Chapter1

1. Introduction

ALUMINUM, the second most plentiful metallic element on earth, became an economic
competitor in engineering applications as recently as the end of the 19th century. It was to
become a metal for its time. The emergence of three important industrial developments would,
by demanding material characteristics consistent with the unique qualities of aluminum and its
alloys, greatly benefit growth in the production and use of the new metal.

Attributes
Although aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, it costs more than some
less plentiful metals because of the energy needed to extract the metal from ore. Its widespread
use is due to the aluminum’s qualities, which include:

High Strength-to-Weight Ratio Aluminum is the lightest metal other than magnesium, with a
density about one-third that of steel. The strength of aluminum alloys, however, rivals that of
mild carbon steel, and can approach 100 ksi (700 MPa). This combination of high strength and
light weight makes aluminum especially well-suited to transportation vehicles such as ships, rail
cars, aircraft, rockets, trucks, and, increasingly, automobiles, as well as portable structures such
as ladders, scaffolding, and gangways.

Ready Fabrication Aluminum is one of the easiest metals to form and fabricate, including
operations such as extruding, bending, roll-forming, drawing, forging, casting, spinning, and
machining. In fact, all methods used to form other metals can be used to form aluminum.
Aluminum is the metal most suited
to extruding. This process (by which solid metal is pushed through an opening outlining the
shape of the resulting part, like squeezing toothpaste from the tube) is especially useful since it
can produce parts with complex cross sections in one operation. Examples include aluminum
fenestration products such as window frames and door thresholds, and mullions and framing
members used in curtain walls, the outside envelope of many buildings.

Corrosion Resistance The aluminum cap placed at the top of the Washington Monument in
1884 is still there today. Aluminum reacts with oxygen very rapidly, but the formation of this tough
oxide skin prevents further oxidation of the metal. This thin, hard, colorless oxide film tightly
bonds to the aluminum surface and quickly reforms when damaged .

High Electrical Conductivity Aluminum conducts twice as much electricity as an equal weight
of copper, making it ideal for use in electrical transmission cables.

1
Chapter1

High Thermal Conductivity Aluminum conducts heat three times as well as iron, benefiting
both heating and cooling applications, including automobile radiators, refrigerator evaporator
coils, heat exchangers, cooking utensils, and engine components.
High Toughness at Cryogenic Temperatures Aluminum is not prone to brittle fracture at low
temperatures and has a higher strength and toughness at low temperatures, making it useful for
cryogenic vessels.
Reflectivity Aluminum is an excellent reflector of radiant energy; hence its use for heat and
lamp reflectors and in insulation.
Nontoxic Because aluminum is nontoxic, it is widely used in the packaging industry for food and
beverages, as well as piping and vessels used in food processing and cooking utensils.

Recyclability Aluminum is readily recycled; about 30% of U.S. aluminum production is from
recycled material. Aluminum made from recycled material requires only 5% of the energy
needed to produce aluminum from bauxite. Often a combination of the properties of aluminum
plays a role in its selection for a given application. An example is gutters and other rain-carrying
goods, made of aluminum because it can be easily roll-formed with portable equipment on site
and it is so resistant to corrosion from exposure to the elements. Another is beverage cans,
which benefit from aluminum’s light weight for shipping purposes, and its recyclability.

. Materials
AL7075-T6

The Al 7075 alloy is widely used in aerospace and automotive manufacture due to its good
strength and excellent stable corrosion property. The composition of the used Al-7075 alloy is
shown in Table 1. The alloys in this series are classified into two types, Al- Zn-Mg-Cu alloys and
Al-Zn-Mg alloys. The first type of alloys is the strongest of the aluminum alloys while the second
one can be used in welded structures. The Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy is used as an ultra-super
duralumin for aircraft materials, sporting goods, and other products. However, the Al-Zn-Mg alloy
has a relatively high strength and it was primarily developed as welding structural material that
can be thermally treated. In addition, the Al-Zn-Mg alloy can be used for structural and other
materials in trains, including bullet trains. There are different types of aluminum 7075 alloy
according to its temper like 7075-0 (un-heat treated), 7075-T6, 7075-T7, etc. It should be noted
that the temper affects strongly on the alloy hardness properties such as elongation, tensile
strength, and yield strength. In this study, an Al 7075-T6 alloy is used which Solution Heat
Treated and Artificially Aged has the following hardness properties shown in Table 2.

2
Chapter1

Table 1-1 Chemical compositions of Al-7075 alloy (wt%).

Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Other Al
0.40 0.50 1.2–2.0 0.30 2.1–2.9 0.18– 5.1–6.1 0.20 0.15 Remainder
0.28

Table 1-2 Mechanical properties of Al-7075-T6 alloy

Mechanical property Value
Density (×1000 kg/m3) 2.8 at 20 °C
Poisson’s Ratio 0.33
Elastic Modulus (GPa) (26.9–72.4)¹ at 25 °C
Tensile Strength (Mpa) 572
Yield Strength (Mpa) 503
Elongation (%) 11 at 25 °C
Hardness (HB) 150² at 25 °C
Shear Strength (MPa) 150 at 25 °C
Fatigue Strength (MPa) 160 at 25 °C
¹: Tension, 71.0 GPa; shear, 26.9 GPa; compression, 72.4 GPa
²: data obtained using 500 kg load, 10 mm diam ball, and 30 s duration of loading

6061-T6 Aluminum

6061-T6 aluminum is a type of 6061 aluminum. It is furnished in the T6 temper. To achieve

this temper, the metal is solution heat-treated and artificially aged until it meets standard
mechanical property requirements.

Typical uses Trucks, towers, canoes, railroads cars, furniture, pipelines, and other structural
applications where strength, weldability, and corrosion resistance are needed
Chemical Composition See Table 3.
Mechanical Properties See Table 4

Table 1-3 Chemical compositions of Al-6061 alloy (wt%).

Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Other Al
0.40–0.8 0.7 0.15– 0.15 0.8–1.2 0.04– 0.25 0.15 0.15 Remainder
0.40 0.35

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Chapter1

Table 1-4 Mechanical properties of Al-6061-T6 alloy

Mechanical property Value
Density (×1000 kg/m3) 2.7 at 20 °C ¹:
Poisson’s Ratio 0.33
Elastic Modulus (GPa) (68–70)¹ at 25 °C
Tensile Strength (Mpa) 310
Yield Strength (Mpa) 276
Elongation (%) 17 at 25 °C
Hardness (HB) 95² at 25 °C
Shear Strength (MPa) 207 at 25 °C
Fatigue Strength (MPa) 97 at 25 °C
Tension, 68.9 GPa; compression, 69.7 GPa

²: data obtained using 500 kg load, 10 mm diam ball, and 30 s duration of load

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Chapter2

2 Bending and Buckling analysis

Bending
Beams must be designed to be safe. When loads are applied perpendicular to the long axis
of a beam, bending moments are developed inside the beam, causing it to bend. Observe a thin
beam. The characteristically curved shape shown in Figure2–1 is evident. The fibers of the beam
near its top surface are shortened and placed in compression. Conversely, the fibers near the
bottom surface are stretched and placed in tension.

Taking a short segment of the beam from Figure 2–1, we show in Figure 2–2 how the shape
would change under the influence of the bending moments inside the beam. In part (a), the
segment is in its initially straight form when it is not carrying a load. Part (b) shows the same
segment as it is deformed by the application of the bending moments. Lines that were initially
horizontal become curved. The ends of the segment, which were initially straight and vertical,
remain straight. However, now they are inclined, having rotated about the centroidal axis of the
cross section of the beam. The result is that the material along the top surface has been placed
under compression and consequently shortened. Also, the material along the bottom surface
has been placed under tension and has elongated.

In fact, all of the material above the centroidal axis is in compression. The maximum shortening
(compressive strain) occurs at the top. Because stress is proportional to strain, it can be
reasoned that the maximum compressive stress occurs at the top surface.

Figure 2-1 Example

of a beam.

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Chapter2

Figure 2-2
on beam segment: (a)straight unloaded beam

segment and (b) bent

segment when subjected

to bending moment.

Similarly, all of the material below the centroidal axis is in tension. The maximum elongation
(tensile strain) occurs at the bottom, producing the maximum tensile stress.

We can also reason that if the upper part of the beam is in compression and the lower part is in
tension, then there must be some place in the beam where there is no strain at all.

That place is called the “neutral axis,” and it will be shown later that it is coincident with the
“centroidal axis” of the beam. In summary, we can conclude the following:
 In a beam subjected to a bending moment of the type shown in Figure 2–2,
material above the centroidal axis will be in compression with the maximum
compressive stress occurring at the top surface.
 Material below the centroidal axis will be in tension with the maximum tensile
stress occurring at the bottom surface.
 Along the centroidal axis itself, there is zero strain and zero stress due to bending.
This is called the neutral axis.

