f(x) has at most finite number of finite discontinuities.
iii) f(x) has at most finite number of maxima and minima.
Definition :Let f(x) be defined in (- c, c).
1) Iff(- x) = f(x), for all x in (-c, c) then f(x) is even function.
2) If f (- x) = - f(x), for all x in (- c, c) then f(x) is an odd function.
Note 1: If f(x) is even, then its graph is symmetrical about Y axis.
Note 2 :If f(x) is odd, then its graph is symmetrical about opposite quadrants.
c c
Note 3 : J f(x) dx = 2 J f(x) dx if f(x) is an even function of x.
c o·
= 0 if f(x) is an odd function of x.
Note 4 : sin x and . tan x are always odd functions, cos x is always even function.
Note 5 : check the function f(x) for evenness or oddness only if it is defined in (-n,n)
or (-1,1).
Note :If n is any positive integer then,
1) cos n n = (-1)
0
, sin n 1t = 0,
2) ms(2n± 1 )n _ = - 1, sin(2n± l)n = 0

3) cos2nn = 1, sin2nn= 0
4) :. cos(n +l)n = cos(n-l)n
5) cos nn , sr.n nn depends on n.
2
Name of the Fourier constants Expression for the Fourier series

series and
interval
1
Fourier series
0 :S x :S2n
ao
21t
= 1i J f(x) dx f(x) =-+, f
n= 1
(an cos nx +b n sin nx)
0
1 2tt
an = 1i J f{x) cos nx dx
0
' 27t
bn= _n! J f. (x) sin nx dx
0
Fourier series
-n:Sx:S n
ao = 1i
1 "
f f(x) dx
- lt
f(x) =,: a;+ L n=1
(an cos nx + bn sin nx)
1 1t
an = 1i J f(x) cos nx dx
-1t
bn = f
-1t
f(x) sin nx dx
Fourier series 2 a
-n:S x:Sn even
ao = 1i J f(x) dx
1t
f(x) = + L (an cos nx)
0 n= 1
function
2
= 1i J f(x) cos nx dx
1t
Half range cosine an

0
series
O:Sx:Sn bn =0
Fourier series
-n:S x:Sn odd
ao = 0
an= 0
f(x) = t
n= 1
(bn sin nx)
function 2
f f(x) sin nx dx
1t
bn = 1i
Half range sine 0
series
O:Sx:Sn
Fourier series 1 C+ 2lt a ""

general formula ao = 1t J f(x) dx f(x) = + (an cos nx+bn sin nx)
n=1
c
C S X S C + 21t
1 C+2•
an = 1t J f(x) cos nx dx
c
1 C+2:&
bn = 1t f f(x) sin nx dx
c
Fourier series 1 2l
0 sxs 2l ao = J
0
f(x) dx f(x) = 2
1
- r-
ao +n}=: (an cos (n1 t x)+ bns.m(n
- 1-
tx))
2L
1
an=r f - r-
f(x) cos (n1 tX) dx
0
1
bn= l f(x) sin (nx) dx
l
Fourier series 1
-lS X S l ao = l f f(x) dx ao+n=
f(x) =2 - r-
:1 (an cos(n 1 t x) + bns•.n(n- 1lt x))
-L
an= L1 f
-L f(x) cos (n
- 1l t X) dx
bn = 1 L
l . (n 1 tX)
f(x) sm - l dx
Fourier series 2 l
-lsxsl ao = J f(x) dx
0 1
-r -
ao +n}=: (an COS(n1t x)J
f(x) = 2
even function
Half range cosine
series
2
an = L !L
f(x) cos (-n1tX) dx
0 s xs l bn = 0
Fourier series ao = 0
-lsxslodd an= o f(x) = n (bnsin(nx))
1
function 2 L
Half range sine

bn= f
0
f(x) sin(nx) dx
series
05 XS l
a) Important Fonnulae for Fourier Series

1) cosrut = (-lt
2) sin rut = 0
4) J xcosnxdx = [<x>( s nx)-(l)( -c nx)]
5) J x 2 sinnx dx [x2 (-co; nx )-(2x)(-snx )+ 2(c ;x)]

6) J x 2 cosnx dx [x2 (s nx r-(2x>(-cnx ).+ 2(snx )]
eax
7) J eax sin nx dx -----::---::-[a sinnx-n cos nx]
a2 +n2
8) f eax cos nx dx
9) f sinnx dx --
-cos nx
-n
+c
10) J cosnx dx sinnx

- -+c
n
11) J sinxsinnxdx = f[cos(1-n) x -cos(1+ n)x]dx

12)J cosxcosnxdx f [cos(1-n)x+cos(1+n)x]dx
13) J sin x cos nx dx J [sin(1+n) x+sin(1-n) x] dx
14) J cos x sin nx dx J [sin(n +1) x+ sin(n -1) x]dx
b) Important Integrals for Fourier Series

2Jt rr
Integral 1t
J J J
0 0 -7[
J 2n -21t(-1)"
x sin nx dx -
- n -(-1tn
. n n
J x cos nx dx . 0 (-1)"-1 0
n2
J x2 sin nx dx - 4n2
-- -n2(- 1)2 + [(- 1'f'- 0
n n n3
J x2 cos nx dx 4n 2n(- 1) 4n( - 1)"

f12 n2 n2
J eax sin nx dx n f1- _n - [1-:-e3"(-1f] - n(-1)"[e3"-e-a"]

eZanJ az + n2 -· ;- {a2 +·n2)
a2+n2 L
J eax cos nx dx [e2a"-- _ a - [ea"(-f['- a(-1f[&"_-e-a"}

<¥+n2 az + n2 (a2 + n2)
J sin nx dx 0 1-(_-=- 1)" 0

- n· -
f cos nx dx 0 0 0
J sin x sin nx dx 0 0 0
n *1 If n *1
J cos x cos nx dx 0 0 0
n *1
J sin x cos nx dx 0 1+(- f)" 0
1-n2
n *1
J cos x sin nx dx 0
n[1+.(. f) ] 0
n2'- 1
n *1
13) Error Functions

1) c
erf(x) = 2 Jx - u2 d.
e u
-vn o
2)
3) erf(O) 0 1 erf (co) = 1
4) erf(x) + erfc(x) 1
5) erf(x)
6) erf(x) is an odd function i.e. erff-x) = -erf(x)

h
. ·z
1
7)
f ex
a
dx [erf(b) - er;:a)]
14) Beta and Gamma Functions

1) In = J"" e-x xn-- 1 dx(n >0)
""
= 2J e-:X 2 xZn-1dx
0 0
2) I n+1 = n ln = n! (if n integer)
3)
I = Ji, jO ==, = J
0
e-kxxn-ldx
1t
4) fPI1-p = sin p1t
if O<p<l
1
5) (m,n) = J xm-1 (1-x)n-1 dx, m>O n>O
0
1t/2
6) J sinPe cosqe de = !
2
(p+1 q+l)
2 , 2•
0
00 xm-1
7) (m, n) = J
0 (1+x)m+n
dx
8) (m,n) = 1m In
lm+n
9) (m,n) = (n, m)
10) Legendre's Duplication Formula
--1
l m lm+-2 =--2m
Jipm
22m-l
15) D.U.I.S._
1) If a and b are constants and a is a parameter.
d b b a
da J f(x,a) dx = J a a f(x,a) dx
a a
2)If a=f1(a), b = f2 (a)

d b b a db da
da J
a
f(x,a) dx J
a
aa f(x,a)dx+ dax f(b,a)- daxf(a,a)
16) Reduction Formulae

1) J cosnx dx
rt/2
=
xJ/2 .
sm n x dx =
[(n-l)subtract2 ... 2orl]
·
(1 t. .
x - if n 1S even
)
0 • 0 [(n) subtract 2 ... 2 or 1] 2
2)
n/2
J sin mcosnx dx [(m-1) ... 2orl][(n-1).:'2...or..l-] (7t.
.c:......_,..--'--------"-"-.:. --=---=-:.·.-:_-----==---= x - if m, n both even
)
0 [(m + n) subtract 2 ... 2 or 1] 2
n /2
3) J sin mx cos x dx =
rn+1
1
0
n/2
1
4) J cosmx sin x dx
rn+1
0
17) Conversion Formulae

21t
if m, n both even
1) J sinmxcosnxdx = {: : Tsmmxcos"
0 xdx
otherwise
"J sin mx cosnx dx if n even for any rn

2)
0 = {= 2nr sin mx cosnx dx
0 .
= 0 if n odd for any rn
18) Rectification
1) y = f(x) ds = 1( : J dx
2) X= f(y)
ds = 1 +(; J dy
3) X= :t
y = <P2(t)
(t)
ds = ( r r +( dt
4) r = f (8) 2
ds = r + ( cdre f'. de
r
!l' 'I )
5) r = f (8) ds = 1+r2( dr
,,
Engineering Mathematics 25 Formulae

.
'
& Definitions
. ·:
in Mathematics
19) Multiple Integration

a) Area I Mass I Volume
1) A = fJ dx dy 2) Mass = fJ p dx dy
3) If x=rcose y=rsine then dx dy = r PI-d,e

