Maney Publishing

A Study on Development of Cracks on Paintings

Author(s): Adam Karpowicz
Source: Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Autumn, 1990),
pp. 169-180
Published by: Maney Publishing on behalf of The American Institute for Conservation of Historic &
Artistic Works
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 A STUDY ON DEVELOPMENT OF CRACKS
ON PAINTINGS

ADAM KARPOWICZ

ABSTRACT-Humidity-induced movements were studied on biaxially stretched

samples of sized and gessoed fabricand on films of size and gesso without fabric.
In-planestrains were detected throughobservationof crack patterns formedin a
brittle coating applied on the samples. Different patterns recorded during drying
and humidificationwere found to depend on tension, humidityrange, and time.
The explanationof results is based on viscoelasticand anisotropicpropertiesof the
size layer resulting from changes in molecularconformationbrought about by
drying in restraint.

INTRODUCTION
OVERTHEpast 10 years there have been substantial developmentsin research on the
mechanical behavior of paintings. The knowledge of processes leading to mechanical
failure of paintings materials and their properties has been greatly enhanced through
pioneering work by Mecklenburg(1982). It has been established that environmental
changes induce dramaticresponses in fabricand size. The layer of size is responsiblefor
stress developmentduring humidity decrease; high stiffness of fabric dominates in high
humidity.The most brittle componentof the composite-aged oil paint-fails when move-
ments in the supportingsize and fabricexceed its rupturestrains.
Stress distribution on paintings and the resulting cracks in the paint layer were
simulated on a computerwith the Finite ElementMethod(FEM)(Kilpatrick1980; Colville
et al. 1982). Elastic propertiesof materialswere assumed and based on uniaxialtests.
In this work the humidity-inducedmovements were observed on biaxially stretched
samples of primedfabricwith a commerciallyavailablebrittle coating taking the place of
aged paint. The coating is widely used in industrial stress analysis as a form of strain
gauge; it cracks when strains in a support exceed its breakingstrains. The results reveal
nonelastic propertiesof size and are consistent with a study on dimensionalresponse of
size in changinghumidities (Karpowicz1989).

METHOD
SAMPLESOF fabric (Belgian linen, 500 g/sq.m, thread count 13 [warp] x 12.5
[weftl/sq.cm) were stretched on spring-loadedframes with tension 250 g per 1 cm of
stretcher bar (1.4 lb/in); they were thoroughlywetted and driedunder tension. Carewas
taken to avoid deviation of fibers from straight lines. The samples were transferred onto
wooden strainers without the loss of tension and sized with 6% w/v rabbit-skin glue gel
(M. Grumbacher, Inc., New York, New York 10001). The sizing was followed by 6%
glue/chalk gesso, coated with a thin layer of 3% size. Dimensions of samples were 28 x 56

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170 Adam Karpowicz

cm (11 x 22 in), warp direction lengthwise. Total amount of size (includingthe size in
gesso) was approximately0.0046g/sq. cm. The stretched samples were stored at 45%-
55% RH/210C (later referredto as normal humidity) for 1 week to 3 months prior to
testing.
In certain cases, to eliminate the influence of canvas on the direction of movements,
samples without fabricwere preparedby applyingsize and gesso onto a stretched sheet of
Mylar (0.5 mil, Dupont). The dried samples were protected from the front with tis-
sue/Beva facing (Beva371, AdamChemicalCo.).Both Mylarand the facingwere removed
priorto tests.
In preparationfor testing, the samples were transferredonto a frame equippedwith a
system of pulleys and springs to achieve different tensions or onto rigid aluminum
strainers. The strainers were used to investigatemovementsin restraintas they occur on
actual paintings. Edges of the samples were attached to bars with contact adhesive, thus
avoiding tacking margin effects, which were tested separately. The entire surfaces of
samples were exposed from the front and back to eliminate the differentialresponse to
humidity changes of central parts of samples as comparedwith edges overlyingstretcher
bars. Tension adjustments were made in normal humidity priorto the applicationof the
brittle coating.
The ready-made solution of the brittle lacquer (Tens-Lac,TL-500-85, Measurement
Group Inc., Raleigh, North Carolina 27611) was applied by spraying, 20% v/v
trichloroethylenehaving been added to slow evaporationand to prevent formationof air
bubbles in the coating. Upon drying/conditioning,the coatingbecame progressivelymore
brittle. Estimation of breaking strains was made using a manufacturer-supplied
calibratorand cantilevercalibrationbars. The bars and tested samples were sprayedwith
the coating together and kept in the same conditions.When the coating reached desired
brittleness as tested on the bars with the calibrator(at least 22 hours), humidity was
changed to induce in-plane movements in the supporting samples and cracks in the
coating.
Cracksare always perpendicularto the principaldirectionof tensile stress and strain,
and patterns of cracking represented direction of movements resulting in extension.
These local displacements were not always reflected in actual enlargement of samples.
They were also caused by the inabilityof samples to move along rigid stretcher bars and
by the geometry of samples. If magnitudes of strain were equal in two perpendicular
directions,randompatterns occurred(Dallyand Riley 1978).
Littledata are availableon mechanicalpropertiesof the coating.The tensile strength is
generallyestimated in the literatureat about 200 psi in 50%RH (Kobayashi1987), about
half that of oil paint (Kilpatrick1980). Stiffness of the coatingwas certainlyless than the
size layer, as it could not restrain movementsresulting from free swelling of size in high
humidities, over 93%RH.
Difficulties during tests were associated with the long time of conditioning for the
coating (up to 170 hours for low rupture strains). During that time, samples underwent
sufficient creep to show as cracks in the coating when conditionedin higher humidities.
This effect tended to obscure cracks resulting from humidity change. Therefore, cracks
had to be detected before and after the change for comparison. It was also essential that
the stretched samples be even, without out-of-plane distortions that would later inevitab-
ly lead to uneven tensions and irregular crack patterns.
Cracks were visible, but to record the results they were developed with black ink.
Excess ink and the coating was later removed to leave black crack lines on a white gesso
background.

