Contents

1. Reading 157
1.1. What We Read 158
1.1.1. Authenticity of Texts and Tasks 158
1.1.2. Text Structure 160
1.2. How We Read .. 161
1.2.1. Reading Aloud 161
1.2.2. Reading Styles 162
1.3. Why We Read 163
1.3.1. The Objectives of a Reading Programme 164
1.3.2. Choosing Texts for Extensive Reading 165
1.4. The Readers 166
1.5. Reading as an Active Skill 168
1.5.1. Sub skills Involved in Reading 168
1.5.2. Models of Reading : the Top-down and the Bottom-up Processes 168
1.5.3. Fluency in Reading 170
1.5.4. Reading in English vs. Reading in Romanian 170
1.5.5. Reader Response 171
1.6. Developing Reading Comprehension 172
1.6.1. Basic Reading Competence. Sensitising Techniques 172
1.6.2. Interpretation Competence 172
1.7. Reading Activities 175
1.7.1. The Three-Phase Approach to Reading Activités 176
Suggested Answers to SAQs on READING 179
2. Writing. 184
2.1. Learning to Write and Writing to Learn 185
2.2. Developing Writing Competence 186
2.2.1. Writing Sub skills 186
2.2.2. Writing in Romanian and in English ... 186
2.2.3. Motivation 187
2.3. Approaches to Writing 188
2.3.1. The Text-based Approach 188
2.3.2. The Writer-based Approach : Writing as Process 190
2.3.3. Steps in Organising Process Writing 191
2.3.4. Problems with the Process Approach 197
2.3.5. The Genre Approach 197
2.3.6. The Communicative Approach 198
2.4. Feedback on Writing 199
2.4.1. Roles of the Teacher when Giving Feedback 199
2.4.2. When to Give Feedback ? 201
2.4.3. What to Focus on when Giving Feedback ? 201
2.4.4. Strategies for the Correction of Mistakes 202
2.4.5. Using Errors to Help Learners Develop 202
2.4.6. Using Correction Codes 203
2.4.7. Rewriting 204
2.4.8. Peer Correction 204
2.4.9. Self-Correction 205
Suggested Answers to SAQson WRITING 207
Glossary 209
Bibliography 211
Aims : The aim of this unit is to help you build an awareness and understanding of current
theories of reading and writing and an ability to translate, the essence of these theories into
practical applications for the classroom.
Objectives of Unit 5 : By the end of the unit, you will be able to :
3. use recent information about reading and writing that relates to classroom instruction ;
4. apply to your classroom sessions ideas, suggestions, examples of reading and writing
techniques that are consistent with established theoretical principles ;
5. assess reading and writing techniques that you have been using, comparing and
contrasting them with activities that other teachers have found to be successful, practical and
relevant.
1. Reading
As a foreign language skill, reading is very important; in fact, we may argue that it is the most
important, especially for the students who need English to read material for their own specialist
subject and may never actually have to speak it. In the classroom, though, reading should not be
separated from the other skills, since in real life there are few cases when reading is not linked to
these. For instance, reading and writing are linked in summarising, mentioning what you have
read in a letter or an essay, note making, etc. Reading and listening are linked in comparing
information in a newspaper article and a news-bulletin, using recorded information to solve a
written problem, matching opinions and texts, etc.
SAQ 1: Can you think of activities that link reading and speaking? Give a few examples. Then
compare your examples to the ones given at the end of this unit.
In discussing reading, we will take into consideration the following elements: what we read, why
we read, how we read and who the reader is (or what the reader brings to the process of reading).
6. What We Read
Written discourse has a variety of text types. These can be grouped into the following categories:
2. Literary texts;
3. Specialised or technical texts;
4. Correspondence;
5. Journalistic literature;
6. Informational texts;
7. Miscellaneous.
These are known as different genres.
SAQ 2: Group the text types listed below according to the categories given above. Then check your groupings
against those given at the end of the unit.
accounts, advertisements, biographies, business letters, cartoons,
catalogues, charts, comic strips, diagrams, diaries, dictionary entries, directions, editorials, essays, flow
charts, forms (e.g. application forms), graffiti, guidebooks, instructions, legends (of maps), letters, maps,
menus, notes, notices, novels, postcards, posters, précis, price lists, puzzles, recipes, reports, reviews, rhymes,
signs (e.g. road signs), statistics, stop press, summaries, tales, telegrammes, telephone directories, tickets,
timetables, etc.

Although we should encourage our pupils to read and get familiar with as many different types of reading
materials as possible, not all the text types mentioned above can be used in any classroom. Our decisions about
what texts to use will depend on who our pupils are and what they need reading for. A balance has to be struck
between the types of reading texts and the pupils’ capabilities and interests. We should also think about the way
our pupils read a text and how various reasons influence this.
1 . 1 . 1 . Authenticity of Texts and Tasks
The traditional way of presenting texts in an English class is to begin with a piece of specially written material
which illustrates and focuses on items of grammar and/or vocabulary that are then developed. Consequently,
there is often a confusion of aims: the pupils are not really taught reading but a written text is being used as a
vehicle for introducing grammar structures and/or vocabulary. Many of these texts are contrived: the sentences
are strung together with little consideration
for coherence and the same structure may be repeated several times. The topics are often over-
familiar and unengaging or unimportant to the pupils. The text communicates no real message.
The comprehension questions that usually follow such texts can often be answered without the
class having to read the text at all.