A = fJ rdr de
4) Vol = JJJ dX dy c1z
b) e.G. of Arc
J xdm f ydm
x = =in::,-t y = int
Jdm
int
J
mt
For arc dm = p ds
_
X=
J xp ds
-- y
f yp&
f pds J p ds·
c) e.G. of Area (lamina)
J xdm J ydm
x = y = int
.::::in"=-t
J ,dm J. ,41:l\ 11
int int
For area dm = p dx dy
_
X =
fJ xp, dxdy y =
If yp dxdy
If p dxdy fJ p dy
d). e.G. of Volume
J xdm f ydm
x = =in::,_t
y = int
fdm
int int
fdm
.J zdm
z = =iJnt!:- -dm.-:-
int
_ Engineering Mathematics 26 Fonnulae & Definitions in Mathematics
For volume dm = p dx dy dz
x =
JJJ xp dx dy dz
JJJ p dxdydz
Jff yp dx dy dz
y =
JJJ p dxdydz
z =
JJJ zp dx dy dz
JfJ p dxdydz
e) Moment of Inertia
M.L = J p pdm
2
int
Where p is the l. distance of {x, y) from the axis of M.l. and p is the density at (x, y).
1) M.L of arc M.I. = J p2 p ds
2) M.L of area (lamina) M.l. = Jf p2 p dx dy
3) M.l. of volume M.l. = Jf p2 p dx dy dz
f) Radius of Gyration
K = Kt
Parallel axes theorem : If Ic is M.l. of a body about an axis through the centroid G of
the body and lA, the M.L of the body about any parallel axis through any point A, then
lA =lc + M d2 where M is mass of the body and d is the distance between the parallel
axis.
Perpendicular axes theorem : In case of a plane lamina in the XOY plane lz =lx +I y
where lx and ly are M.l. about OX and OY and lz, M.l. about z axis.
Note :This theorem is applicable to plane lamina and not to three dimensional solids.
g) Spherical Polar Co-ordinates

i) For sphere x2 + y2 +z2 =a2
x = r sine coslj)
y = r sine sinlj)
z = rcose
.. ' dxdydz =_ r 2 sine qr dq,de
:Engineer.ing:Mathematics 27 Fonnulae & Definitions in Mathematics
'It 21t a
1) For sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = a 2 f f f ... dr dlj) dO
0 0 0
n/2 21t a
2) For hemisphere f f f ... drdlj)dO
0 0 0
n/2 tr/2 a·
3) For octant of sphere f f f ... dr dlj)dO
0 0 0
ii) For Ellipsoid

x2 y2 z2
2 + ,b2 + c = 1
a
x = arsinOcoslj)
y = b r sinO sinlj)
z = crcosO
dxdydz = abc r 2 sinO dr dlj)dO

1t 27t 1
1) For full ellipsoid f f J ... dr dlj) dO
0 0 0
rr-12 2n 1
2) For hemi ellipsoid f f f ... dr dlj) dO
0 0 0
1t/2 'lt/2 1
3) For octant J J J ... dr dlj)dO
0 0 0
h) Mean Values and R.M.S. Values

b
f f(x) dx
a
1) M.V. = b
J-dxa
ff f(x y) dx dy
R
2) M.V. =
ff dxdy
·
b
f [f(x)f dx
a
3) RM.S. = h
J dx
a
·,.·
Jf [f (x y)f dx dy
R
4) RM.S.
Jf dxdy
R
20) Co-ordinate System, Plane, Straight Line

a) Distance Formula
Let Pl (xl, Y1' zl) and Ql(xz, Y2' z2)
P1 Ql =
2
(xz -xt) +(y z -yl/ +(zz -z1)!-
b) Section Formula
I .
1) Internal division :
If the point C(x, y, z) divides the line segment joining the points A(x, y, z) and
B(xz,yz,zz) internally in the ratio m: n then,
x-mxz +nx i
myz + ny1 mzz +nz1
y= m+n z=----
m+n m+n
2) External division :
If the point C divides the segment AB in the ratio m : n externally then

mxz -nx1 myz -ny1
X=--=---=-
m-n y= m-n z= -n-'l=z2----n-=
m-n
z1
-
c) Direction Cosines
Let the line OP be inclined at angles a., (3, y with X,. Y, Z axes respectively. Then cos a,
cosl3, cosy are called direction cosines (d.c.'s) of the line OP and are dE!noted by l, m, n
respectively. Then, . ·
I2+m 2 +n 2 = 1 i.e. cos 2 a.+ cos 2 13+ cos2 y = 1
i) Direction Ratios
Any three numbers a, b, c that are proportiollal to the direction cosines l, m, n
respectively are called direction ratios.
b c
m = -.Jr=a=::=2=+=b=::=2=+=c:;::::2 rt = Rr=a:;:=2=+:::::b:;:=2 =+=c.:::=2
. ' .
d) Angle between Two Lines

If (I1,m1, n1) and -(h, m2 , n 2 ) are the direction cosines of the two lines. Then
cose = 1112 +m1 ffi2 +nt Il2
If direction ratios of two lines are give!"!:, as a1, b1, c1 and a 2,b 2 , c2 . Then
a1 a 2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cos 8 =
ar + br + c[ a+ b+ c
Conditions for perpendicularity and parallelism

1) When given lines are perpendicular
h l2+mt m2+n1 n2= 0 or a1 a2+b1 bz+c1 c2 =0
2) When given lines are parallel
or
e) Projection of a Segment of a Line

P ·Q' = P Q cos e
P'Q' = l(x2-x1)+m(y2-y1)+n(z2-z1)
21) The Plane

1) General form : ax +by+ cz + d = 0 where a, b, care drs of normal to the plane.
2) Equation of plane passing through (xl,yt,zl) with a, b, c as'dr's of the normal to
the plane is given by
a(x-xl)+ b(y-y1)+c(z-z1) = 0
3) Intercept form : 3 + _rb + = 1
a c
4) Normal (perpendicular) form: lx +my+ nz = p
5) Three points form : The equation of the plane passing through three points
(x1, y1, z1), (x2 , y2 , z 2) and (x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) is
X y Z 1
= 0
a) Angle between Two Planes

a1 X+ b1 y + C1 Z + d1 = 0
a2 x+ b2 y+c2 z+d2 = 0
cose =
a'f+b'f+ c'f a+ b +c
If the planes are perpendicular then,
If the planes are parallel then,

a1 bt c1
a2 = b2 = C2
b) Length of the Perpendicular

The length of the perpendicular from the outside point P(x 1,yt, z1 ) on the plane
ax+ by+ cz + d = 0 is,
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d I
I .Ja 2 + b2 +c2
22) The Line

a) Symmetrical Form
If the Hne passes through a fixed point (x1 , y 1 , zt) and has d.r.' s (a, b, c) its equation
= Y -' Yl Z -Zt
-b-=-
c-
b) Two Point Formula

The straight line which passes through two fixed points (x 1,y1,z 1) and (x2 ,y 2,z2) is
x-x1 y-y1 --z -zt
= = - ---
c) Coplanarity of Lines
X -Xl y-yi Z-Z l · X-'-X2 y -y2 Z-Z 2
--= - - -= -- and--=--= . -
11 m1 n1 l2 m2 nz
Are coplanar iff
X-Xl y -yl Z-Zt
/1 m1 n1 = 0
23) Sphere
a) Forms of Sphere
2
1) Center and Radius Form : (x-a) +(y-b) +(z-'-c)
2 2 =r2
2) Standard Form: x2 +y2 +z2 =r2

3) General Form: x 2 +y2+z 2 +2ux+2vy+2wz+d=O
Its center is(- u,- v 1 - w) and radius is given by r =.Ju2 +v2 +w2 -d
4) Intercept Form : The equation of the sphere, which cuts off, intercepts a, b, c from
ox, oy, oz axis is given by,
x2+y 2 +z 2 -ax-by-cz = 0
5) Diameter Form : Equation of sphere having (x 1,Yl,Zt) and (x2, y21Z2 ) as
extremities of its diameter is given by
(x-xl )(x-x2) + (y-y1)(y-y2)+(z-zt )(z-z:;t) = 0
b) Touching Spheres
1) Two spheres touch externally if the distance between their centers is equal to the
sum of their radii, i.e.. d = r1 +r2.
2) Two spheres touch internally if the distance be een their centers is equal to the
difference of their radii, d = I n - r2l
c) Tangent Plane of the Sphere

The equation of tangent plane to the sphere at point (x1, y1, zt) is
xx1 + YYt + zz1 + u(x + ·x1) + v(y + Yt) + w (z + Zt) + d =0
d) Circle
· If S = 0 is the equation of a sphere and U = 0 that of a plane, _the equations S = 0 and
U = 0 together represents a circle.
Also circle can be expressed as intersection of two spheres. Thus if S1 = 0, S2 = 0 are
equations of spheres, the equations
·St = 0 and S2 =0
together represent a circle.
e) Sphere through a Circle

S+A.U = 0 and St +A.S2 = 0 · where. s = 0, s1 =0, s2 =0 and U = 0 are equations of
spheres and plane respectively.
Formulae & Definition. in Ma hematiC$
f) Orthogonal Spheres
Two spheres are said to be orthogonal if the tangent planes to the two spheres at the
point of intersection are at right angles.
g) Length of the Tangent