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 A Study on Development of Cracks on Paintings 171

Cracks formed at higher humidities were always sparser but wider than cracks ob-
served in lower humidities. In higher humidity more extension was possible, and stress
could be released through extension of size within an already-formedcrack. This effect,
no doubt, applies to crackingof aged paint on paintings.
Approximateminimum strains are given with each movement.The strains measured
with the calibratorwere always smaller than the actual strains on samples due to the
much longer times of loading for samples. For faster movements (up to 3 hours) the
actual strains can be higher by about 30% to 100%;for slower movements (up to 20
hours), several times the given values of strain (Dallyand Riley 1978). For movementsin
high humidities, actual values of strain could be much higher due to the extension of size
in cracks.

RESULTSANDDISCUSSION

1. Drying
IT HASbeen observed that patterns of crackingvary with tension applied before drying,
with the rate of drying, and with humidity range. The movements ceased about 1 to 3
hours afterthe change of humidity.
A pattern resembling "waves"radiating from corners (fig. 1) was observed at tension
30g/cm and at no initial tension (rigidaluminum strainer for the latter), during drying
from93%RHto 83%RH,93%to 75%RH,and 93%RHto normalhumidity.Dryingin the
higher humidity range gave better-developed cracks than faster drying to normal
humidity. From 93% to 83% strains were about 0.1% or more; from 93% to 75%, about
0.08%. Dryingfrom 93% RH to normal humidity gave only faint cracks at 0.05% strain.
The cracking always started at longer sides of samples near corners and progressed
towardcenters. Samples with or without fabric gave the same patterns, clearlyresulting
fromshrinkageof the desiccatedsize layer.
Samples with fabric stretched at higher tensions of 200 g/cm (1.11 lb/in) and 350
g/cm (1.96 lb/in) gave very little crackingat cornerswhen dried from93%RHto 75%RH
(min 0.07% strain). The cracks tended to become random toward the center of samples
and to concentrateat the edges.
Tackingmargincracks (fig.2a) were in good agreementwith Kilpatrick(1980).
No cracks were observedon drying from 75% and from lower humidities, even at low
rupturestrains (0.05%)of the coatingand high tension.
The pattern formed at low tension (fig. 1) has been generallyrecognizedas the most
typical craquelureon paintings (Keck1969). Often the regular"waves"and lines perpen-
dicularto edges of a paintingbecome randomor disappeartowardthe center
(fig.3).
During restrained contraction of size upon drying, local stresses and overall tension
continued to increase. Under low tension, shrinking of size was restricted mainly along
rigid stretcher bars, causing extension and cracks perpendicular to the bars. The crack-
ing started where stress was the highest, at areas farthest from the center of rectangular
samples, at longer bars near the corners. Cracks would begin to curve, forming the
"waves,"since shrinking of size continued toward the center of a sample. Overall tension
increased as the humidity continued to drop. At a certain higher tension, stress across
the sample and perpendicular to the bars began to reach levels equal to stress the
bars, and a random pattern occurred. With gradual decreases of humidity, morealongcracking
took place along the "typical" lines; during faster drying, random patterns would