Stop and think ! Think about the reading materials you use with your pupils. Reflect on how
interesting these may be for them. Can you give examples of comprehension questions asked in
the textbook that your pupils may answer without actually reading the texts ?
There has been a lot of discussion about the kinds of reading texts that are suitable in the
classroom. The greatest controversy has centred on the authenticity of texts. Authentic texts are
written by and for fluent native speakers, while inauthentic texts are specially designed for
students.
Authenticity of text means that nothing of the original text is changed, either in terms of structure
and vocabulary or presentation and layout. A newspaper article, for instance, should retain its
appearance : typeface, headlines, pictures, etc. Textbook materials should try to preserve as many
of the initial features of an authentic text as possible in order to help the pupils anticipate
meaning by using non-linguistic clues.
Authentic texts for beginner pupils. Some teachers believe authentic texts cannot be used with
beginner pupils. Actually, there is some authentic material that even beginners can understand to
some degree, such as menus, timetables, signs, and simple instructions. Getting the pupils
accustomed to reading authentic texts from the beginning does not necessarily mean a more
difficult task for them. However, the use of authentic texts with less proficient pupils may often
be frustrating and that is why more accessible, simplified texts are often used with beginners.
Simplifying a text may mean either replacing difficult words or structures by those already
familiar to the pupils, rewriting a passage in order to make its organisation more explicit or
giving a simplified version of the contents.
Text and task. Generally speaking, the difficulty of a reading activity depends as much on the
text itself as on the task that is set for the pupils. That is why the teacher’s selection of the activity
is as important as the selection of the text. With more advanced pupils, it is sensible to use a
variety of authentic or near-authentic texts, and set tasks that represent the kinds of things a
reader would do with them in real life. Unfortunately, sometimes the teachers use the same text to
practise all four kinds of reading and this makes the reading tasks inauthentic. Luckily,
experience suggests that the pupils develop their reading skills even through activities that are not
necessarily appropriate to the reading of a particular text in everyday life.
SAQ 3: What is usually meant by authentic and simplified texts? Compare your ideas to those
given in the answer section.
1.1.2. Text Structure
A reading text is not a random collection of sentences. A text that communicates successfully has
unity, and the sentences and paragraphs that make it up are related in a meaningful way to each
other. In order to comprehend the message of the text, the readers have to be aware of these
relationships and of certain features of text structure, such as cohesion and coherence.
Cohesion. Textual cohesion refers to the way a text holds together by particular linguistic means.
These include pro-forms, connectors, reference, substitution, ellipsis and vocabulary. It is
essential for the pupils to understand how a text is made up, the web of relationships that is built
among the ideas. If the pupils fail to understand this, they may also fail to understand the
structure, the communicative value of the text, and its function.
SAQ 4: Could you identify some of the cohesion markers in the following extract from Bill
Bryson’s A Walk in the Woods?
Consider this: Half of all the offices and malls standing in America today have been built since
1980. Half of them. Eighty percent of all the housing stock in the country dates from 1945. Of all
the motel rooms in America, 230,000 have been built in the last fifeen years. Just up the road
from Gatlinburg is the town of Pigeon Forge, which twenty years ago was a sleepy hamlet - nay,
which aspired to be a sleepy hamlet - famous only as the hometown of Dolly Parton. Then the
estimable Ms. Parton built an amusement park called Dollywood. Now Pigeon Forge has 200
outlet shops stretched along three miles of highway. It is bigger and uglier than Gatlinburg and
has better parking, and so of course gets more visitors.
The cohesion markers will help the pupils when skimming, since the recognition of ties will help
them understand the structure and function of the text. In the classroom, questions involving
cohesion can serve as a comprehension checking device, for they enable the teacher to see if the
correct interpretation has been made.
Coherence. Coherence refers to the way in which sentences and groups of sentences in a text
make seaise in relationship to each other. We have to be able to follow the writer through the text,
and understand not only the meaning of
individual sentences, but also the writer’s purpose in using these sentences. Sometimes the writer
indicates the relationship between sentences by the use of connectors. Some other times we will
have to infer the writer’s purpose and the relationship between the sentences.
SAQ : The sentences below are both cohesive, but one has a
problem of coherence. Which is incoherent ? How can you explain the problem ?
a) Yesterday I got up late and had to leave in a hurry.
b) Yesterday I got up late and realised it was kind of him.
Some texts achieve coherence through obvious means. In telling a story, for example, or giving a
report or an account of something, the writer usually proceeds by telling the reader what
happened next. In descriptive passages, coherence may be achieved by the writer describing
different aspects of the same object, person or scene.
SAQ 6: Here is a short paragraph made up of seven well-
-formed, temporally accurate and meaningful sentences:
I don’t know what to do for my holiday. It will start at the
beginning of October. I saved enough money for a really nice trip.
Last year I went to the Black Sea coast. It will be too late to go to the mountains. I worked hard
all year. I really need a break.
Comment on its authenticity, cohesion and coherence.
What point(s) do you think the teacher wants to make starting from it?
1.2. How We Read
1.2.1. Reading Aloud
Reading is normally a silent activity and it should be encouraged as such in the classroom. We
may sometimes read aloud fragments, especially for beginners, but the pupils should be asked to
read aloud as rarely as possible. Insisting on the pupils’ reading aloud would give them the
impression that all texts are to be read similarly: at the same speed and following each word of
the text one after the other. Reading aloud may have some value as a means of testing
pronunciation, but it does not help comprehension. Also, excessive practice in reading aloud
tends tp_ prevent the pupils from developing efficient silent reading strategies. Moreover, reading
aloud is a highly specialised skill and very few pupils will need this.