In designing or analyzing beams, it is usually the objective to determine the maximum tensile
and compressive stress. It can be concluded from this discussion that these maximums
are dependent on the distance from the neutral axis (centroidal axis) to the top and bottom
surfaces. We will call that distance c.

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Chapter2

The stress due to bending is also proportional to the magnitude of the bending moment applied
the beam determines its ability to withstand the applied bending moment. It will be shown later
that the bending stress is inversely proportional to the area moment of inertia of the cross section
with respect to its horizontal centroidal axis.
We now state the flexure formula, which can be used to compute the maximum stress due to
bending.

➪ Flexure Formula σmax = Mc/I

Where σmax is the maximum stress (tension or compression) at the outermost fiber
of the beam

M is the bending moment at the section of interest

c is the distance from the centroidal axis of the beam to the outermost fiber
I is the area moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to its centroidal axis

2.1.1 Three Point Bending Test

2.1.1.1 Theory
The Flexural test measures the force required to bend a beam under 3 point loading conditions.
The data is often used to select materials for parts that will support loads without flexing. Flexural
modulus is used as an indication of a material’s stiffness when flexed. Since the physical
properties of many materials (especially thermoplastics) can vary depending on ambient
simulate intended end use environment.

2.1.1.2 Stress
Stress is the internal resistance, or counterforce, of a material to the distorting effects of an
external force or load. These counter forces tend to return the atoms to their normal positions.
The total resistance developed is equal to the external load. This resistance is known as stress.
2.1.1.2.1 Bending
In engineering mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior of a
slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicular to an axis of the
element. When the length is considerably larger than the width and the thickness, the element
is called a beam.

7
Chapter2

Simple beam bending is often analyzed with the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation. The classic
formula for determining the bending stress in a member is:

σ =MY/Ixx
Where:

σ is the bending stress

M the moment about the neutral axis
y the perpendicular distance to the neutral axis

Ixx the area moment of inertia about the neutral axis x

Figure 2-3

2.1.1.2.2 Shear and Moment Diagrams:

For the experimental setup, shear and moment diagrams can be plottes as below:

Figure 2-4

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Chapter2

Buckling
Buckling is the phenomenon by which a medium or long column fails by a combination of
bending and compression. As the axial load is increased, the column tends to buckle or bend.
For small values of the load the column remains in stable equilibrium returning to its straight
position when the load is removed. As the load is increased, the column gets a permanent
deflection even after the lateral load is removed. The column is in a deflected, neutral equilibrium
position. Further increase in the load causes more deflection and the column fails. Such a failure
is known as buckling.

2.2.1 Stability
Stability is an important factor in the behavior of long columns. The three states of equilibrium-
stable, neutral and unstable- are demonstrated by the ball resting on different surfaces shown
in Fig. 2-5. A small displacement of the ball causes forces which bring it back to the equilibrium
position in Fig. 2-5 (a). A small displacement increases the displacement in Fig. 2-5 (b) as the
ball is in unstable equilibrium. In neutral equilibrium as in Fig. 2-5 (c), the ball changes to a new
equilibrium position on being given a small displacement. A long column behaves in a similar
fashion. Considering the column shown in Fig. 2-6, when the load P is small, the column is in
stable equilibrium. This can be demonstrated by applying a lateral load and deflecting the
column. The deflected shape shown by dotted lines can be maintained only so long as the lateral
force exists. When the lateral force is removed, the column returns to its original straight position.
The column is thus in stable equilibrium.

When the value of P is progressively increased, at a particular value of P, the column does not
return to the initial position when deflected by a small lateral force even after this force is
removed. The column maintains a new equilibrium position, which is the deflected position. The
column is thus in neutral equilibrium. Any increase in the value of P increases the deflection and
causes the failure of the column by buckling.

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Chapter2

Figure 2-5
Figure 2-6

2.2.2 Critical or Buckling Load

The maximum value of load, Pcr, up to which the column remains in a position of neutral
equilibrium, is known as the critical load for the column. At the critical load, the column can
remain in equilibrium either in a straight or a deflected position.

In Summary If P < Pcr, the structure is stable

If P > Pcr, the structure is stable

2.2.3 SLENDERNESS RATIO

A column has been described as a relatively long, slender member loaded in compression.
This description is stated in relative terms and is not very useful for analysis.