JAIC 29 (1990): 169-180

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172 Adam Karpowicz

Fig. 1. Crack patterns observed during humidity decrease at low tension. One-quarter of
sample shown

J,
\\_ ,. ,..,7

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... __ . • - .
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Fig. 2. Crack patterns at tacking margins: (a) during humidity decrease; (b) during
humidifcation

JAIC 29 (1990): 169-180

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 A Study on Development of Cracks on Paintings 173

Fig. 3. Typical craquelure on paintings. One-quarter of sample shown

dominate. It is interesting that the rapid increase in stress did not cause more strain and
cracking, as one would expect assuming the elastic behavior of size. Also, strains in the
size layer below 75% RH were too small to crack the coating, which was sensitized to very
low rupture strain of 0.05%, despite very high stress. The inhibition of movement at high
tension can result from an increase in stiffness of the size in the direction of loading. This
effect is common for organic, viscoelastic polymers and was investigated for gelatin, the
purer form of size (Gupta 1964).
In the elastic model (Kilpatrick 1980; Colville et al. 1982), the typical pattern results
from differential drying of a central part of a painting as opposed to sections around edges
and over stretcher bars. These sections remain "wet" and relatively unstressed. The
typical pattern observed here occurred at low tension with entire samples exposed to free
circulation of air. It seems the low tension takes the place of the unstressed outside edge
in the elastic model, distribution of stress remaining the same. Many paintings, however,
show the "typical"pattern exactly in areas over and along stretcher bars. The occurrence
of typical craquelure at edges would not be possible in the FEM model but agrees well
with the results of this work.

JAIC 29 (1990): 169-180

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 174 Adam Karpowicz

.. .
-", -~ -i.?
-( -7•: ,I/_
- - 7 ..- -.<. i~-. . , y-
... ..-2 .,' ",.
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/-"?~ j .7 . (--- /_
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Fig. 4. Crack patterns during humidification: expansion/tension-related movement. One-

quarter of sample shown

.,., .

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. _i ._i \. . . . .. . , --

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Fig. 5. Crack patterns resulting from restrained shrinkage of size in 93% RH. Samples
without fabric; one-quarter of sample shown. Reprinted from Studies in Conservation
34(2):72 with the permission of the International Institute for Conservation of Historic
and Artistic Works, 6 Buckingham Street, London, England WC2N 6BA.

JAIC 29 (1990): 169-180

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 A Study on Developmentof Crackson Paintings 175

? u I1. I
.
':,?n
?~
"/
-, ).>,7.r
"• -" A ?/
J/ /

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7 -/

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.-~

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j r

/N

..... /
.

Fig. 6. Crack patterns resulting from restrained shrinkage in 93% RH. Samples with
fabric; one-quarter of sample shown. Reprintedfrom Studies in Conservation34(2):72
with the permissionof the InternationalInstitute for Conservationof Historicand Artistic
Works,6 BuckinghamStreet, London,EnglandWC2N6BA.

\ k
f? \ ,

;r1 (I.
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Fig. 7. Crack patterns resulting from creep of fabric at high tension in 93% RH. One-
quarterof sample shown