Reading Styles
Stop and think! Before reading this section, think about all the materials that you have read
during the last week, both in Romanian and English. Make a list of them. You may wish to reflect
on how your reading of them could be classified: was it for getting information (general, specific)
or for pleasure? How many of these different I types of reading material would you find in the
textbooks you use ?
Quickly going through a telephone directory to find someone’s telephone number or reading
labels on jars is very different from perusing a legal document. We read different texts with
different purposes and at different speeds. In some cases we read silently while in others aloud.
The main reading styles are called : intensive, extensive/receptive, skimming and scanning.
Intensive reading is reading (relatively) short texts to extract specific information. For instance,
we read poetry or legal documents intensively, focusing on the words used. In the classroom,
intensive reading is usually an accuracy activity in which the text is examined by the pupils under
the teacher’s supervision. It is a way of focusing the pupils’ attention on language rather than
content. And indeed, this kind of reading can contribute immensely to improve the learners’
language competence.
However, intensive reading does not always contribute to the development of reading skills.
Consequently, we have to make a clear distinction between the use of reading in the development
of language competence on the one hand, and the use of reading in the development of reading
skills, on the other.
Extensive/receptive reading consists of reading (longer) texts, usually for one’s own pleasure.
The emphasis is on the informational content of the text. Extensive/receptive reading is a fluency
activity involving global understanding, in which the readers do not check every unknown word
or structure.
Scanning is quickly going through a text to find particular information. We look quickly through
the text to find words that answer our specific questions. For example, one may scan the TV
times in search of a certain film, to see on what channel it is on and when it is scheduled.
Skimming involves quickly running one’s eyes through a text to get its general idea or gist.
Skimming involves some interpretation. For instance, one may skim the review of a film to see if
the reviewer thinks it is good or bad.
These four different ways of reading do not exclude one another. We often skim through a text to
see what it is about before deciding whether it is worth scanning a particular passage or paragraph
for specific information. Moreover, in
real life, our reading purposes constantly vary and we need various approaches to cope with our
needs. That is why our pupils, too, need practice in choosing the way of approaching a particular
text. Their choice will depend on the nature of the text and the purpose they have in reading it.
Also, in the classroom, we have, to decide what skills we want our pupils to develop in a
particular lesson.
SAQ 7: Each of the following four descriptions refers to one kind of reading. Write down the
name of the kind of reading in the space provided:
a) You read a poem that you like and enjoy paying close attention to the poet’s use of language.
You do reading ;
You need bibliography for a research assignment and you look quickly through the books and
articles that you find in the library to see whether
they contain information about your research topic. You do
reading;
You are on holiday and you read an adventure story. There is no pressure on you to finish the
book quickly. You do reading;
While waiting for an appointment with your dentist, you pick up a
magazine and discover an article that interests you. You know you do not have enough time to
read the article in detail but you try to extract as much information from it as you can in the time
you have. You do ; reading.
(after M. Parrott, 1993)
Following the principle of starting from the general and working towards the •particular, we can
follow this order in organising classroom reading activities: (Scanning) —> Skimming -»
Extensive/Receptive reading —> Intensive reading —> (Scanning)
If we want to give our pupils practice in scanning, this can either precede or follow the other
activities.
Why We Read
Generally speaking, there are two main reasons for reading : pleasure and the need for
information. We read because we want to get something from the text - a message. This might be
facts, but also enjoyment, ideas, and feelings. Whatever it is, we want to get the message that the
writer intended, and we are interesed in the meaning we make of the text.
For our pupils, reading in English is a means of improving language itself. Some of the language
read will stick in their mind as part of the process of
language acquisition. Reading also provides models for writing, opportunities to practise and
develop the reading skill, and to foster cultural insights and understanding. It is essential in the
teaching of literature, which is an important goal in many syllabi. Finally, reading is a skill that
can be maintained after the pupils complete formal language study.
1.3.1. The Objectives of a Reading Programme
Stop and think ! What are the objectives of the reading programme for the classes you teach, as
formulated in the curricula („programele analitice”)?
Our purpose in teaching reading should be to train our pupils to read fluently, without help, and
for their own enjoyment. We should adopt a facilitating role, bringing texts suited to our pupils’
goals and interests and introducing and practising appropriate techniques. Our objectives for the
reading classes should include the promotion of the skills of:
reading texts with comprehension;
using various reading styles;
learning (both content and language) through reading ;
reading critically.
Our objectives will vary with the pupils’ age, interests, skills and knowledge, with the availability
of the texts and the time alloted to reading.
Reading texts with comprehension. Our pupils should be able to identify the purpose and the
function of a text, its main topic and the way the topic is developed through different paragraphs.
In spite of the language problems that may arise from time to time, they should also be able to
interpret individual sentences, using techniques for dealing with unfamiliar vocabulary. Although
not all texts need to be read for full comprehension, the pupils should be able to do so as
effectively as possible when the need arises.
Using various reading styles. Our pupils should be able to skim, scan, read intensively and
extensively, according to their purpose. In order to develop flexible individual reading styles, we
should provide practice in a variety of text types. Many recent textbooks offer such a variety of
text types and further variety can be provided by using supplementary materials.
Learning through reading. While reading, the pupils will meet a great deal of new language and
new content. Learning content means that the pupils are able to pick out the relevant information,
evaluate arguments and evidence, and distinguish between main points and details. It also means
they are able to use both text and reference material.