The measure of the slenderness of a column must take into account the length, the cross-
sectional shape and dimensions of the column, and the manner of attaching the ends of the
column to the structures that supply loads and reactions to the column. The commonly used
measure of slenderness is the slenderness ratio, defined as
𝒌𝑳 𝑳𝒆
➪ Slenderness Ratio 𝑺𝑹 = =
𝒓 𝒓

2.2.4 Actual Length, L.

For a simple column having the load applied at one end and the reaction provided at the other,
the actual length is, obviously, the length between its ends. But for components of structures
loaded in compression where a means of restraining the member laterally to prevent buckling is
provided, the actual length is taken between points of restraint. Each part is then considered to
be a separate column.

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Chapter2

2.2.5 End-Fixity Factor, K.

The end-fixity factor is a measure of the degree to which each end of the column is restrained
against rotation. Three classic types of end connections are typically considered: the pinned
end, the fixed end, and the free end. Figure 2-7shows these end types in several combinations
with the corresponding values of K. Note that two values of K are given. One is the theoretical
value, and the other is the one typically used in practical situations.

Figure 2-7 (a) shows a commercially available demonstration device that illustrates the relative
stiffness and resistance to buckling of end-fixity conditions. The first (leftmost) column is
captured at both the top and bottom in a way that maintains location of the end but allows for
unrestrained rotation in either direction. This “pinned–pinned” column is shown with a weight on
the top that has initiated buckling as seen by the large curve out to the right side. The second
column captured in a slot on the top end, inhibiting rotation there, but is free to rotate at the
bottom end and the third has these two ends reversed. These are both referred to as “fixed–
pinned” columns. The first of these shows no load on the test column, and hence, it is still
straight, and next is shown with a load that has caused buckling. The last column in the test
fixture is fixed on the bottom end, and the top end is completely free to move. The relatively
small weight on the top has resulted in the column bending to the right, and it would likely
continue to fall if not retained by the slot in the fixture.
Figure 2-7also provides a graphic of the various fixity arrangements and the value
associated with each:

 Pinned ends allow rotation as shown in Figure 2-7 (b). This is the basic case of column
buckling, and the value of K = 1.0 is applied to columns having two pinned ends. An ideal
implementation of the pinned end is the frictionless spherical ball joint that would permit
the column to rotate in any direction about any axis. For a cylindrical pin joint, free rotation
is permitted about the centerline of the pin, but some restraint is provided in the plane
perpendicular to the centerline. Care must be exercised in applying end-fixity factors to
cylindrical pins for this reason. It is assumed that the pinned end is guided in some way
so that the line of action of the axial load remains unchanged.

 The combination of one fixed end and one pinned end is shown in Figure 2-7 (c) and
shows that the buckled shape approaches the fixed end with a zero slope while the pinned
end rotates freely. The theoretical value of K = 0.7 applies to such an end fixity, while K
= 0.80 is recommended for practical use.

 Fixed ends provide theoretically perfect restraint against rotation of the column at its ends.
As the column tends to buckle, the deflected shape of the axis of the column must
approach the fixed end with a zero slope, as illustrated in Figure 2-7 (d). The buckled
shape bows out in the middle but exhibits two points of inflection to reverse the direction

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Chapter2

of curvature near the ends. The theoretical value of the end-fixity factor is K = 0.5,
indicating that the column acts as if it were only one-half as long as it really is. Columns
with fixed ends are much stiffer than pinned-end columns and can therefore take higher
loads before buckling. It should be understood that it is very difficult to provide perfectly
fixed ends for a column. It requires that the connection to the column is rigid and stiff and
that the structure to which the loads are transferred is also rigid and stiff. For this reason,
the higher value of K = 0.65 is recommended for practical use.

 A free end for a column is unrestrained against rotation and also against translation.
because it can move in any direction, this is the worst case for column end fixity. The only
practical way of using a column with a free end is to have the opposite end fixed, as
illustrated in Figure 2-11 (e). Such a column is sometimes referred to as the flagpole case
because the fixed end is similar to the flagpole inserted deeply into a tight-fitting socket,
while the other end is free to move in any direction. Here, we use the term fixed-free end
condition, for which the theoretical value of K is 2.0. A practical value is K = 2.10.