AT2 = x? +y:f +z? +'2u1x1 +2vlyl +2wlzl +d1
h) Radical Plane
s1 -s2 = o
Note The radical plane of two spheres is perpendicular to the line joining their
centers.
24) Cone
a) Definition
A cone is a surface geri rated 1J')i a straight line which passes through a fixed point
and satisfies one more condition e.g. it intersects a given curve or touches a given surface.
The fixed point is called the vertex and the given curve (or 'surface) the guiding curve
of the cone. Any straight line lying on the surface of the cone is called its generator.
Note :The equation of a cone whose vertex is at the o.rigin is a homogeneous equation
in x, y, z and conversely.
Corollary : If the line Z =L= is a generator of the cone {whose vertex is at the
m n
origin) ax2 +by 2 +cz 2 +2fyz+2gzx+2hxy = 0, then direction cosines (or direction ratios) I,
m, n satisfy the equation of the cone.
:. aF +bm 2 +cn 2 +2fmn+2gnl+2hlm = 0 and conversely.
b) Quadratic Cone through the Axes

The general equation of a cone of second degree passing through the three co-ordinate
axes is fyz + gzx + hxy = 0
Condition for the general equation· of second degree to represent a cone and to find
the co-ordinates of the vertex :
=
Let F(x,y,z) ax 2 +by 2 +cz 2 +2fyz+2gzx+2hxy+2ux+2vy+2wz+d:: 0 ... (i)
a h g u
h b f v
The above equation represents a cone if g f c w =0
1
u v w d
Engineering Mathematics 33 Formulae & Definitions in Mat ematics
Let (a,y) be its vertex

To find co-ordinates of vertex, make the equation of cone homogeneous by multiplying
with proper power·of variable t, then the equation becomes
F(x,y,z;t) = ax 2 +by 2 +cz 2 +2fyz+igzx+2hxy+2urt+2vyt+2wzt+dt 2 = 0
Differentiating the above equation partially with respect to x, y, z, t and then p1,1t t = 1,
we get,
aF aF aF aF
-= .0,-= 0,-= 0 and-= 0
ax ay az at
Solving theequations we get co-ordinates of vertex.
c) Right Circular Cone

A right circular cone is a surface generated by a straight line which passes through a
fixed point and makes a constant angle with a fixed sh·aight line through the vertex.
The fixed point is called vertex, the fixed line the Axis of the cone artd the angle is
knoWI;l as the semi-vertical angle of the cone.
Note :The section of right circular cone by any plane perpendicular to its axis is circle.
d) Enveloping Cone
The locus of the tangent lines from a given point to a given surface is a cone and is
called the enveloping cone of the surface with the given point at its·vertex:
i) Equation of the Enveloping Cone

I
'the equation of the enveloping cone of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 =a 2 with vertex at the
point1(a,13, y)-
S = x2 +y2 +z2 -a2
sl = · a2+ 2+y2-a2
T - ax + y + yz - a 2 or
ss1 T2
l'f
Note: the given sphere isS = x 2 +y 2 ·+z2 +2ux+2vy+2wz+d = 0, then nveloping
cone will stiil be found to be
ss1 = T2
sl - a 2 +132 +y2 +2ua+2vl3+2wy+d

T - xa+yl3+ zy+ u(x+ a)+v(y+l3) +w( +Y)+ d
Engineering-Mathematics 34 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematic
25) Cylinder
a) Definition
A cylinder is a surface generated by a straight line which is always parallel to a fixed
straight line and satisfies one more condition e.g. it intersects a &iven curve or touches a
&iven surface.
b) Right Circular Cylinder

A right circular cylinder is a surface generated by a straight line, parallel to a · fixed
line and is at a constant distance from it. The fixed line is called as • axis and the constantl
distance is the radius of RCC. Section of a right circular cylinder by plane perpendicular to
the axis is a circle. ·
c) Enveloping Cylinder
The locus of the tangent lines to a &iven surface and parallel to a &iven line is a
cylinder and is called the enveloping cylinder· of the surface.
26) Differential Equations

a) Definition
An equation involving derivatives is known as a differential equation.
Order : The order of a differential equation is the order ofthe highest derivative that
appears in the equation.
Degree : The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest order
differential coefficient or derivative, when the differential coeff icients are free from radicals
and fractions.
General Solution : A relation which satisfies a given differential equation and which
involves arbitrary constants equal in number_ to the order of the differential equation is
called the general solution (G.S.) or complete integral.
Particular Solution : The solution obtained by assigning particular values to the
arbitrary constants in G.S. of a differential equation is called a - particular solution or
particular integral.
Ordinary Differential Equations of tf:le First Order and First

Degree
b) Type I : Variable Separable
In this type we can express the equation as f1 (x) dx+ f2 (y) dy = 0
(i.e. the variables are separated). Its general solution is J ft (x) dx+ J f2 (y) dy = C
Engineering Mathematics 35 Formulae & Definitions in Mathert:'atics
c) Type II : Reducible to V.S. Form

1) = f(a +by+c) put ax+ by+c=v
2) dy ={r)put r = v
dx . X X
d) Type Ill : Homogeneous D.E.

dy ft(x,y)
General Form : -= ---''----'-_:_
dx f2 (x,y)
-
The differential equation of the above form is said to be homogeneous if f1 (x,y) and
f2 (x, y) are homogeneous functions in x and y of the same degree.
These equations are reducible to V.S.·form by the substitution
y = VX :. : = V +X:
e) Type IV : Non-homogeneous D.E.

General form dy = atx+bty+ct ... (1)
dx a2x+b2y+c2
Case (i)
If · a-t = -bbt put the common factor =v

a2 2
Case (ii)
If ;t
a2 b2
In this case to reduce equation (1) to homogeneous form we substitute x, = X + h,
y = Y + h where h and k are constants to be determined.
Also dx = dX, dy = dY
dy dY
:. dx = dX Equation (1) becomes,
dY a1X+ b1Y +(ath + btk+ ct)

=
dX a2X+.b2Y +(a2h + b2k+ c2)
Choose h and k such that equation will become homogeneous·in X and Y i.e.
a1h+bik+c1 = 0 and a 2h+b2k+c2 = 0
We et dY = a1X+b1Y
g dX a2X+b2Y
Which is a homogenous equation in X andY.
Engineering
. . .
Mathematics
...... ..... 36 _ Fqrmulae & Definitions in Mathema
f) Type V : Exact Differential Equations

General form :M(x, y) dx+ N(x, y) dy = 0
If there exists a function u (x, y) such that M dx + N dy = du then the differenti
equation is called as an exact differential equation.
Conditi.on of exactness CCllM ClN . 1 1 . .

y = Clx 1ts genera so uhon 1s
J Mdx+ J [terms of N not containing x]dy= c

y= constant
OR
J N dy+ J [terms·ofM not containing y]dx=c
x= constant
g) Type VI : Equations Reducible to Exact Integrating Factor

An equation, which is not exact, can be made exact by multiplying it by a suitable
factor called as the integrating factor (I.F.).
Rule 1: If the given differential equation is homogeneous, then
1
I.F. = MX + Ny
Rule 2: If the given D.E. has the form, y·f 1 (xy) dx+xf 2 (xy)dy = 0 then,
1
LF. = Mx-Ny
ClM ClN
Rule 3 : If
ay-Tx
N f(x) (say) Then I.F. = ef f(x) dx
ClN ClM
. Tx-ay
Rule 4 : If M <!>(y) (say) Then, I.F. = ef <ll(Y) dy
Rule 5: If the equation M dx + N dy = 0 has the form
xayb(mydx+nxdy) +xa1 yl>I (m 1ydx+n 1xdy) = 0 ·

Then I . F = xayfl
h) Type VII : Linear Differential Equation

A differential equation is said to be linear if the differential equation is of first degree.
dy
General form dx + Py = Q P, Q are functions of x then general solution is
y ef P dx = J Q·ef P dx · dx + C
Engineering Mathematics 37 Formulae & p fiQitiOIJS in Mathematics
dx
General form dy +P·x Q P, Q are functions of y then general solution is
X·ef Pdy = f Qef Pdy dy+C
i) Type VIII : Equation Reducible to Linear Form

1) Bernoulli's differential equation:
General form dy +P·y = Q·yn

_ dx
Divide by yn and put y1-n =v to get linear equation in v
2) Similarly G.F. ; +P·x = Q·xn
Divide by xn and put x1-n = v to get linear equation in v

3) Equations of the form
General form f'(y) +Pf(y)=Q put f (y) = v to get linear equation in v.
j) Polar Differential Equation

If the equation contains the factors xdx + ydy and xdy- ydx then put
X =r COS 9, y = r sin 9,
:. r2 = x2+y2 tanS= .I_

X
r dr = xdx + ydy
r 2 d9=xdy-ydx
27) Higher Order Differential Equations

a) Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients
Iff (D) y = X, y = CF +PI is the complete solution of the differential equation.
i) Methods for finding C.F.
To find CF, find the roots of Auxiliary Equation (A.E.), f (D) = 0