Critical reading. The pupils should be able to consider a text objectively, understanding both the
explicit and the implicit message and how the author communicates this.
An English reading programme. The general aim of an English reading programme for the lower
secondary school may be formulated in the following general terms: to enable the pupils1 /to read
without help2/unfamiliar3/authentic English texts4/, at an appropriate speed5/, silently6/and with
adequate understanding7/, and to enjoy reading in English8.
SAQ 8 : Starting from this general statement, could you formulate in more specific terms the
aims of the English reading programme for your own pupils and the specific implications for
your classroom teaching that follow from these? Try to comment on each of the marked elements
(1 to 8) of the statement above.
1.3.2. Choosing Texts for Extensive Reading
There is one major condition if pupils are to develop reading : the texts offered must be
enjoyable. C. Nuttall (1982) suggests the acronym SAVE to summarise the main criteria for
choosing extensive reading materials:
S (from short). The length of the book must not be intimidating. Beginners, especially, need short
books that they can finish quickly, to avoid boredom or discouragement;
A (from appealing). The books must be appealing to the readers: they must look attractive, be
well printed (bigger print for elementary pupils) and have (coloured) illustrations ;
V (from varied). There must be a variety of texts to suit the needs of the pupils in terms of
content, language and intellectual development;
E (from easy). The level of the material must be easier than that of the textbook used in the
classroom. Otherwise, our pupils will not read for pleasure or fluently. Reading improvement
comes from reading a lot of easier material.
SAQ 9: Can you list the criteria you might employ in either selecting supplementary materials for
developing and practising reading skills or assessing the materials presented in the textbooks j in
use. Check your list against the one given at the end of the unit.
1.4. The Readers
Stop and think ! What are, in your opinion, the knowledge and f abilities that the readers bring to
the understanding of a text?
Knowledge of the writing system. Our pupils must be able to recognise the English script. They
must be familiar with the combinations of letters in the spelling of words, and able to recognise
words. They should not waste time working out each word or group of words. Still, our pupils
may not know many of the words in the text they are reading.
Knowledge of the language. One of the problems we may encounter is that our pupils’
knowledge of the languge is incomplete, and this may cause serious difficulty with some texts. In
fact, a fundamental difference between the native readers and the foreign readers is that the
former use the language to help them read, whereas the latter use reading to learn the language.
Our pupils must know the languge of the text they are reading : the content words and what they
mean, though perhaps not all of them. They should use the dictionary only as a means to check
preliminary guesses of their own, based on the understanding of the context. They must know the
syntax and the effect of structural words, of word form, and of word order.
The fact that foreign language learners lack knowledge of the language often results in slow and
intensive reading. In order to become effective readers, our pupils need to be assigned appropriate
texts and tasks that allow them not only to develop their language, but also to develop purposeful
reading styles. Efficient readers generally read in groups of words, without having to look at
everything in a given piece of writing, and going for the overall meaning of a text.
Ability to interpret. Understanding the meaning of individual sentences is important, but
insufficient. Our pupils should be able to recognise the purpose of the text as a whole, to see how
it is organised, and to understand the relationship between sentences. They should be able to
follow the writer, interpret signposts to see how the sentences and the paragraphs are related to
each other and make sense of the text.
Classroom activities should cultivate the pupils’ ability to recognise the purpose of the text as a
whole, to recognise text organisation, to think ahead, hypothesize and predict text development.
Knowledge of the world. All readers bring to a text a general stock of knowledge and
experience, sometimes termed “knowledge of the world”. This means life experience, familiarity
with a particular topic and with different text types, but also knowledge of a particular culture or
way of life. Whether knowledge of the world will help the pupils to understand the text will
depend on the nature of the text and the nature of their knowledge. As the cultural background of
our pupils may be quite different from that of the writer, this may cause additional difficulties in
understanding a text. If our pupils are to read a text effectively, such knowledge has to be
provided by the teacher or accessed in some way by the pupils prior to the reading. However, the
pupils do not have to be prepared by the teacher for everything that they will encounter in the text
as readers do not read only about what they know. Very often reading also means learning.
In the classroom, we can approach texts that assume a certain knowledge of the world by drawing
on the pupils’ previous knowledge, and by developing the same topic through a series of texts
and activities.
SAQ 10: Let us look at this short newspaper note from The Observer, 25 March, 2001.
Blair rejects Marbles plea
Tony Blair yesterday rejected long-standing demands by Greece for the return of the sculptures
removed from the Parthenon 200 years ago. In an interview with the Athens daily “To Vima” he
said the Elgin Marbles “belong to the British Museum ... which does not intend to return any part
of the collection to its country of origin ”. Greece had hoped to have the pieces returned by 2004,
when it will host the Olympics.
What kind of knowledge is necessary to understand this?
Purpose, motivation and reading styles. The first requirement in judging the effectiveness of
reading is to know what the reader’s purpose is. Pupils do not read unless they have a purpose : to
get information, for interest or pleasure, or to learn English.
Thus, the first thing to do in class is to decide what the pupils need to get out of their reading. We
can help here by setting clear tasks for reading, and by selecting motivating texts. Some times the
pupils have no particular interest in reading a text because the text is not motivating itself. On the
other hand, if the task assigned is not very clear, it may actually distract the pupils’ attention from
the text or spoil their enjoyment.
The importance of practice. It is important to give pupils practice in different reading styles. This
is achieved not by telling pupils to skim, scan or read intensively but by setting tasks that
encourage these styles. The task provides the pupils with a purpose and enables them to practice
and develop the style.