Figure 2-7
2.2.6 Effective Length, Le.
Effective length combines the actual length with the end-fixity factor: Le = KL. In the problems in
this book, we use the recommended practical values for the end-fixity factor, as shown in Figure
2-7. In summary, the following relationships will be used to compute the effective length:

➪ Effective Length
1. Pinned-end columns: Le = KL = 1.0(L) = L
2. Fixed–pinned columns: Le = KL = 0.80(L)
3. Fixed-end columns: Le = KL = 0.65(L)
4. Fixed-free columns: Le = KL = 2.10(L)

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Chapter2

2.2.7 Radius of Gyration, r.

The measure of slenderness of the cross section of the column is its radius of gyration, r, defined
as

𝑰
➪ Radius of Gyration 𝒓 = √𝑨

Where I is the moment of inertia of the cross section of the column with respect to one of
the principal axes
A is the area of the cross section

Note that the value of the radius of gyration, r, is dependent on the axis about which it is to be
computed. In most cases, it is required that you determine the axis for which the radius of
gyration is the smallest, because that is the axis about which the column would likely buckle.
Consider, for example, a column made from a rectangular section whose width is much greater
than its thickness, as sketched in Figure 2-8. The meterstick demonstrates that when loaded in
axial compression with little or no restraint at the ends, the column will always buckle with respect
to the axis through the thinnest dimension.

Refer to Figure 2-8to illustrate this point. Shown there are sketches of the thin rectangular
cross section of the meterstick sketched in Figure 2-8. Part (a) shows the shape with respect to
the centroidal axis Y–Y. The thickness of the rectangle is t and the width is h. Then the moment
of inertia of the rectangle with respect to the Y–Y axis is

𝒉𝒕𝟑
𝑰𝒚 =
𝟏𝟐
The area is simply

A = th

Now, using Equation (11–2), we can obtain a relationship for the radius of gyration, rY:

𝑰𝒚 𝒉𝒕𝟑 ∕ 𝟏𝟐 𝒕𝟐 𝒕
𝒓𝒚 = √ = √ = √ = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟗𝒕
𝑨 𝒕𝒉 𝟏𝟐 √𝟏𝟐

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Chapter2

Figure 2-8

Similarly, using Figure 2-8 (b), we can obtain an equation for rX:

𝑰𝒙 𝒕𝒉𝟑 ∕ 𝟏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒉
𝒓𝒙 = √ = √ =√ = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟗𝒉
𝑨 𝒕𝒉 𝟏𝟐 √𝟏𝟐

Observe that because h > t, rx > ry and then ry is the smallest radius of gyration for the section.

So the minimum value of r is that computed with respect to the Y–Y axis; that is,

𝑰𝒚
𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒓𝒚 = √
𝑨

2.2.8 TRANSITION SLENDERNESS RATIO

There are two methods for analyzing straight, centrally loaded columns are presented: (1) the
Euler formula for long, slender columns and (2) the J. B. Johnson formula for short columns.

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Chapter2

The choice of which method to use depends on the value of the actual slenderness ratio for the
column being analyzed in relation to the transition slenderness ratio, or column constant. Cc,
defined as

➪ Transition

Slenderness Ratio 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝑬

𝑪𝑪 = √
𝑺𝒚
Eq 2-1

The following rules are applied to determine if a given column is long or short:

If the actual effective slenderness ratio Le/r is greater than Cc, then the column is long, and the Euler
formula, defined in the next section, should be used to analyze the column.

If the actual ratio Le/r is less than Cc, then the column is short. In these cases, either the J.B. Johnson
formula, special codes, or the direct compressive stress formula should be used, as discussed in later
sections.

2.2.9 EULER FORMULA FOR LONG COLUMNS

For long columns having an effective slenderness ratio greater than the transition value Cc, the
Euler formula can be used to predict the critical load at which the column would be expected to
buckle. The formula is

➪ Euler Formula for

Long Columns 𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑨
𝑷 𝒄𝒓 =
(𝑳𝒆 ∕ 𝒓)𝟐

where A is the cross-sectional area of the column.

15
Chapter2

An alternative form can be expressed in terms of the moment of inertia by noting that r² = I/A.
Then the formula becomes

𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
𝑷 𝒄𝒓 =
𝑳𝒆²
2.2.10 J.B. JOHNSON FORMULA FOR SHORT COLUMNS
If a column has an actual effective slenderness ratio Le/r less than the transition value Cc, the
Euler formula predicts an unreasonably high critical load. One formula recommended for
machine design applications in the range of Le/r less than Cc is the J.B. Johnson formula:
J. B. Johnson

➪ Formula for Short 𝑺𝒚 (𝑳𝒆 ∕ 𝒓)𝟐

𝑷 𝒄𝒓 = 𝑨𝒔𝒚 [𝟏 − ]
Columns 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝑬

16
Chapter3

3 Simulation

Without cracks

17
Chapter3

With one crack

18
Chapter3

With three cracks

19