1) Real and distinct
If m1, m2 .... are the roots then,
CF = cl emix + c2emzx + ...
2) Real and repeated
i) If m1, m1 are the roots then,
CF = (c1 +c2x) ellltx
2) If mv m1, m1 are the roots

then, CF = (Ct +c2x+c3x2 ) emt"
3) Complex
If a± if' are the roots then,
CF = eax (c1cosflx+czsinf3x)
4) Complrepeated
If a± if3, a± if3 are the roots then,
CF = eax [(Ct + c2x) cosf3x + (c 3 + c4x) sinf3x]
Note:
1) If bracket square is present then the root is repeated.
2) For the cubic equation apply the ·synthetic division.
3) For the fourth power equation we may get all complex roots. Therefore for the
fourth power equation adjust the perfect sq e.
Particular Integral : P.I. = f() x
1) X= J Xdx
Type 1
If X= eax
1) 1 ax - 1 ax f( ) 0
f ) f ) '
(D e - (a e a*
1 xr
2) eax =- eax
(D-aY r!
3) - - -1-- e ax 1- xre ax
-
-
cjl(D)(D-a y
ell(a) r !
4) K = constant = K e0"
1 k
f(D) k = f(O) , f(O) 0 *
5) a" = eloga• = e"log a
1 1
--a"= a"
f(D) f{log a)
,-:._
Note:
1) Here take the factors off {D) for finding P.l.
2) Replace D by 'a' only in the non-zero factor. For the zero factor use the formula
xr .
- eax where 'r' is the power of the zero factor.
1r.
3) If X = constant then replact! D by .t.etv.
4) If X = ax then, replace D by 'log a .
Type 2
X = sin ax or cos ax
1 sin 1 sin
1) f(D2)cos (ax+b)= f(-a2)cos (ax+b)
2) 1 sm (ax+b)=(--x)r _! sin(ax+b+ rn)

(D2+a2Y 2a r!cos 2
005
Note:
1) In this type replace D2 by -a 2 , D3 by -a2D and 04 by a4. Don't replaceD by
.J-a2 . .
2) If the factor D remains in the denominator then rationalize to get D2 in the

denominator.
3) Here don't take the factors of f {D) for finding P.I. Take the factors only if the
denominator becomes zero after the replacement of D2 by -a 2 .
4) If there is a combination of zero and nonzero factor then operate the nonzero
factor first.
5) If D is a factor of f {D) then operate first.
Type 3
If X= xn where n is a positive integer then use the binomial series

· n n(n-1)
1 )(1+z ) =1+nz+ z ...
21
1
2) - -=1-z+z 2 ...
. 1+z
3) --1-1- +z+z2 ...

1-z
Note:
1) Don't take the factors off {D) for finding P.I.
I
2) Take the least power term outside with its sign, then f (D) will take the form
(1+ z) or (1-z) then use the binomial series.
··
',;_ .;
.··..· _. ..
3) If Dis factor off (D) then don't operate first as it will increase the power of x.
Type 4
1 ax-ax 1
f(D) e v- e f(D+a) v
Type 5
1 { f'(D)} 1
f(D) x v = x- f(D} ,f(D) v
Note:
1) Here v is any function of x and power of x must be 1.
2) If v is sin ax or cos ax and f (D) involves a factor 02 +a 2 ,then don't use this type.
Then apply type-6.
Type 6
1 n· -Im 1 niax
f(D) x sm ax- g f(Dx e
1 n -Rail niax
f (D ) x cos ax - e f(D ) x e
Note:
1) ei9 = cos8+isin8
2) = - i
1
3) (a+ib)(c+id) = (ac-bd)+i(ad+bc)
Type 7
1 1
If X involves tan, sec, cosec, cot, log, ee< sin eX, cos eX, -- , --· - functio
1+eX l+e-x
use
1
- -x
D-a
= J
eax e-ax X dx
1
-
eax
J
-X
Xdx
e-ax
D+a
b) Method of Variation of Parameter for Finding Particular Integral

1) If Differential Equation of Order 2 then its Complementary Function will be
C.F. = ClYl + C2Y2

where y1 and y 2 are function of 'x'
In this method, replace the arbitrary constant c1 and c2 by two functions u and v and
assume
P.l. uy1 +vy2
/}. = lyy:j
YI Y2
0 Y21
!lu = X y2
1
!lv =
u = J !l:dx
v = f /}.:dx
2) If Differential Equation of Order 3 then its Complementary Function will be
C.F. = c1y1 +c2y2 +c3y3 assume P.l. = uy1 +vy2 +wy 3

YI Y2 Y3 0 Y2 Y3
, I I I I
/}. = Y1 Y2 Y3 !lu = 0 Y2 Y3
" Y3
If
Y1 Y2
If
X y2
H
"
Y3
Y1 0 Y3 y1 Y2 0
I I I I
!lv Y1 0 Y3 !_lw Yl y2 0
Y2" X
II II
Y1" X Y3 Yl
!lu dx !lv dx
.. u =
f /}.
v =
f /}.
w = f !lw dx
/}.
c) Legendre's Differential Equation

3 d 3y 2 d 2y dy
a 0 (ax+ b) dx 3 + a1(ax+ b) dx 2 + a 2 (ax+ b) dx + a 3y = X
Put ax+ b = ez or log (ax+ b)= z

dy d
:. (ax+ b) dx =a Dy where D = dz
2 d2y
(ax+ b) dx 2 =a 2 D(D-1) y
3 d3y
(ax+b) dx 3 = a 3D(D-l)(D-2)y l
l
j
d) Cauchys D.E. (Homogeneous D.E.)
d 3y d2 d
(x)3 dx3 +(x)2 d3+(x) d+: y =X
Put x = ez or log (x) = z
j
dy d
::(x) dx = Dy where D = dz
2
(x) :; = D(D-1)y
3
(x) : ; = D(D-1)(D-2)y
28) Laplace Transforms

i) Definition
=
Lf(t) = J e-st f(t) dt
0
s is real/complex parameter
:. Lf(t) = <j>(s)
ii) laplace Transforms of Standard Functions
1) L(tn ) = -
I n +-1=-
n! 1 "f
n
. .
IS mteger.
. sn+1 sn+1
1 1
2) L (1) =- 3) L(eat) = --
s (s-a)
4)L(sinat)= a
s
5) L(cosat) = 2
s2 +a 2
s2 +a
6)L(sinhat)= a
s
7) L(coshat) =
s -a
2 2
s2 -a 2
iii) Properties of Laplace
I) First shifting property :
If, L [f(t)] = <j>(s) then, L eat [f(t)] = <j>(s-a)
II) Second shifting property :
Laplace transform of displaced function.

If, L [f(t)] = <j>(s) and the function
0 t <a
g(t)= {f(t-a) t<::a
Then, L [g(t)] = e-as Q>(s)
Ill) Change of scc. le property :
If L[f(t)] = <j>(s) then

Engineering athematics 43 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
Lf(at) = iJ
IV) Effect of multiplication by t :
If L[f(t)] = cj>(s) then
L[t f(t)} -<){(s)
L[t 2 f(s)] (-1) 2 <){'(s)
L[tn f(t)] (-l)n lj>Il (s)
V} Effect of division by t :
If,L [f(t)] = <j>(s) then

LC t)) = [ < >(s) ds
VI) Laplace transform of derivative :
If, L f(t) = <j>(s) then
L[f'(t)] = s<j>(s) -£(0)
L[f"(t)] s2<j> (s)- sf (0) - £' (0)
L[f'H(t)] = s 3f( s)- s 2 f(O)- s£'(0)- £"(0)
VII) Laplace transforms of integral :

If, L [f(t)] = <j>(s) then
t 1
L J f (t) dt = s <j>(s)
0
IX) Laplace transforms of periodic functions :

If, f(t) = f (t + a) then,
1
L[f(t)] = fa e-st f(t) dt
l-e-as
0
a) Unit Step Function : (Heaviside unit step function)
. U(t-a)orH(t-a)={:;: ifa=O,U(t)={:;:
e-as
1) L [H (.t - a)] = s
e-Os 1
2) L [H (t)] =- =-= L(l)
s s
•
Engineering Mathematics 44
3) L [f (t-a) U (t-a)] = e-as «ff (s)

4) L[f (t) U(t-a)] = e-as L[f (t+a)]
b) Dirac Delta/Unit Impulse Function

Consider the function,
t<a
B (t- a) = { a t a+e o(t-a)=limU (t-a)

E-40
t>a+e
00
1) J f(t) 8 (t -a) dt = f(a)

0
f
00
2) L(o(t-a)]= e-st o(t-a) dt = e-•s

0
3) L[f (t)o (t-a)] = e-•s f (a)
<jl(s) L-1 <1> (s)= f(t)
c) Inverse Laplace
1) Transforms 1
- 1
s
2) 1 eat
-
s -a
3) 1 t" = t" . )
sn+1 (n = Integer
fli+1 . n!
4)
s2
1
+ a2 a1 Sin. at
1
5)
s2- a2 a1 Sin. h at
6) s cos at
s2 + a2
7) s cosh at
s2 - a2
8) 1 o(t)
9) <jl(s-a) e•1 f (t) = e•1 L-1 <1> (s)
10) <l>'(s) -tf (t)
•
11) f (t)
J ljl(s) ds t
s
12) 1 t
-cjl(s)
s f f (t) dt
0
13) s t .
--
" - 2a smat
(s2 + a2 )2
14) s2
(sin at+ at cos at)
(s2+a 2)2 2
15) 1
(sin at-at cos at)
(s2 + a2)
16) e-'4jl(s) f (t- a) U(t-a)
17) f (a) e-"" f (t)(t-a)
II) To find L-1 of inverse trigonometric function and log functions