Most pupils (and some teachers) consider that the appropriate style for classroom reading is slow,
intensive reading, as reading is done in order to learn or practise English. However, our pupils
should be able to read for other purposes, too, and also, they should be able to adapt their style to
their purpose. Classroom activités should ensure practice in all reading styles so that the pupils do
not use the same stategy for all texts.
SAQ 11: Do you remember the listening subskills presented in Unit 4? Which of these do you
think also apply to reading? Check your answers against the list provided in the answer section.
Reading as an Active Skill

Traditionally, reading was seen as a “passive” skill and the reader as the “recipient” of
information who brought nothing to the text. This “text as object” viewpoint has been replaced by
a “text as process” one, by acknowledging the close interaction between the reader and the text.
Actually, reading is a complex information-processing skill. Current models of reading
emphasise the interactive relation of reader and text in which meaning is created. In pedagogic
terms, reading means reading and understanding. Far from being passive or receptive, reading is
an active, purposeful process, related to problem solving. It constantly involves guessing,
hypothesizing, predicting, checking and asking oneself questions. The reader is an active
participant in the reading process, coordinating a number of subskills and strategies to facilitate
comprehension.
Sub skills Involved in Reading
Due to its complexity, reading is often analysed into a set of component (sub)skills, both lower
and higher level, and knowledge areas. The lower subskills involve rapid, precise and
unconscious processing, such as letter and word identification and translating written symbols
into corresponding sounds. They allow readers to recognise words and grammatical forms rapidly
and automatically. The higher skills enable them to comprehend, synthesise, interpret, and
evaluate the text.
Models of Reading: the Top-down and the Bottom-up Processes
The top-down approach to text comprehension recommends that wp should start with the global
understanding and move towards details rather than the other way
round. In classroom practice terms this means practice in anticipating the content of texts,
guessing, increasing reading speed, practice in skimming and relatively little practice in intensive
reading.
Thus, when constructing or using comprehension exercises on a given text, it is preferable to start
with the overall meaning of a text, its function(s) and aim rather than working on more specific
details or its vocabulary.
SAQ 12: Could you work out the advantages of the top-down approach to reading, which starts
from the global understanding of
The activities that assist pupils in gaining or accessing background knowledge facilitate top-down
processing. Among these mention should be made of pre-reading discussions, reading within a
topic area, extensive reading, and sustained silent reading, where the pupils read large amounts of
text for general comprehension.
Bottom-up processes. The importance of lower-levei processes in reading should not be
underestimated. Automaticity of lower-level processing is especially important in foreign
language classrooms. Less proficient readers often appear to be word-bound : they have difficulty
in recognising the English words rapidly and accurately and spend their time attending to the
graphic form. Knowledge of syntax and vocabulary is also critical.
It seems that below a certain language proficiency threshold in English, it is unrealistic to expect
our pupils to transfer and use effectively the reading comprehension processes they use in
Romanian. Language plays a critical role in reading abilities, and it seems that reading in English
is fundamentally a balanced language and thinking process.
To conclude, our pupils should engage in activities that combine top-down and bottom-up
strategies in reading. In practice this means doing such things as discussing the topic of a text
before reading it, arousing expectations, eliciting connections between references in the text and
situations known to the pupils.
SAQ 13: What type of processing, lower or higher level, is involved in the following 'reading
tasks :
yf 1. Choose the most suitable heading from the list A-I for each part 1-7 of the text;
What does it in line 22 refer to?
Seven sentences have been removed from the article. Choose from the ' sentences (A-H) the one
which fits each gap;
Read the text and take down notes under the following headings...;
Choose from the list (A-H) the sentence that best summarises each part (1-6) of the article ;
Choose the answer (A, B, C or D) which you think fits best according to the text:
What was the dance like ?
A formal B boring C informal D confusing
Fluency in Reading
Stop and think! How would you define a fluent reader ? Read the next section only after you have answered
this question.
Fluency in reading requires skill in both top-down and bottom-up processing. Fluent readers employ lower and
higher level reading subskills simultaneously. They possess a large receptive vocabulary and knowledge of
syntactic and rhetorical structure. They interact with the text to create meaning. They approach it with prior
knowledge (of what the text is, of what it may mean, of how it is to be read) and cognitive skills, combined in
developing hypotheses/predictions about its content and development. While reading, fluent readers may re-
read fragments of the text rapidly to confirm or refute these predictions. If the hypotheses are confirmed, they
continue reading with an increasing store of information on the topic. If they are not confirmed, the readers
return and re-read more carefully.
Reading in English vs. Reading in Romanian
There are both similarities and differences between reading in a foreign language and reading in the mother
tongue. The differences concern the acquisition of the respective foreign language, training background,
language processing and social context. For instance, most foreign students of English begin reading in English
with different knowledge from native readers. Before they begin reading in school, English children already
have a large vocabulary store (5,000 to 7,000 words) and a good intuitive sense of the grammar. The typical
Romanian children who learn to read in English have not yet learnt much vocabulary, nor have they acquired a
complete sense of the grammar of English. However, foreign students may have certain advantages over native
English children.
SAQ 14: What are, in your opinion, the advantages that the foreign learners may have over the
native students of English as far as learning reading is concerned?
Foreign learners of English may encounter many difficulties caused by language processing
differences. Transfer effects, as in the case of false or near cognates can influence vocabulary
recognition. Orthographic differences, unfamiliar syntactic structures, word order, and other
structural differences between English and Romanian can also cause interference and mislead our
pupils, particularly beginners.
