Computer Ethics: A Model of the Influences On
The Individual's Ethical Decision Making
John W. Henry
Margaret Anne Pierce
Georgia Southern University
Abstract - Ethical decision related to computer technology
and computer use are made based upon one's personal code
of ethics, the informal code that exists in the work place,
and formal company codes. These codes as well as factors
influencing these codes were explored in terms of a
decision-making model. Practical implications of the model
are important for educators, organizations, and personnel
using computers and computer technology.
INTRODUCTION
As the use of computer technology finds its way
into all areas of business and education, the opportunity for
unethical use also increases. The results of computer abuse
can be expensive in both human and financial terms with
valued employees being demoted or fired and the
organization being sued for damages. In addition to these
operating costs related to computer abuse, organizations
spend millions on preventative measures such as computer
related security. Moreover, there is some evidence to
suggest that computer related abuse will continue into the
future. Since this is a people problem, ethical behavior by
individuals should be a deterrent to computer related abuse.
Thus, this article proposes a model which defines the major
influences on the on the individual's ethical decision-
making process when decisions are related to computers and
computer technology. The primary forces in the proposed
model are as follows: 1) the individual's personal code of
ethics, 2) the informal code of ethics that exists in the work
place, and 3) the company code of ethics. The value of the
model lies in its usefulness as a framework for decision
making and as a basis to guide training and research.
Ethics refers to a set of rules or principles used for
moral decision making (Johnson, 1985). Of particular
interest to the present discussion are factors influencing
decisions involving computer technology and computer use.
There are several reasons computer ethics is an important
topic. Firstly, it is generally recognized that ethical
dilemmas related to computer technology face technology
users everyday in the work place. Secondly, there are
documented computer abuses which cost U.S. companies
millions of dollars each year (Straub, Nance, & Carlson,
1990). Thirdly, some corporate codes of ethics contain
statements which relate to computers and computer
technology, but in general these codes fall short of
providing real guidance needed by employees. Finally, new
situations often arise in which there is no clearly indicated
C o m p u t e r P e r s o n n e l - O c t o b e r 1994
course of action; therefore, there needs to be ethical
guidance specific to the use of computers and computer
technology.
A PROPOSED MODEL
This article proposes a model of ethical decision
making to guide training, analysis, and research in
computer ethics. The primary constructs of the model
shown in Figure 1 are the personal code of ethics, the
informal code of ethics that exists in the work place, and
the formal company code.
These codes are presented as principal influences
on individual ethical decision making related to computer
use. Indirect factors which affect ethical decision making
are ethical theory, professional codes, and the law. The
model shows that the knowledge and use of ethical theory
impacts the personal code as does an awareness of computer
professional codes. Additionally, an understanding of the
law related to the use of computers and computer
technology influences the personal, informal, and formal
codes. Below is a discussion of the direct influences of the
personal code of ethics, the informal code of ethics, and the
formal code of ethics on individual decision making. This
is followed by a discussion of the indirect influences on
individual decision making of the formal study of ethics,
professional codes, and the law.
PERSONAL CODE OF E T H I C S
An individual's personal code of ethics related to
computers and computer technology is developed from
observation and experience. When faced with a familiar
situation, individuals typically use "scripts" to guide
behavior. Generally, "...scripts are cognitive schemes
and/or mental maps which serve as guides and models for
learning and behavior in individuals." (Wheatley, Maddox,
and Anthony, 1991, 33). In essence, a script is a
manifestation of the individual's personal code of ethics.
Scripts are stored in long term memory and are recalled into
short term memory when triggered by the current situation.
Moreover, the current situation need not be identical to the
previous situation but may simply be perceived by the
individual to have important similarities. Scripts develop
or evolve and are influenced by many factors, including
family, education, and experience. Although an individual
may be unaware of any formal or informal code of ethics in
the work place, these codes not
21
 FIGURE 1. MODEL OF ETHICAL DECISION
MAKING RELATED TO COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
Ethics Study
Professional Codes ~- Personal
Laws
> Informal ~ Situation
~ Formal
only influence etMcal decisions but also become internalized
into the personal code or script. A script for ethical
behavior in this sense represents one's broader notion of
appropriate or ethical behavior and is the culmination of the
influence of numerous events (Lord, R.G., 1985; Lord,
R.G., & Maher, K.J., 1990).