1
L-1[cll(s)] = - L-1cP(s)
t
Ill) Convolution theorem

t
L-1[c!tJ(s) (s)] = J f (u)f2(t-u)du
1
0
t
= J f1(t-u) f2(u) du
0
d) Sine and Cosine Integrals and Exponential Integral

1) Sine integral is defined as
t •
si (t) = J s:_ u du
0
2) Cosine integral is defined as
Ci(t) = J co;:u du
0
Engineering Mathematics 46 Formulae & Definitions in Mathe
3) Exponential integral is defined as

e-u
= f
0
du
J.
-log(s+i)
s
29) Vectors
a) Definition
Let a= ali-t-a2j+a3k
where i;j, k are umt vectors in direction of X, Y, Z respectively.
a 1, a 2, a 3 are the components of a in direction of X; Y, Z axis respectively.
- b) Dot Product of Two Vectors

a· b = abcose
where a = Ia b = Ib I and e --) angle between 2 vectors a and b.
Since cos 0 = 1 and cos 90 = 0 we have
l)i·i = 1·1 = k·k= 1
2) i·} = }·k= k·i = 0
3) a·b = albl +a2b2 +a3b3
4) a·b = b·a Commutative
5) Dot product of 2 vectors is scalar.
c) Cross Product of Two Vectors

aX b = ab Sin 9 ll
Where n --) unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b and
ax"f)
n .= --
jaxb}
1) ixi = }x) = kxk= 0
2) ix) = k, ]xk= i_, kxi =}

i j k
3) ax b = a 1 a 2 a3
bl b2 b3
4) (ax b)= -(bxa) f- not commutative

5) Cross product of 2 vectors is a vector.
Note:
1) ab is not allowed i.e. pure multiplication of 2 vectors is invalid there must either
be dot or cross.
2) From formula of dot product the angle between 2 vectors a and b is given as
a·b
cosO = -
ab
3) If two vectors are perpendicular then a·b = 0
4) If two vectors are parallel then ax b =0
d) Scalar Triple Product (S.T.P.)
la1 a2 a3 :
a·(bxc) = I abc I= b. b2 b3
CJ C2 C3 '
1) S.T.P. gives the volume of parallelopiped

I I
2) abc = 0 then a, b, c are coplanar
3) In S.T.P cyclic changes are allowed i.e.labc j= lbcaj = jcab·j
4) In S.T.P dot and cross are interchangeable

i.e. a-(bxc)=(axb)·c
e) Vector Triple Product (V.T.P)

ax(bxc) = (a·c) b-(a·b) c
1x(2x 3) (1·3)2-{1·2)3
f) Vector Quadruple Product
1) (axb)·(cxd) :::: 1- -c
1
h-c :il
2) (axb)·(cxd) = (a b d] c-[a b c]d
Engineering Mathematics 48 Fonnulae & Definitions in Mathe!mal-
g) Vector Differentiation
If r = x1+y}+zk then,
o cfi dx .. dy ': dz A
velooty vector = dt = dt 1+ dt J + dt k
. d 2i' d2x.. d2 y-: d 2 z A
acceleration vector = -= ,I+- J +- k

dt 2 dt2 dt 2 dt 2
xi) Standard results
l) (_+ _) = du+ dv
dt u_v dt- dt
d duds
2) dt (U) ::;:; ds dt
d (-....\ d(j) .... du

3) dt u,,- u dt +,dt
d (- _) au _ _
4) dt u·v = dt·v+u·dt
dv
d( ) du dv
S) dt uxv = dtxv+uxdt
II 6) ddt [u- _
v _
w]. = [dut _v-
w] + [u- dt -
w] + [u- _v ddw
t ]
7) ddt _
ux (v-xw
_) = ddut x (v
- x_
w) +_ux(. ddvt xw
-)+_ux(-vx ddwt )
Component of a vector a in the direction of u is given by a·ii ie. 7

h) Tangential and nonnal components of acceleration of a particle
describing a plane curve in parametric co-ordinates.
Let aT = Tangential component of acceleration and aN = Normal component of
acceleration.
a·v
I vi
laxvl
aN = lvl
i) Radial and transverse components of velocity and a leration of a

particle describing a plane curve in polar co-ordinates.
Radial velocity = r
Radial acceleration=r-r02
Transverse velocity= rO
Transverse acceleration = re + 2iS
j) Law of Central Orbits (Orbital Motion}

Let a particle describes the curve r = f(8) under the action of force which is always
directed towards a fixed center o then, f = h 2 u 2 [+ u] gives the law of acceleration i.e.
the law of force towards the pole where f represents the acceleration h is a constant and
u =ljr.
k} Tangential and normal components of acceleration of a particle

describing any plane curve
dv dv v2 A A
-T+·-N
dt dt p
v vT
v3
p
lvxal
Definitions
i)Field : If in .any region of space a function is defined for every point of the region,
then this region is known as field.
ii) Scalar Point Function : A frmction <!>(x, y, z) is called a scalar point function if it
associates a scalar with every point of a region. Then the field is called a scalar field.
iii) Vector Point Function : If a function F (x, y, z) defines a vector at every point of a
region, then F (x, y, z) is called a vector point function. Then the field is called a vector
field.
I} Gradient of a Scalar Point Function

If <J>(x, y, z) is a scalar point function then,
Grad <j> = V<j> = i +) ; + k : <j> is a scalar while, V<j> is a vector

a a Aa
del= V = 1-+J-+k-
dx dy iJz
i) Geometrical Meaning of Grad <j>
Grad <j> represents a vector outward normal at point P to the level surface <j> = c
(constant)
ii) Standard results

1) V [u± v] = Vu±Vv 2) V(uv) = vVu +uVv
Engineerig Mathematics 50
3) v(. u)
"l v
= vVu-uVv
y2
4) Vf (u) = f'(u)Vu
5) V f (r) = f(r)-rf 6) V(a·r) =a
f
7) Vr =-
r
m) Directional Derivatives
If cl>(x,y,z) is a scalar point function then the component_ of grad in any direction
equal to the directional derivative or rate of change of cj) in that direction
DD = (V<J>)r ·u
where u is the -given direction and p is the given point.
As component of vector is maximum in direction of vector itself therefore compon
of grad <jl is maximum in the direction of grad <P, hence grad <jl represents maximum rate
change of i.e. DD is maY..imum in the direction of V<j> and maximum magnitude
DD=jV<J>j
n) Divergence of a Vector Point Function

Let F = F1l+Fz)+F3k
A a A a A a )( A A A)
V·F = iax +jay +kazJ F1i+Fzj+F3k
(
aF1 oFz aF3

= -
ax ay +
az
which is a S.P.F. called the divergence ofF
If V ·F = 0 then the F is said to be solenoidal.
o) Curl of a Vector Point Function F
Curl F
If V x F = 0 then F is said to be irrotational.

In this case there exists a scalar point function <jl such that F = V<j> · <!>is known as sc
potential of F the formula for scalar potential is given by,
d<j> = F1dx+F2dy+F3dz
" '
fpgineering Math matics 51 Fonnulae & Definitions in Mathematics
i.e. 4l = f Ftdx+ f F2dy+ f F3dz

y,z constant z constantfree x free x, y
Not'! :
1) Curl F is vector point function.
2) Div F is scalar point function.
3) When V x F ::: 0 angular velocity = 0 hence irrotational.
4) V ·v gives rate of outflow per unit volume when F is solenoidal :. resistance is.
maximum.
:.when V ·F = 0 the flow is zero hence F is solenoidal.
5) The work done in moving an object from P to Q in an irrotational field is [4']
where <jl is scalar potential of F.
i) Results
1) v ·a= o 2) Vxa =o
3) v ·r:;;; 3 4) Vxr = o
5) V' ·rnr:;;;(n+3)rn 6) Vxrnr =0
7) v (a ·r) =a
p) Vector Identities
1) Curl grad <jl:
VxV<jl = 0
:.grad <jl is an irrotational vector what ever scalar point function may be.
,,
2) Divergence (Curl F) :
div (vxF) = 0
\
:.curl F is a solenoidal vector what ever vector point function F may be.
3) Curl (Curl F) :
vx (v x F) = v(V·F) -V 2F I
4) Div ( <PF) :
V ·(<!>F) <P(V ·F)+V<!>·F
5) Cutl (<!>F) :
Vx<jlF
6) Div (:Ax B):
V ·(A x B) B·( Curl A )-A·(Curl 'B)
Engineering Mathematics 52 Formulae & Definitions in Ma'tfl
7) Curl (Ax B) :
vx(AxB) (V·B) A-(A·V) B+(B•V)A-(v ·A) B

8) Grad (A·B):
v(A·B) = Ax(vxB)+(A·V) B+ Bx(vxA )+(B·V) A
q) Definitions
1) Laplacian of <1>
The expression div (grad<!>) = V ·(V)
= (ijax + j j + kj
ay az ).·(i aqx, +) aqy, + k azz,)
a2q, a2<1> a2<1> . .
ax2 + ay 2 + az 2 lS known as Laplacian of <!>
a2 a2 a2
Here the operator V 2 = V ·V = ax2 + ay 2 + azz is known as Laplace' s operator.
The equation V 2 <!> = 0 is known as Laplace's equation in 3-dimension
2) The group operator a·V