Stop and think! Think of your own pupils. What specific difficulties do they encounter when
learning reading in English? What skills can they transfer from reading in Romanian?
1.5.5. Reader Response
The teachers usually ask for a reader response from their pupils to make them active in the
reading process. The responses can be either linguistic or non- -linguistic.
Linguistic responses. Here are some of the things the pupils can do with the information from a
text to prove their understanding of it :
present the information of the text in a different way, for example by completing a table ;
compare two or more texts comprising similar information about the same event or situation ;
• complete a document : a letter, an evaluation card, an application form, a
note, etc ;
do simulations or role-play ;
take notes or summarise, etc.
Non-linguistic responses. Many activities that do not involve verbal responses can also prove the
pupils’ understanding of the text :
comparing text and picture by matching passages of the text and diagrams ;
rendering the information into the form of a diagram ;
performing an action, finding a solution, making a decision using the
information from the text.
1.6. Developing Reading Comprehension
Basic Reading Competence. Sensitising Techniques
Basic reading competence can be developed through sensitising techniques which offer practice in the
strategies the pupils need to cope with unfamiliar words and structures.
Inferring. Inferring means discovering the meaning of unfamiliar items making use of contextual clues
(syntactic, logical and Cultural). When using a new text in the classroom, the teacher does not always have to
explain the difficult words and structures beforehand. The pupils can be encouraged to guess the meaning of
unknown items, based on word-formation or context.
Understanding relations within the sentence. It is important to train the pupils to look first at the basic sentence
pattern (subject+verb) and then at the other elements and their contribution to sentence meaning (e.g. relatives,
embedded clauses, complex structures). To practise this, we can ask the pupils to divide passages into sense
groups and analyse the important elements.
Understanding cohesion. We should also teach our pupils to recognise the various devices used to link
sentences and ideas. We may offer them exercises in recognising the function of connectors and deictic terms,
finding equivalents, completing texts with the missing link-words, transforming disconnected sentences into
coherent text by joining sentences and adding connectors.
Interpretation Competence
1 . 1 . 2 . Predicting. Reading involves constant guesses or predictions that are later rejected or confirmed.
Predicting means guessing what comes next, making use of grammatical, structural, logical and cultural clues.
It is crucial in anticipation and skimming. It can be trained by giving the pupils unfinished passages to complete
or by stopping after each sentence and asking the pupils to predict what is likely to come next, e.g. “What do
you think will happen next?”, “What do you think the next words will be ? ” or “What do you think the next
sentence will be about? ”. To help the pupils, we can give three possible continuations and ask them to choose
the one they think is most likely to follow. Another idea is to remove all punctuation from a text and ask the
pupils to put it back.
1 . 1 . 3 . Previewing. This is a specific reading technique which involves using the table of contents, the
appendix, the preface, and the headings in order to find the information needed. It is used in skimming,
scanning and as a study skill.
SAQ 15 : Try your hand now at devising prediction questions related to a paragraph in a textbook
material of your own choice. Ask one question after the title and then one question per clause, if
possible. Ask as many questions as you can.
c. Anticipating. We usually start reading a text prepared to find answers to our expectations.
These expectations are inherent in the process of reading, which is a permanent “dialogue”
between the reader and the text. Our expectations are as important as what we actually draw from
the text.
To give our pupils an incentive for reading, before starting reading a text, we I. can ask them to
look for answers to specific questions. We can also sensitise them to the subject by making them
ask themselves questions. Key words, the title, and the accompanying pictures can be used to talk
about various ways in which the text may develop, e.g. “Look at the pictures and guess what the
article is about”.
d. Skimming and scanning. Both skimming and scanning are necessary for fast and efficient
reading. Skimming implies the overall understanding of the text. It does not mean reading each
word or sentence of the text but running our eyes over the text, reading a few sentences,
recognising a few words and expressions, and understanding the gist of the text, that is its
essence, its main point(s) and its function(s).
Practice in skimming will show our pupils how much they can find out simply by looking at the
prominent elements of a text, by catching a few words or by N | reading fragments. For instance,
we can remove a few sentences from a text, or even whole paragraphs - making sure those parts
contain only supporting details - and ask our pupils to supply the missing parts.
Scanning is a visual skill more than an interpretive one. When we scan a text, we need not read
the whole text attentively. We only try to locate the information .relevant to an immediate
purpose. Later on we can read those parts of the text that interest us with more attention. When
we practise scanning we have to make sure that we give our pupils clear instructions as to what
they need to find out.
[ For example, if we want them to scan advertisements for ideas on how to spend a holiday, they
would need to find out about available rooms in hotels or houses, prices, meals, contact names
and addresses, etc.
The pupils need practice in both techniques as it is usual to make use of both when reading a text.
e. Comprehension questions. Comprehension questions can take a variety of | forms: yes/no,
true or false, multiple choice, grids or charts to be completed,
and open ended questions.
Types of comprehension questions. C. Nuttall (1982) identifies five basic « question types
commonly used for reading : literal comprehension, reorganising,
inferring, personal response, and evaluation questions. When evaluating the questions to use with
particular classes, we should take into account the pupils’ purpose in reading and what we know
about their background. Generally speaking, a variety of different question forms and types will
enable our pupils to use their different skills in appropriate ways.
SAQ : Can you exemplify the five basic question types with samples taken from the textbooks
you use? Can you produce examples of your own in case you cannot find all types in the
textbooks?