INFORMAL CODE OF ETHICS
The informal code embodies peer expectations and
accepted behavior in the work place. Several business
ethics studies (Wahn, 1993; Trevino, 1986) have found that
pressures from subordinates and peers within organizations
cause people to behave unethically. For example, one study
found that 40 % of the respondents had been asked by other
employees to do something which they considered
unethical. In a discussion of the influence of the informal
code on behavior, Witkin and Goodenough (1977)
concluded that, when a situation is ambiguous, an employee
will cue on the behavior of his peers and conform to
accepted behavior. Clearly the informal code of ethics that
exists in the peer group influences individual decision
making.
FORMAL CODE ETHICS
In the model, formal code of ethics is used to mean
a company code or policy with provisions that apply to
ethical guidelines for computer technology/computer use.
Many companies consider it important to have a company
code or policy covering general topics including ethical
considerations. A 1987 study reported that 85% of
American corporations had codes of ethics or similar policy
statements (Creating A Workable Company Code, 1990).
22
Action
This figure was up from 40% in 1964. However, it is
shocking that in the 1987 report only 55 % of the companies
with formal codes chose to distribute the codes to their
employees. In a similar British study, Schlegelmilch and
Houston (1990) found that only 42% of the companies
surveyed had codes, and only 61% of those distributed the
codes to all employees.
Perhaps these statistics are more clearly understood
when considering the reasons cited for satisfaction with a
company's code of ethics. In a 1980 survey by the Ethics
Resources Center, reasons given for satisfaction with formal
codes related to external relations such as legal protection
for the company (78%) and increased consumer/public
goodwill (66%) (Creating a Workable Company Code,
1990). This suggests that the primary consideration
regarding a company code is the image which it conveys to
the public and the legal protection it affords the company,
not the guidance it provides for employee behavior. On the
other hand, a well-written ethical code can serve to convey
the organization's commitment to ethical conduct
(Molander, 1987); thus, a formal code can clearly
communicate expectations and ideals.
Several authors have pointed out that one solution
to managing the risk of unethical computer use is creating,
reinforcing, and maintaining an ethical environment
supported by top management (Kallman, 1992; Paradice,
1990). A sound company code of ethics with provisions
which relate to computers and computer technology
provides vital input into the ethical decision-making
process. For example, the formal code of ethics for one
major technology firm not only clearly states that employees
are expected to obey existing laws (both the spirit and letter
Computer Personnel October 1994
-
of the law) but explicitly mentions compliance with
software license agreements. In this company's formal
code, there are references to a manual of policies and
standards which give guidance in areas such as handling
ethical issues, security and classification of information,
safeguarding trade secrets, conflict of interest, and security
rules. It is possible that the leadership of this company is
more aware than most management of the need for
responsible ethical guidance in areas related to computers
and computer technology.
INFLUENCE OF OTHER FACTORS
Study of Ethical Theory. Exposure to various
ethical theories indirectly impacts an individual's personal
code of ethics. According to Johnson (1985), the author of
the widely used book Computer Ethics, ethical theories
provide a framework for uncovering rationale for moral
arguments and defending a declaration related to right or
wrong. Such a framework is especially important if one
takes action which is in conflict with the informal code of
the organization. Not only do etMcal theories provide a
rational as part of the decision-making process, but they
also provide a structure within which decisions can be
defended. A study of companies in the United States
(Creating A Workable Company Code, 1990) reported that
28 % of the companies in the study conducted ethics training
and 11% provided this training for all employees. These
results indicate a willingness on the part of the companies
to directly address the issue of ethics training.
Professional Codes of Ethics. Historically,
direction in the area of computer ethics is provided by
professional organizations such as the Association for
Computing Machinery (ACM) (Anderson, Johnson,
Gotterbarn, & Perrolle, 1993), the Data Processing
Managers Association (DPMA)(DPMA, 1989), the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers-Computer Society
(IEEE-CS)(IEEE, 1987), and the Institute for Certification
of Computer Professionals (ICCP). These and other groups
have taken leadership positions by developing and
disseminating codes of ethics related to computer use and
the profession. Common themes in a number of codes for
computer professionals were identified by Martin and
Martin (1990) as: personal integrity, personal accountability
for work, responsibility to employer, responsibility to the
profession, privacy of information, conflict of interest,
dignity of people, public safety, participation in
professional societies, and increased public knowledge about
technology. (The article contains the text of several
professional codes which were examined, e.g., the ACM,
IEEE, and ICCP codes.) Areas addressed by the
professional codes are areas of concern in computer ethics,
and the professional codes provide guidance related to
making ethical decisions.