-a ·v =a1aax+a2aay+a3aaz1.s th _ eoperator.Wh erea=a1t+
- .,.
a 2J +a 3
kA -=-
i) Results
i) (a·V)r =a
ii) (a·V)F = <!>(a·V) F+F(a·V)
iii) V 2 f(r) = f"(r)+ f'(r)

r
30) Vector Integration

a) Line Integral
The expression J F·dr is known as line integral ·of F taken over curve C and it gives!
c
the work done in moving a particle along curve C.
If, F = F1i + F2 )+F3k and r = xi+y)+ zk then dr = dxi+dy)+dzk and
F · dr = Ftdx +Fzdy+F3dz
Engineering Mathematics 53 Formulae & Qefmitions in Mathematics
b) Green's Theorem
If R is a plane region bounded by one or more closed curve, and if M and N are
single valued continuous functions along the boundary C and at all the points in region R,
then,
fc
M dx+ N dy == fJR (-VA )dxdy
v .1
i) Vector Form of Green's Theorem
If F == Mi + Nj where M and N are the functions of x and y then,
F-dr == M dx + N dy
.. VxF ==
k( - )
.. (vx"F) k ()N aM
Ox -..oy
:.From equation (1)
f F·dr Jf [(vxF)·k] dxdy

c R
Note:
x2 y2
1) For double integral over the ellipse -;If + b2·== 1
Put x == ar cos e y == br sin 6 dxdy == ab r dr d6

2n: 1
limits J J ab r drd6
0 0
2) For single integral over ellipse

Put X = a cos e y = b sin e limits of 6 0 to 21t
3) For double integral over the circle x2 + y2 =a 2
Put x == r cos 6 y == r sin 6 dxdy = rdrd6
2n: a
limits JJ r drd6
0 0
1
4) For single integral over the circle,
Put X = a cos e y == a sin e Limits e 0 to 21t
c) Stroke's Theorem
It is the generalization of vector form of Green's theorem.
Engineering Mathematics 54 Formulae & Definitions in MatbeUJIIij
Statement Stroke's Theorem
The surface integral of normal component of curl of F taken over the surface S is
to the line integral of tangential component of F arotmd perimeter of curve c bo
open surface S. ·
f F·dr = fJ xF)-N ds
c s
Note:
1) H the sttrface is closed then the bounding curve does not exist therefore we cant11
evaluate Stroke's theorem over the closed surface.
2) H F is irrotational then
VxF = 0
f F-dr 0
c
3) The abbreviation of N ds is ds.

4) H 51 and 52 are 2 sttrfaces with th.e same bounding curve T' theri
fJ (vxF)·ds 1 = fJ (vxF)·ds 2
5) If the surface is in X-0-Y plane then, N = k ds = dxdy

6) H surface is not X-0-Y plane then, N = I::Ithen use projection formula
dxdy
ds
IN·kl
projection of surface element ds on X-0-Y plane.
d) Gauss's Divergence Theorem

The surface integral of the normal component of a vector F taken over a cloSed surfa
and enclosing volume V is equal to the volume integral of divergence of F
throughout volume V bounded by surface S.
ff F·N ds = fff (v -F) dv

s v
31) Fourier Transforms

Fourier transform of a non periodic function f (t) in time domain into a function F(l
.in frequency domain.
Let f (x) be defined in (- c, c).

1) Iff(- x) = f (x), for all x in (- c, c) then f (x) is even function.
2) If f (- x) = - f (x), for all x in (- c, c) then f (x) is an odd function.
Note 1:U f (x) is even, then its graph is symmetrical about Y-axis.
Note 2 :If f (x) is odd, then its graph is symmetrical about opposite quadrants.
Table of Fourier Transfonn
Name of the Expression for transform Inverse transform

transform and
interval
Fourier transform
F(A.) = f f{u)e-iAildu f(x) =2 j F{A.) e+iA.x dA.
-oo<X<oo
-- --
Fourier transform 2
(even function) F(A.) = f f(u) cos A. u du f(x) = nf F(A.) cosA. x dA.
-oo<X<oo 0 0
Fourier cosine
transform 0 < x < ""
Fourier transform
(odd function) F(A.) = f f(u) sin A. u du f(x) = 1tz-
f F(A.) sin A. x dA.
-oo <X<oo 0 0
Fourier sine
transform 0 < x < =
Properties of F.T.
a) Linearity property:Let F [f(x)] = F(A.) and F [g(x)] = (G(A.). Then,
F[(c1f(x)+( (x)] = c1, F(A.) + ez(G(A.)
where c1, ez are contants.
b) Change of scale:
F[f(ax)] = ' )
d Shifiting :F[f(x-a)] = e-iAa F(A.)

d) Modulation theorem :
F[f(x) cos ax] = [F(A.+ a)+ F(A.-a)]
Let F5(A) and Fc(A.) be Fourier sine and cosine transforms of f(x) respectively, then
Engineering Mathematics -56 Formulae & Definitions in·M'athe't!
i) Fs.[f(x) cos ax]=[F 5()..+a)+Fs(A-a)]
ii) F5[f(x) sin ax]=fFc(A -a)+Fc(A+a)]

\ iii) Fc[f(x) cos ax] = [Fc(A+ a)+ Fc(A.-a).]
iv)F,.{f\x} sin ax]=[F 5(A+a) -F5(A-a)J
e) The convolution theorem :
f(x) * g(x) Jf(u)g(x-tr)du
F[f(x) * g(x)] = F [f(x)}F fg(x))=F(A.)·G(A.)

Note : The convolution obeys the commutative law, associative law and distributive
law of algebra.
Finite Fourier transforms :
A) Finite FoUrier cosine transform of f(x) in 0 x L is

L
nnx
Fcff(n) or c(n) = f f(x)cosLdx
0
so that
2L 2
ao y:J f(x) (l)dx=y:Fc(O)
0
and
\
The inverse finite Fourier cosine transform of Fc[f(n)] is given by,
1 2 nnx
f(x) = y:Fc(O)+y:L...Fc[f (n)]-cosL
n=l
B) Finite Fourier sine transform of f(x) is defined as,

L
F5 [f(n)] or S(n) = j_.f(x) sin n;:x dx
0
so that,
The inverse finite Fourier sine transform of F5[f(n)] is given by,

2 . nnx
f(x) = L"-'F8[f(n)]smL
n=l
Fourier trans orms of the derivatives of a function
i) Let u(A., t) be Fourier transform of u(x, t)
f u(x, t) eiA" dx
00
u(A., t) =
F[ ] (iA) u (A, t)
F[ : ] (iA) 2 u(A, t) =-A2 u(A, t)
F[<Pu]
iJx3
= (iA) 3 u(A, t)
=- t u(A,t)
d2 -
= u(A,t)
dt 2
..) F . . f f iFu
ll ourler sme trans orm 0 ax2
00
Let U:s(A, t) = J u (x, t) sin Ax dx
t F{ :] = Au(O,t)-/Ju 5 (A,t)
2
i··
l"l) The F0ur1·er Cos·me transform 0f ddX u
2
Engineering Mathematics 58 Fonnulae & Definitions in Mathem ·
Z-Transform : The Z-transform of seq (f(k)} is,
F(z) = Z{f(k)}= L"" f(k) z-k

k=--oo
L"" f{k) z-k, for casual sequence (k O)

k=O
Properties of Z-transform
1) Linearity
Z{af(k)+bg(k)} = aZ{f(k)+bZ(g(k)}
2) Change of Scale
Z{akf(k)} = f( )
3) Corollary of Change of Sca!e
Z{e-akf(k)} = F (ea z)
4) Shifting Property
a) For both sided sequence :
Z{f(k+n)} = znF(z) ... Leftshifting
Z{f(k-n)} = z-np (z) ... Right shifting

b) For casual sequence (k 0) :
n-1
Z{f(k+n)} = znF(z)- Lf(r)zn-r :. Z{f(k+l) =zF(z)-zf(O)}
r=O
Z{f(k+2)}= z 2 F(z)-z 2 f(O) -zf(l)etc.