JAIC29 (1990): 169-180

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176 Adam Karpowicz

2. Humidification
The effects of humidification were dependent on initial tension applied, period of time
elapsed after the change of humidity, and humidity range.
All stretched samples (30 g/cm tension and above) gave exactly the same pattern (fig. 4)
when moved from lower to higher humidity, regardless of humidity range (humidities 10%
to 33%, 33% to normal humidity, normal to 75%, and 75% to 93% RH were tested). The
cracks originated at the comers and spread toward the center. The movement ceased
after about 30 minutes for samples without fabric and after 3 hours for samples with
fabric. The levels of strain did not seem to exceed 0.12% strain at 30 g/cm for all
humidity ranges (not counting the extension within cracks in higher humidities). Samples
under no tension did not give this pattern, but exhibited only random swelling with a
tendency to expand more lengthwise. Also, when any stretched sample fragments were
restrained from moving, the pattern became distorted. The same pattern showed on
samples that were allowed to dry previously on rigid strainers and to develop tension of
their own (Karpowicz 1985). For lesser tensions, the movement was simultaneous with
less pronounced perpendicular cracking.
In higher humidities, for samples at tension 30 g/cm (with and without fabric), 100
g/cm (0.56 lb/in, with fabric) and at no tension on rigid strainers (without fabric), after
the initial movement as above, direction of strains changed to give patterns similar to
drying (figs. 5, 6). Both movements were separated by placing samples in higher humidity
immediately after applying the coating. The "wet"coating was not brittle enough to crack
with the initial tension-related movements and cracked later, showing only the second
movement. Higher strains were detected in 93% RH (min 0.1% after 20 hours, actual level
of strain could approach 1%)than in 75% RH (min 0.05% after 192 hours). No movement
was detected in normal and lower humidities.
At higher tension (200g/cm and 350g/cm) in 93% RH (movements in 75% RH not
having been investigated) and with the initial tension-related movements eliminated as
above, different patterns were obtained (fig. 7).
Upon humidification, tacking margins gave cracks exactly perpendicular to drying
cracks (fig. 2b). This effect was simultaneous with the initial tension-related movement
(fig. 4).
There is little doubt that the initial movement (fig. 4) is a manifestation of an outward
pull exerted on the film of size and on the fabric by the rigid bars and is simultaneous
with the expansion of the size layer through absorption of water in higher humidity. There
is a marked similarity in cracking patterns with those computed as "keying-out" effects
(Kilpatrick 1980; Colville et al. 1982). The movements are essentially the same as here,
where the expanding size yields to the outside tension. The smaller perpendicular strains
at low tension indicate continuation of the expansion in all directions; for higher tensions
the overall expansion could have been absorbed by the initial movement.
The initial expansion/tension-related movements stopped after 3 hours for samples
with fabric, apparently when the samples reached an equilibrium in higher humidity.
This is in good agreement with results by Daly and Michalski (1986), where the dimen-
sional response of fabric-supported samples to changed humidity ceased after 2 to 3
hours. The response of samples without fabric was found here to be faster (30 minutes).
At low tensions, after the initial expansion, distribution of stress changed, as if the size
layer (and fabric, if present) began to contract (figs. 5, 6, compare with desiccation on fig.
1). To investigate this effect, a new series of experiments was set up. Samples without

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 A Study on Development of Cracks on Paintings 177

fabricwere stretched in normalhumidityat 30 g/cm and at no tension on strainers.The

change of humidity to 93% RH caused expansion, which was manifested in wrinkles
perpendicularto edges. After about 20 minutes the samples began to shrink and flatten
out; in 45 minutes they were flat and visibly taut.
The tests provedthat a size layer is capable of contractionin higher humidities and of
developingstress, the distributionof which results in the "typical"pattern of craquelure,
provided the tension is low (here less than 200 g/cm for samples with fabric). This
phenomenonwould be difficultto explain on the basis of purely elastic behaviorof size.
However,it becomes understandableif nonelastic propertiesare assumed. For the latter,
mechanical properties change depending on the range of humidities in which tests are
performed.
The dimensional response of unsupported films of size in different humidities was
investigated in detail and found to follow exactly the above expanding and contracting
movements (Karpowicz1989). The layer of size after applicationon canvas shrank with
the loss of moisture. The shrinkage was restrained in plane of the film by the stretcher
bars and the underlyingfabric.The molecularstructure of a film dried in restraintis not
the same as that of freely contractedfilms. Its structure has become strained as well to
reflect extension of the Mfim.Below the moisture content of about 17% (Ueno and Ono
1963) (which correspondsto about 70% RH [Bull 1944]), upon reaching its glass transi-
tion temperature(Tg),the size enters its glassy state, in which the molecules are immobi-
lized and the strains frozen in the film (Ueno and Ono 1963). When the sized fabric is
taken off the stretcheronly small elastic contractionis possible; largeviscoelastic strains,
which took place at higher water content, cannot be relieved. When the restretched
sample is exposed to humidities above 70% RH (aboveTg), the water content becomes
sufficient to plastify the film and the "frozen-in"strains can be released by the overall
contraction of the samples. The shrinkage of fabric, known to occur above 80% RH
(Mecklenburg1982), could also have contributed to the movements. Before samples
reachedmoisture content correspondingto Tg,when they were exposed to any of the high
humidity levels studied here, they all expandedby swelling to give the initial tension-re-
lated movements.
Crackingin the "typical"directions associated with these effects takes place at lower
tensions. High tension in higher humidity gave a different pattern (fig. 7),
apparently
resulting fromcreep of fabricin the directionof warp.