For example, a paper by Anderson et al. (1993)
ComputerPersonnel - October 1994
contains the revised ACM code of professional ethics, and
a series of ethical cases along with specific references to the
portions of the code which provide guidance in the
situation. Thus, readers not only are informed about the
statement of the code but are also presented with concrete
examples of the application of the code as a decision-
making tool. This form of discussion facilitates the
incorporation of the code into one's personal code and helps
to build personal scripts appropriate to a variety of
situations. A professional code is only effective to the
extent that individuals incorporate the philosophy of the
code into their own personal code of ethics and,
subsequently, into expectations of the peer group of which
they are members.
Computer Related Laws. Another influence on
personal codes of ethics is the body of law related to
computer abuse. Laws which apply include Fraud and
Abuse Legislation, Electronic Communications Privacy Act,
Computer Security Act, Copyright Act, Trademark
Counterfeiting Act, and various state statutes (Gardner,
Samuels, Render, & Coffinberger, 1989). Obviously,
legislation influences the context in which decisions are
made. However, critics suggest that existing laws may be
characterized as inadequate with respect to their associated
sanctions and punishments, and those rare cases that do find
their way to court often find prosecutors and judges ill-
equipped to assess responsibility in the technological
domain (Sacco & Zureik, 1989, 356). For example,
prosecutions such as the widely publicized case of Robert
Morris's introduction of a "worm" into the Interact in 1988
often result in penalties involving only fines and probation
(Denning, 1990). However, Flanagan and McMenamin
(1992) state that penalties seem to be getting stiffer and that
"today he'd (Morris) probably be thrown in the slammer"
(1992, 187).
In addition, the organization is vulnerable to legal
prosecution (Gardner et al., 1989). For example, legal
action has been brought against several colleges and
universities for software copyright infringements (Gray &
Perle, 1992). One problem is the lack of clarity in the
application of the terminology of the law to computer
related situations (How do the concepts of copyright and
patent apply? What is property? What is invasion of
privacy? See Johnson, 1985, for readings on these
topics.). Another problem related to the impact which laws
have on individual behavior is the perception of minor
punishments for rather major inappropriate and illegal
behavior (See the Morris case above.). Laws are, however,
a deterrent to computer abuse to the extent that they are
understood by those using the technology, incorporated into
the personal code of ethics, and supported and enforced by
the informal and formal codes of ethics of the organization.
Suggestions for ways of strengthening the influence
of legislation related to computer abuse abound in the
23
literature. These include: more laws, stronger penalties,
inform employees of personal liability for criminal acts
reinforcement of the laws by management, and prosecution
when violations are discovered. Clearly, these steps would
impact personal codes as well as the informal codes and
formal codes of ethics within an organization.
COMPARISON W I T H O T H E R MODELS
The constructs of particular concern in the model
presented in this article are personal codes, informal codes,
and formal codes. These are rather broad but useful
categories for considering the influences on ethical decision
making. Many complex models have been developed to
describe the ethical decision-making process. For example,
in their business ethics model, Bommer, Gratto, Gravander,
and Tuttle (1987) consider the impact of the following
environments on the decision process: work,
government/legal, social, individual, personal, and
professional. The model proposed here is much simpler for
several reasons. The employer or educator is interested in
factors that can be enhanced or modified by training,
reinforcement, or other means. Therefore, a discussion of
the personal code in terms such as "social environment,
personal environment, and individual attributes," which
Bommer et al. suggest as separate factors, is not practical.
Furthermore, even though "government/legal environment"
is an important force, one might think of it as an indirect
influence on the informal code of ethics as well as the
personal and formal codes of ethics. The concept of
"professional environment" is useful to the current model
and is also viewed as an indirect influence on the
individual's personal code of ethics. An additional reason
for the simpler model presented here is that it can serve as
the focus for research. The identification of a few cogent
categories such as those specified in the model can focus the
study of the relative influence of these factors. Later, as
the theory is grounded in empirical data, a more complex
model can be introduced to further refine the influences on
ethical decision-making.