:. Z{f(k-1)}= z- 1 F(z)
Z{f(k-2)} = z- 2 F(z)etc.
5) Multiplication by k
d
Z{kf(k)} = -z dz F(z)
In greneral,
(_z _c!_)n F(z)

dz
I
6) Division by k
zrt)} = j
z
F z) dz
7) Initial Value Theorem (for one sided sequence e.g. k :;::: 0)
f (0) = lim F(z)

z --7 00
8) Final Value Theorem (for one sided sequence e.g. k:;::: 0)
lim F(k) = lim (z ·- 1) F(z)

k--7oo z--71
9) Convolution Theorm
Z [{f(k)}]*{g(k)} = F(z)-G(z)
where, convolution of {f(k)} and [g(k)} is
{f(k)} *{g 0:<)} = L f(m) g(k-m)
.
m=-oo
and for casual sequence (k :;::: 0)

C<>
{f(k)} *{g (k)} = L f(m) g(k-m)

m=O
Z-transforms of standard sequences
Sr. No. f (k) z { f(k) } •'

I
1. ak, k :::: O z
z _ a'lzi >I
2. ak, k< 0
a z· l z l < Jal
t
3. I a i kl az z , 1
--+- l ai<IZI<-""-
I
!
1-az z-a' · lal
r---
4. ! sin a k, k :::: 0 z sin a
z2 - 2z cos a + 1' I z I >
1
5. cosak,k:::: O z(z -cos a)

1
z2 - 2zcos a+ 1' I z I >
:
sinh a k, k:::: 0
- -z O
-, l z l >max ( l ea lor le-.a
f
sinh- a
z2 - 2z cosh a + 1
I
7. cosh a k, k ? 0 z(z-cosha) . ( )
---- -- .• lz l >maxI eal or-aJ
Je
z2 - 2z cosh a +
1 '
I'"
Engine.ering Mathematics 60 Formulae & Definitions in Math
8. ck sin ak,k;:: 0 czsin a

z2 -2cz cos a+ c2 • izl >lei
9. ck cos a k, k ;:: 0 z(z-ccosa) II

I
z2 - 2cz cos a+ c2 • z > c!
10. ck sinh a k, k :1!: 0

;.cz sinhha II
, z >max (I cea Ior Ice-aD
z2 -..:cz cos a + c2
11. ckcosh ak,k:l!: 0 z(z-ccosha)

h II
, z > max
(Ie"' I or je-"'D
z2 - 2czcos a+c2
12. "4.0kn (1+z-1)", Jz! >1 '
kG,,k;:: n 1
13. z _, (1+ z-1r(n+ ), JzJ >1
14. k + nc n,k;:::: 0 (1+ z-1r(n+1)' ! zl >1
1
15. k+ncnak,k?::O (1+ az-1f<"+ >, Jz! >]a!
16. (k+1)ak,k?::O z2
--2, Jzj >j a J
(z -a)
17. (k+1)(k+2) k k>O z3

2 ! a, - --3,jzJ >1
(z-?)
18. ak eal z,Jz J >JaJ

kf,k?::O
19. 0 (k) 1
20. U(k)
z1'1zJ >1
21. 1 z
z - 1'JzJ>1
32) Statistics
a) Mean
1) Mean (ungrouped data). If x1,x2 .... Xn are n observations.
x =
L Xi
n
2) For grouped data
Note : We can write L fi = N.

3) Method of step. Deviation. (to simplify the calculations)

x·1 -A
If - - then
h
:X A+hu
= A+h(L ·:-]
b) Median
Median divides total set of data into two equal parts.
i) Median is value of middle term of series when arranged in ascending or descending
order of magnitude.
t
If n is odd then median = ( n; )th observation.
1
( n Jth +(n-2+1)th
2
If n is even median =
2
ii) For group frequency distribution,
h(N I 2-C)
Median l+ f
Lower limit of median class.
f = Frequency of median class.
h Width of median class.
C C.F. of the class preceding the median class.
N=L,
Median class is the class here lies.
c) Mode
It is the value of the variant which occurs most frequently in a set of observations, or
is the value of variant corresponding to maximum frequency
Mode l + -=-h(fl.,...-_fo.:,-)
7
2 f1 -fo -fz
Lower limit of modal class.
h Width of the modal class.
f1 Frequency of the modal class.

Engineering Mathematics 62 -Fonnulae & Definitions·in Mathe
fo Frequency of the class preceding the modal class.
£2 Frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.
Modal class the class with highest frequency.

I d) Standard Deviation
ii For 1.uwouped data
\
0 =
ii) For grouped data
0 =
e) Geometric Mean
i) For ungrouped data :If Xt, x4 •..••••••Xn are n observations and Xi ::f. 0 V i ,then
1
G.M. (Xt ·Xz ·XJ ....Xn)n
or G.M. . [Llogxi]
Anti log
n
ii) For grouped data: : For Xt, X2, ......... Xn having corresponding frequencies ft, f2, .........f
G.M. = [xf -x1....x ]N where N = Lfi
or
f) Harmonic Mean
Harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of reciprocals of given
observations.
i) For ungrouped data :
1
H.M. = n =
1 . l ..J • 1)
(X+ Xz +.....+ Xn
ii) For grouped data :

For Xt, X2, .........Xn having corresponding frequencies ft, 6, ........ .fn
N
H.M. = (!_+
Xt X2 .
. + f)
fz +....
Xn
Engine.ering Mathematics 63 Fonnulae & Definitions in Mathematics
g) Dispersion : Means Scatteredness

I) Mean deviation :
Mean deviation= x;
n
-xl = n
·lwhere d; = x; -x
ii) For grouped data
f.d·
Mean deviation = ·'
f;
II) Standard deviation (cr) :
•
cr = (.x -xt = nx[ -xz

ii) For grouped data :
cr =
III) If we use step deviation method :

X; -A
i.e. if U; = 11- then
crx = hcru and x =A+h u

IV) Variance :The square of standard deviation is callvariance, denoted by cr 2
The coefficient of variation= C.V. = A .xlOO
Use to compare variability of two series. The series having les..c;er C.V. is said to be
more consistent.
h) Moments
i) Moments about mean :
JLr = n
where JLo = 1,
J!z cr2•
Engineering Mathematics 64 ·Formulae & Definitions in Mathe ·
ii) Moments about any number A :
});(x; -A)'
I where f.!o == 1,
'Lf;
f.!i=
f.!z is mean square deviation.
x-A
ill) Relation between f.!and f.! r :
f.!o 1, f.!l = 0
f.!2 == f.!2- (f.!i/
3
f.! 3 == f.!,3 - 3f.! 2 f.!1 + 2(f.!1)
2 4
f.!4 f.!4 - 4f.!3' f.!i + 6f.!2 (f.!i) - 3(!-li )
iv) Sheppard's correction for moments :

h2
f.!z(corrected) == f..lz--
12
).! 3(corrected) == f.! 3
f.! 4(corrected)
Where h'is interval width.

. 3 (Mean-Median)
1) a) Skewness == S d dD . .
tan ar ev1ation
2
b) Coefficient of skewness == 131 == f.! ;
f.!2
Y1 == +$
c) Coefficient of Kurtosis :
i) Mesokurtic curve (Normal curve) : The curve which is neither flat nor peaked is
called the mesokurtic curve. For which 132 == 3 or y2 == 0
ii) Platykurtic curve : The curve which is flatter than mesokurtic curve is called the
platykurtic curve for which 132 < 3 or y 2 < 0 ·
iii) Leptokurtic curve : The curve which is more peaked than mesokurtic curve is
called Leptokurtic curve, for which 13z > 3 or y 2> 0.
Engine ring Mathema i s 65 FQrmulae & Definitions in Mathematics
j) Karl Person's coefficient of correlation

cov(x,y)
r (x, y) =
crxcry
where
cov(x,y) = co-variance of (x, y)
= L(xi -x)(Yi -y) = LXiYi -xy

2
crx *L(xi-x)
2
cry L(Yi -y)
k) Regression
i) The equation of line of regression of y on xis given by
y-y = b (x-x)
ii) The equation of line of regression of x on y is
X-X bxy (y-y)
where = Regression coefficient of x on y = r
. cry
cr
and Regression coefficient of y on x = r _r_
· crx
and
I) Probability
i) P(A) = Probability of occurrence of any event A
Number of favourable outcomes
=
Total number of outcomes
ii) 0 :::; P(A) :::; 1 and
iii) Let A, B, C be mutually exclusive events, then P(A \J B uC) = P(A) + P(B) +P(C)
iv) When the events are not mutually exclusive then
P(A u B u C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) - P(A n B)
-P(B n C) - P(A n C) + P(A n B n C)
v) If A and B are two independent events, then
P(A n B) = P(A and B) = P(A) · P(B)
Engineering Mathematics 66 Fonnulae & Definitions,in Mathem
vi) Conditional probability :

.. . P(A nB)
a) Probability of A giVen B = P(A/B) = P(B)
P(AnB)
Probability of B given A = P(B/ A) = P(A)
b) P(A n B) = P(A) ·P(B/A)= P(B) ·P(A/B) and

P(A n B n C) = P(A) ·P(B/A) ·P(C/ A n B)
m) Probability Distribution
I) Discrete probability distribution :
The distribution
X X1 Xz ............... JG,
I p(x) I P1 Pz ................ Pn
Mean = Mathematical expectation= E(x) = Jl
L PiXi
L p; = LPjXj
Variance = cr2 = L Pi (x i -Jl) 2
., II) Binomial distribution :

Let p Probability of getting success
q Probability of getting failure
Q$;r$;n
where B(n, p, r) Probability of getting r successes in n trials.

Mean = Jlp, Variance = cr 2 = npq
cr + npq
If p(r) = ncr pr q n-r then
p(r+1) = ( nr+-1r ) q
p p(r)
III) Poisson distribution :

e-z zr
P(r) =- .1-
r.
Mean = nP = z = variance
S.D. = cr = + .JZ
Engineering Mathematics 67 Formulae & Definitions in .Mathemat s
We have
z
P(r+1) = - P(r)
r+ 1
IV) Norma] distribution :

-(x-J.Lr
1
P(X) = --e 2cr2 , -=<X<=
crJ2ic
f..1. = mean, cr = S.D.