Note: Evaluation questions may be more difficult to find as they require the reader to assess how
effectively the writer has conveyed her/his intention.
Using questions in the classroom. Answering questions orally round the class is a very common
technique, but not always a very successful one for large classes. As only one pupil answers each
question, most of the class do not need to pay attention. Thus, it is difficult for the teacher to see
whether pupils have really understood the text. One alternative -, ay of using questions in the
classroom is to ask the pupils to think up and ask the questions themselves. These questions will
be relevant to the process of their understanding the text, of their current perception of what is
difficult and important in it. They will show their current understanding of the text, which will
change and develop as they continue reading.
Questions and skills integration. The class can be divided into groups and each group read a
different fragment, discuss their interpretations, and then compose the questions they want
another group to answer. The questions do not need to have only one answer or to refer to
indisputable points. When they have completed their discussion and agreed on the questions, the
pupils pass the fragment and their questions to another group to answer. Thus the pupils try out
possible solutions to the problems they identify in the text and the text becomes a platform for
negotiation of content. In this negotiation of meaning some pupils may bring in background
information that others lack and this leads to natural peer teaching. Also, the teacher can be called
in when s/he is needed. Such an activity requires repeated readings of the text and stresses the
process of understanding rather than its product. Listening, speaking, and writing can be naturally
integrated in the class interaction.
should provide our pupils with a variety of different kinds of reading tasks, and encourage them
explicitly to use different strategies (e.g. “Now skim this text quickly and get the main idea” ;
“You’ll have to study this text carefully to understand the author’s standpoint; look for...”).
1.7.1. The Three-Phase Approach to Reading Activités
R. White (in Johnson and Morrow, eds., 1981) suggests three stages and a general procedure for a
reading lesson. His approach recommends the use of pre-, while- and post-reading activities. It
relies on the pupils’ knowledge of language and knowledge of the world and uses this as a basis
for involvement, motivation, and • progress. It also leads to the integration of language skills.
Pre-reading activities are meant to introduce and arouse interest in the topic, to motivate the
pupils by giving them a reason for reading and to provide some language preparation for the text.
In real life, we usually have a purpose in reading : there is something we want to find out, to
check or clarify. We also have a purpose in reading when we read stories for pleasure : we want
to find out how the story develops, “what happens next”. Moreover, we always have some idea of
what we are going to read about and as we read we address the writer questions in our mind.
Based on these, we may be able to make a number of predictions or guesses. Headlines, chapter
headings or book titles often make us think about the text before"we begin to read.
In the classroom, it is important to give the pupils some reason for reading or problems they want
to find the answer to. These may consist in questions for them to think about as they read. (The
answers will be discussed afterwards.) These questions are called guiding/signpost questions :
e.g. “What would you like to know about topic X? Write down at least five questions, which you
hope the text will answer” or “You are going to read a text about topic X. Here are some words
and phrases from the text. Can you guess how they are used in the text?”.
Another type of pre-reading activity may be true/false questions : the pupils are given sentences
that refer to the text, and they guess whether they are true or false. Alternatively, they are given a
summary of the text with gaps ; their task is to guess what words should go in the gaps. They may
also be given the topic of the text and may be asked to write a list of things they know and things
they do not know about the topic. If the text puts forward an opinion, the pupils discuss the topic
beforehand and give their own point of view.
Although we are not supposed to teach every word or structure in the text that we think our pupils
are not familiar with, we should ensure that our pupils will be able to do the text tasks without
being hindered by language difficulties. On the other hand, language preparation can be carried
out by the pupils themselves.
Using these text indicators (referring either back to something mentioned before or announcing
something to come), each pupil has to interact with the others until they find out where their
passage belongs in the text.
Exploring the relationship of ideas in a text can be carried out at almost any proficiency level.
Beginners can develop semantic maps that are entirely schematic, containing basic words or no
writing, with pictures. Here is an example of such a semantic map, drawn around the concept of
house :

Tasks addressed to more advanced pupils are more sophisticated. They are usually based on
complex thinking and engage the pupils with the language in different ways. Both texts and tasks
approximate more closely to the kind of texts and tasks that our pupils tackle in Romanian. The
tasks involve longer, multi-stage, integrative activities, entailing extended speaking, listening and
writing. Some pieces of writing - literature, for example - demand a personal response from the
reader, such as interpretation, application to other contexts, criticism or evaluation.
The three-phase approach should not be carried out mechanically on every occasion. Sometimes
we may wish to get our pupils to work on the text directly. At other times post-reading activities
may not be suitable.

SAQ 18: In which of the three phases, pre-reading, while- -reading or post-reading, would you
use the following activities:
Do-it-yourself questions. The pupils compose and answer their own questions;
Responding. The text is a letter or a provocative article; the pupils discuss how they would
respond, or write an answer;
Category Text Types
Journalistic literature editorials, stop press, advertisements,
headlines, television listings, comic strips,
Informational texts cartoons guidebooks, dictionaries,
handbooks,
catalogues, telephone directories, instructions,
directions, puzzles, problems, timetables, maps,
legends (of maps, pictures), posters, signs (e.g.
Miscellaneous notices, recipes, menus, price lists, tickets,
road signs)
forms, advertisements, graffiti
SAQ 3: An authentic text is one in which nothing of the original has been changed, including its
presentation and layout. An advertisement, for instance, should be presented with the same
typeface, title and accompanying picture. A reprint will never be completely authentic, since the
text has been taken out of its context. Keeping texts as authentic as possible will help our pupils
anticipate meaning by using the non-linguistic cues.