P R A C T I C A L IMPLICATIONS FOR
ORGANIZATIONS
Organizations should focus their efforts and
resources on developing appropriate personal, informal, and
formal codes of ethics in the work place. In addition
knowledge of the law, professional codes, and the study of
ethical theory can help guide employee ethical behavior.
Suggestions in each area are discussed below.
Personal Codes. Personal codes of ethics can be
effected in a variety of ways. Practical techniques found in
the business ethics literature for developing and encouraging
an ethical approach to decision making include basic
awareness programs, ethics-training programs, and explicit
efforts to employ individuals having desirable ethical
24
standards (McDonald & Zepp, 1990). Unique decision
situations arise for employees who deal with computers and
computer technology; therefore, scripts must be built or
modified to cover such situations. Development of
appropriate personal codes of ethics with accompanying
scripts is difficult (Piper, Gentile, Parks, 1993). In the
business setting, this can best be done through those factors
in the model which impact the personal code: ethical
theory, professional codes, and computer laws. In addition,
discussions among employees of work situations and
appropriate action decisions associated with the situations
could promote an appropriate personal code of ethics.
Informal Code. Whether or not there is a formal
code relating to computer ethics, there will always be an
informal code of behavior. The organization must foster
the development of appropriate ethical expectations related
to computers and computer technology among employees.
In an organization where many employees with varied
backgrounds are using computer technology, information
systems professionals should provide leadership.
Obviously, clarification of appropriate behavior in
frequently encountered situations is important. Using the
elements of our model of ethical decision making, several
suggestions for actions within organizations are made
below.
Actions such as modeling behavior by
management, support of appropriate employee decisions,
and explicit discussion of potential problem areas are ways
that an appropriate informal code can be promoted. The
informal code of behavior should be communicated to new
employees by managers through exemplary behavior
modelling and visible rewards within the organization.
Having a more experienced peer as a mentor for a new
employee would enhance the transmission of the informal
code of ethical conduct. Additionally, it is especially
important to have a non-authority figure to whom a new
employee can turn for sound advice about expectations.
Frank dialogue with no fear on the part of the new
employee of reprisals or judgements is critical.
Furthermore, open discussion among all employees about
ethically ambiguous situations would facilitate the
transmission of the informal code. These discussions could
be formalized into a training program or simply be a part
of already planned periodic meetings of employees.
Formats for the discussion include role playing, experiential
exercises, and case analysis. Explicit discussions between
top management and employees could also serve to
strengthen and enhance personal codes of ethics and build
consistent scripts among peers. Informal ethical
expectations should be consistently enforced by the
organizational culture and reward system.
Formal Code. In addition to the informal code of
ethics, the formal code of ethics (company code) should
reflect desired behavior within the organization. It is
Computer Personnel = October 1994
 important that there be a formal code of ethics within the
organization, and that the code contain provisions which
specifically address computer technology and computer use.
Such codes serve to communicate, clarify, and define
expectations for employees. Since the code is endorsed by
the organization, these expectations of behavior convey the
stance of senior management (Sclalegelmilch & Houston,
1990). It is also important that such policies be congruent
with the informal code in the organization, because without
support from top management it is difficult to enforce such
expectations.
Computer-Related Laws. In a study of ethical
standards and computer crime laws, Gardner, Samuels,
Render, and Coffmberger (1989) found that most people
who use computers and computer resources do not have a
clear understanding of relevant legal and ethical issues.
They conclude that computer crime and unethical conduct
are more likely among individuals who are uninformed.
Consequently, information should be available for
employees on current computer-related laws, especially
those which impact the particular work setting. For
example, a recent company newsletter contained an article
outlining provisions of computer related law in areas
relevant to the functions of the company. Moreover, an
awareness of laws related to computer technology and
computer use would not only have an impact upon the
personal code but also the informal and formal codes.
Computer Professional Codes. Professionalism
among information systems staff might be enhanced by
companies sponsoring memberships in professional
organizations and encouraging awareness of professional
ethics codes. Unfortunately, some computer professionals
who belong to DPMA, ACM, IEEE, and other professional
organizations may not be aware of their organization's code
of ethics, thus removing the impact of the code on the
individual's ethical decision making. In order to use a code
effectively, one must be aware of the philosophy of the
code, committed to the purpose of the code, and able to
apply the guidelines appropriately. Familiarity with some
CS/IS professional codes by individuals and discussions by
employees of the meaning of these code provisions as they
relate to the particular work setting would facilitate
incorporation of the high standards of the professional
groups into the personal code (scripts) of individuals and
into the peer expectations within the organization.