3. Strain-InducedOrientationin the Size Layer

The tacking margineffects on humidification(fig.2b) show an interestingphenomenon
of expansion by swelling in higher humiditylateral to the previous directionof stress and
strain, during drying, after applicationon canvas. The occurrence of an identical crack
pattern has been reportedfor a painting rapidlyhumidifiedduring a flood (Pocobeneand
Hodkinson 1987). This effect demonstratesan importantpropertyof size:
tation on the molecularlevel caused by strain. in-plane orien-

The network of collagenlike fibrils in the gelled layer of size on fabric undergoes
distortions in the direction of strains during drying and shrinkage (Karpowicz 1989). The
fibrils become oriented, with the degree of orientation dependent on the magnitude of
strain (Burdygina et al. 1969). At the same time, the decreasing thickness of the fim
causes compression of the network and orientation of the fibrils parallel to the plane of
the film. The maximum orientation seems to occur when water content drops to 85%-78%
in the gel (well above Tg) and will be enhanced by slow drying. Gradually the structure
becomes too rigid at lower water contents; no orientation is possible below 15% of water

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178 Adam Karpowicz

in the film in the glassy regionbelow Tg (Coopes1968). The dried film can be expected to
exhibit in-plane orientationof collagenlikefibrils, parallelto the plane of film and in the
directionof strains induced by drying.
The effects of orientation would be the highest close to the outside perimeter of
paintings, fartherfromthe center, where the highest strains duringdryingoccurred.Also,
slow dryingin the areas over the stretcherbars would allow more orientationthere.
Orientedpolymersswell mainly across the axis of fibrilorientation,and the anisotropy
of swelling is a measure of orientationin polymers (Turner1948). At the tacking margin
the layer of size expanded during humidification(fig. 2b) across the direction of drying
strains (fig. 2a). It has been found that isotropic swelling is manifested only by gelatin
films unrestrainedduring drying(Simmsand Blake 1960). The presence of orientationin
films of size dried in restraint was confirmedby observationsof strain-inducedbirefrin-
gence (Karpowicz1988).

CONCLUSIONS
DESPITEITSlimitations, the brittle coating method proveduseful in studying humidity-
induced movements on paintings. The film of size was found not only to expand in high
humidity, but also, followingthe brief expansion, to contractwhen its moisture content
reached sufficient levels. The magnitude of the contraction will vary depending on
humidity range and the length of time a painting is kept in high humidity. Short ex-
posures may not be sufficient to bring about cracking of paint. Subsequent periods of
lower humidity,however,will induce furthercontractionof the size layer and progressive
increase of stress and strain (Karpowicz1989). At lower tension the direction of the
strains followed that of the most common pattern of craquelure on paintings. This
directionwill be the same in high humidityand duringlater desiccation.At higher tension
the stress distributionwill be different.A recent paper, however,reportedthat sized fabric
stretched at high tension appearedto relax rapidlyand stabilize at lowerlevels of tension
(Bergerand Russell 1988).
During the process of viscoelastic recoveryin high RH, the layer of size could have
acquired anisotropic properties through molecular orientation in the direction of
shrinkage (Karpowicz1989) (figs. 5, 6). It is possible that the stiffness of size became
greaterin the directionof orientation(Turner1948). This may explainwhy strains during
dryingthat followedwere small, despite the developmentof high stress, and caused only
limited crackingin the same typical direction.It is importantto realizethat the size, and
presumablythe fabric, are both nonelastic materials.The effects of time on the develop-
ment of stress and strain are of primaryimportance.
Fabric,which also contractsin high humidity,may contributeto these movementsand
requires another study. The ultimate mechanical properties of aged paint, especially
breakingstrains at lower rates of loading, must also be investigatedto take into account
the viscoelastic, time-dependentbehaviorof size.

ACKNOWLEDGM1ENTS
THE AUTHORwishes to thank Stefan Michalski and Debra Daly, Canadian Conservation
Institute, and the late Gerry Hedley, Courtauld Institute of Art, for their helpful remarks
at the beginning stages of this project.

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 A Study on Development of Cracks on Paintings 179

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Burdygina, G. I., I. M. Fridman, P. V. Kozlov, and V. A. Kargin. 1969. Effects of orientation on

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Coopes, I. H. 1968. The optical rotation of gelatin films. Journal of Polymer Science 6, pt. A- 1:1991-
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ADAM KARPOWICZ

ADAMKARPOWICZ receivedhis M.Sc. degreein chemistryfromthe Universityof Warsaw,

Poland, and subsequentlya M.A.degreein conservationof paintings fromthe Academyof
Fine Arts, Warsaw. His research interests are in the structure and the dimensional
response of paintings for the New Brunswickprovincialgovernment. Address:OwensArt
Gallery,MountAllison University,Sackville,New Brunswick,CanadaEOA3CO.

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