The shape of curve is like bell.
V) Chi-square distribution :
If X1,Xz,......Xn ben independent n (0, 1) variables then the Chi-square

distribution is given by
n
X L
i=l (Xi) 2 Where n = degrees of freedom.
33) Interpolation
a) Forward Differences
M(x) f(x + h) - f(x)
f..2 f(x) == f(x + 2h) - 2f(x + h) + f(x)
f..3 f(x) f(x + 3h) - 3f(x + 2h) + 3f(x + h) - f(x)
b) Backward Differences
Vf(x) f(x) - f(x - h)
V 2 f(x) == f(x) - 2f(x - h) + f(x - 2h)
c) Central Differences
8f(x)
()2f(x) == f(x + h) - 2f(x) + f(x -h)
d) Shift Operator E
E[f(x)] == f(x + h)
Enf(x) f(x + nh)
-
En ine ring MathematiG& .Formulae & Definitions iri-Matbem •
E-nf(x) = f(x - nh)
e) Average Operator J.1
f(x) =( x+ )£( x-)]
f) Symbolic Relations
\
1) P - (1+Ll)n
2) EV - VE = L1
3) (1 + il) (1-V) 1
4) E = ehD and D =k{il- + -......-}

1 1
1 (E
5) 8 - E2 -E- 2, =2 2 + E- 2)
6) j.L - [1+4
82 r/ .
2
g) Factorial Function
x(n) = x(x - h) (x - 2h) ........(x - (n - 1)h)
h) 1) Newton Gregory Formula for Forward Interpolation.
I Consider a, a+2h, a+3h, ..... a+nh.
f(a+uh) = f(x) = f(a)+uM(a)+

u(u -1) · u(u-1)(u -2)
, A2 f(a)+ - L13 f (a)+....
2 31
u(u-1)...(u -(n-1)h) f()
+ , Llna
n.1
x-a
where u = "1\
2) Newton's Gregory Formula for Backward Int rpolation
Consider a, a+h, a+2h, .... a+nh
u(u +1) 2
f(x) = . f(a + nh) + u Vf(a + nh) + , V f(a +nh)
2
+ ........ + u(u+1)(u+2);....(u+n-1).v nf(a +nh)
il.
x-(a +nh)
where u h -
Engineering Mathema., 69 Formulae & Defmitions:inMatbem
3) Lagranges Interpolation Formula

Let arguments xo,Xt,X2·····Xn are not necessarily equally spaced.
f(x) = (X-Xt)(x-x2).....(x-xn) f(Xo) + (x-xo)(x -x2)(x-x3)......(x-)_ f(xt)
(xo -Xt)(xo -x2).......(xo -xn) (Xt -xo) (x1 -x2)(x1 -x3).......(x1 -xn)
(x-xo)(x-xt) ...... (X-Xn-1) f(xn)

+ ...... +
(Xn -xo)(Xn -Xt)....fxn -Xn-d
i) Numerical Differentiation
. dy 1{
- (2u-1) (3u 2 -6u+2) 3 }
1) dx = h Vyo + 2 ti2Yo+ 6 Yo+....
x-xo
where u
d2y
= h2
1[2 6u-6
Yo + 6_ -L\3 Yo +
2
(12u -36u+22) 4
!J. Yo + ·····
J
dx2 24
2)
dy
dx
= h1 [Vy n 2u - J
+1 2V Y n 3u 2 + 6u +.2V 3Y n + .....
+ 6
+- 2
where
x-xn
u = h-
d2y
dx2 = 6u+6 3Yn+ .....
1[v 2Yn+-6-V
h2 J
34) Numerical Integration

Let y = f(x) be given for certain equidistant values of arguments say
xo, xo + h, xo + 2h , ..... the range b - a is divided into n equal parts.
b
b-a
h
n
and J
I = f(x)d(x).
a
a) General Quadrature Formula
J n2
I= ba f(x) dx = h [nyo +TIJ.yo +( n 3 - n 2 - J 3
t ,.2y 0 -(n 4 -n 3 +n2 ') A_ y 0 ............]
3 2 +2 4 6
-+
b) Trapezoidal Rule
I= ft(x)dx=h[ (yo+Yn)+(yt+Y2+......+yn-1)]
a
Engineering Mathematics 70 Formulae & Definitions in-Mathe
I
c) Simpson's
1)rd Rule : (n is even)
(3
b -
I= J f(x)dx == [(yo +yn)+4(yl +y3 +ys+.........+Yn-1) +2(y2 + y 4+.....+yn-2)]
a
I d) Sim;>son's ( )
th
Rule : (n is multiple of 3)
b 3h
J
I== f(x)dx == S[(yo +yn)+3(yl +y2 +y4+.........+Yn-d+2(y3 +y6 +.....+Yn-3)]
a
35) Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations

a) Taylor's Series
, (x-xo)2 u (x-xo) 3 "'
y(x) == yo +(x-xo)yo + ! Yo+ yo+......
2 31
b) Euler's Formula
Yn+l - Yn+hf(xn,Yn)
Y2 == Y1 + hf(x,, yi)
Y3 == Y2+hf(x2,y2)
c) Modified Euler's Formula

y n+l) = yo+ [f(xo,yo)+f(xi+Yin))]
where yf == yo+hf(xo,yo)
d) Runge Kutta Method

I) Second order
1
Y1 == yo +l(K1 +K2)
where K1 f(xo,yo)
K2 == hf(xo + h, yo+ KI)
II) Fourth Order :
YJ Yo +i(KJ +2K2 +2K3 +Kt)

Engineering Mathematics . 71 Formulae & Definitions in Mathematics
where K1 = hf(xo ,yo)
K2 hf (xo + h ,yo + K1 )
2 2
K3 h ,yo +K
hf (xo + 2 T2 )
hf(xo +h.vn + K3)
DOD

Formulae and Definitions in Mathematics

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Formulae and Definitions in Mathematics

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Formulae and Definitions in Engineering Mathematics

4) sin( A± B) ·= sin A cos B± cos A sin B

5) cos(A± B) cos A cos B + sin A sin B

10) cosC-co. s,D

11) '2 sin A cos B

sinAsinB = cos(A -B )-cos(A j- B)

17) sin 3A 3 sin A -4 sin 3A

18) cos 3A = 4 cos 3 A -3 cos A

22) sin -lx + cos- 1x = rt/2

3) log (mn) log m +log n

6) log e(any number) = any number

5) lim ex -1 = 1 6) lim (1+xi 1x = e

7) . lim =O (p > 0) sj lim (1+J =ex

n [f(x)Jn·- 1 -f'(x) 12) dv du

c) Derivatives of Inverse Functions

7) Jcosxdx sinx 8) f tan x dx = log sec x

9) J cot x dx = log sin x 10)

11) J cosec 2 x dx = - cot x 12)

13) J cosec x cot x dx = - cosec x 14) J sec x dx = log (sec x + tan- )

20) J -a2 dx = 2a log x+

Engineering Mathematics 5 Formulae & Definitions In Mathematics

29) J ef(x)f'(x) dx = ef(x)

31) J eaxsin bx·dx eaxb (asinbx -bcosbx) = eax sin[ bx-tan ( b )]

32) J u ·v·dx = u J v dx -J [J v dx dxJ

dashes Derivatives and suffices = Integration

(cos8+isinet cos n8+ i sin ne

2) COS X-i sin X

d) Logarithms of Complex Numbers

3) sin (ix) = i sinh x 4) sinh (ix) = i sin x

13) cosec (ix) = - i cosech x 14) cosec (ix) = - i cosec x

3) cosh 2x :::: cosh 2 x+ sinh 2 x

4) sir.h 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x

5) sinh(x± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y

g) Inverse Hyperbolic Function

2) cosh- 1x = log (x+-vx 2 -1)

h) Derivatives - of Hyperbolic Functions

4) y = (ax+ b r m' where rn is positive

dn ffi I a n (iU<+ b)m-n

Case III: !'n [(ax+b)m] = 0 If rn is positive integer and m < n

14) Binomial expansion

.....+ "Cr xn-r a r + ....+ ncan

f?) Limits of a Sequence

c) Definition : Convergent Sequence

d)·Definition : Monotonic Seguence

2) A monotonic decreasing sequence, and bounded below, is convergent.

e) Limits of Some Standard Sequences

2) lim (1+ ex for all x

Note: If{an}and {bn}are two convergent sequences such that

lim an == A and lim bn = B

3) Sequence {:} is convergent and converges to (provided B =1- o).

10) Infinite Series

It is denoted by L an or simply by L an.

The series L an is said to be convergent if the sequence of partial sums {Sn} is

Before discussing the details of convergence or divergence of an infinite series, the

3) If L"' an is convergent or divergent series then I"'. k an will remain respectively

Tests for Convergence

Working rule to find the auxiliary series v n

3) If Un can be expanded in ascending powers of 1/n then we take

where l is the lowest power of .!_ in the expansion of t1n·

c) RatiTest D'Aiembert'Ratio Test

divergent if lim < 1.

If lim = 1, the test fails and a further investigation will be required.

Let L an be a series o'f positive terms and if lim

Then, i) L an converges if L > 1