General Ethics Theory. Researchers agree that it
is difficult to teach ethics directly. A knowledge of ethical
t h e o r y provides a framework within which responsible
decisions can be made. Training involving exploration of
ethical theories as they relate to personal codes of ethical
decision making could be done to effect the quality of the
decisions being made related to computer technology.
Exposure to such theories could be done as a series of
articles in a newsletter, short presentations during routine
C o m p u t e r P e r s o n n e l - O c t o b e r 1994
meetings, or more formally as the topic of an employee
training module (computer assisted instruction, video
lecture, or with an instructor). Studies suggest that if
individuals are presented with ethical questions or situations
(scenarios) and led in a discussion of relevant issues, they
are able to analyze and answer questions related to the
ethical issues in a more socially acceptable way (Cohen &
Comwell, 1989; Piper, Gentile, & Parks, 1993). These
strategies are appropriate to the work environment where
the discussion might be focused upon "real" ethical
dilemmas.
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATORS
Computer Science and Information Systems (CS/IS)
educators are constantly looking for ways to help students
develop skill at appropriate ethical decision making.
Although time is precious when trying to cover all of the
material in a curriculum, ethical training is an important
part of this body of knowledge. Students should be
introduced to a framework that can be used as a guide for
studying ethics. The model shown in Figure 1 and
suggested as a guide to develop appropriate ethical behavior
in the work place can also be used in the classroom. The
following student activities are suggested for the computer
ethics portion of the curriculum:
1) A study of a decision-making model. The
model shown in Figure 1 works well as a
framework for the topics discussed in this paper.
2) A study of several ethics theories which have
very different bases for decision making (See
Johnson, 1985, for an excellent summary of some
theories.).
3) A study of the professional codes of several
CS/IS professional organizations (See Anderson et
al., 1993; and others.).
4) A study of computer related laws, definition of
terms, and recent decisions related to these laws
(See Denning, 1990; Dejoie, Fowler, & Paradice,
1991; as well as recent issues of Communications
of the ACM,).
5) Explicit discussion of the informal code of
ethics among the CS/IS majors. Data could be gaflxaed
using anonymous questionnaires on the
approval/disapproval of certain behaviors or open- ended
responses to what-would-you-do type q u e s t i o n s.
These results can provide the source for discussion and
clarification of issues.
6) A study of existing formal codes of ethics both
25
 at your college and other institutions (Voss &
Scott, 1993, suggest use of the Internet resources
to obtain these formal codes.). If your institution
has no formal code, have the students write one.
7) Application of the material listed above to cases
in class discussion, presentations, or debates
(Staehr, 1993). Sources of these cases are found
in newspaper articles, news magazines as well as
professional journals and books (See Huff &
Finholt, 1994; Dejoie, Fowler, & Paradice, 1991;
Johnson, 1985; Denning, 1990; proceedings
articles such as Voss & Scott, 1993; and various
introductory IS texts.).
Although some educators prefer to treat computer
ethics and societal issues in one course required by the
major, the topic can be developed using a spiral approach
throughout the curriculum. If the latter approach is taken,
adequate coordination needs to be done among faculty to
ensure that all aspects of the model are developed and
applied.
The goal is to provide entry-level computer
professionals with adequate background knowledge and
script development to handle the difficult computer related
ethical decisions in the ever-changing work environment.
After all, if students graduating from CS/IS programs are
well prepared to make ethical decisions, the entire burden
for decision-making process development will not be on the
organizations which employ them.
THE BOTTOM LINE
Something must be done to help all computer users
make informed, appropriate decisions related to the use of
computers and computer technology since,
Ethical issues are ever present in uncertain
conditions where multiple stakeholder, interests,
and values are in conflict and laws are unclear
(Trevino, 1986, 601).
When it comes to computer technology and
computer use the rules of the game are seldom clear.
Ethical decisions related to computers and
computer use are becoming increasingly important. The
study and development of proper ethical behavior is critical,
since computer technology pervades almost every aspect of
our professional and business life. This paper argues that
there should be a greater emphasis on the study of computer
ethics and suggest that the model shown in Figure 1 can be
used to develop an effective structured approach to the
development of standards for ethical decision making for
both working professionals and students.
26
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l