A simplified text is one in which difficult words or structures have been replaced by others,
thought to be already familiar to the pupils. The text may have also been rewritten in order to
make its rhetorical organisation more explicit.
SAQ 4: Connectors : and, then, and so.
Reference: this (cataphora), them, which, it (anaphoras), bigger, uglier, better-,
Deictics : this, today, the present perfect and the present tense, since 1980, to
' date, from 1945, the last fifteen years, twenty years ago, now.
Ellipsis : Half of them (verbal), ... gets more visitors (nominal).
Vocabulary (reiterations): offices - malls - housing stock - motel rooms - outlet shops, stand -
build, road - highway, town - hamlet - hometown ;
Repetitions : America, build, of all, hamlet, Pigeon Forge, Gatlinburg, years, Dolly Parton.
SAQ 5: Sentence (b) has a problem of coherence. In sentence (a), it is clear that the relationship
between the two clauses is one of cause and effect. In sentence (b), the two parts appear to be
unrelated and it is difficult to see any connection.
SAQ 6: The paragraph is an inauthentic, disjoined text. Several factors contribute to its reduced
cohesion and coherence, among which the absence of connectors and the use of the verbal tenses.
Due to the tenses and the few deictics, the text lacks an axis of orientation. It could be used as an
(anti-)example when discussing the use of the present perfect and future tenses.
SAQ 7: a) intensive reading, b) scanning, c) extensive/receptive reading, d) skimming
SAQ 8: Here are some possible comments to the general aims:
1.to enable the pupils... As teachers, we can only try to promote comprehension in the pupils, as
this is a private process and cannot be controlled. We can promote comprehension by what we
ask them to do and improve it by well-directed effort.
2. to read without help... The pupils have to develop the ability to read on their own as they
cannot get help with the reading tasks they have to do outside the classroom. Thus, the
responsibility of the teacher is to make his/her support unnecessary.
3. unfamiliar texts... By exposing the pupils to a variety of texts, the teacher can equip the pupils
with techniques of tackling unfamiliar texts. Also, the pupils’ reading ability will be tested
through unfamiliar texts.
4. authentic texts... At least some of the classroom practice should focus on the sort of texts the
pupils will need to read when they leave school. If the pupils’ needs are not defined yet, the
teacher should offer practice in as many text types as possible.
5. appropriate speed... Competent readers are flexible and able to adjust
, their reading style to the type of text and reading task they are given. We
must offer our pupils practice in using different reading speeds for different materials and
different purposes.
6. silently... Outside the classroom, the pupils seldom need to read aloud. In the classroom,
reading aloud is useful for beginners, but it shouldn’t
' persist longer than is desirable.
7. with adequate understanding... The pupils need to understand enough to suit their purpose,
meaning that they do not always need to read or understand every word. We must ensure practice
in various kinds of reading tasks, not all of which require careful study reading.
8. to enjoy... Although reading often means hard work, we should not neglect the pleasure and
interest that our pupils can derive from it. That is why an interesting extensive reading
programme and a careful choice of the reading materials for classroom use are very important.
SAQ 9: Our choice of reading materials should take into account the following variables:
the difficulty of the language in relation to the abilities of the pupils ;
if the material is used for introducing new language items ;
if tiiere is a focus on the development of reading skills and strategies ;
if the material is linked to other skills work, e.g. writing;
if there is emphasis on reading for pleasure or for intellectual satisfaction;
the length of the text;
if the material encourages intensive or extensive reading ;
if the material is authentic ;
if the subject matter is appropriate (interesting, challenging, varied, culturally acceptable) ;
if the text types/genres are varied and appropriate ;
if the texts are complete or gapped ;
if the material helps comprehension by setting the scene, providing background information or
giving pre-reading questions ;
the kind of comprehension questions that are asked : literal (surface) or . inference ;
to what extent the material involves the pupils’ knowledge of the world and
life experience.
(adapted after Cunningsworth, 1995, p. 73)
SAQ 10: The readers need to know who Tony Blair is, what Athens, the Parthenon, the Elgin
Marbles and the Olympics are, what and wherè the British Museunvis, etc.
SAQ 11 : Actually, all the subskills used in listening have their equivalent in
reading.
Recognition skills : recognising the sounds and the script of a language, deducing the meaning
and use of unfamiliar words, understanding information both explicitly stated and implicit.
Knowledge of the language : understanding conceptual meaning, relations within the
utterance/sentence, the communicative value/function of sentences, relations between the parts of
a text, cohesion devices.
Knowledge of formal discourse structure: knowledge of how a text is organised, of the rhetorical
structures and conventions, of specific logical patterns.
Content and background knowledge : prior knowledge of content, background or culture.
Cognitive processing skills: hypothesizing, the drawing of inferences, and the resolution of
ambiguities and uncertainties ; prediction, evaluation
of information, and synthesis. , *
Metacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring : knowledge about cognition and language,
recognising text structure and organisation, using a
' dictionary, taking notes, and so on. Skills monitoring : recognising problems with information
presented in the text, adjusting strategies.
SAQ 12 : When the activity aims at a global understanding of the text, we can : a) build up the
pupils’ confidence when faced with authentic texts that contain difficult vocabulary and
structures. The pupils will not feel completely lost
if they do not understand every detail ;
we develop an awareness of the general structure of a text which will help the pupils in reading
more efficiently later on;
we encourage the pupils to develop their skills of inference, anticipation and deduction.
SAQ 13: Only tasks 2 and 6 involve lower level processing skills : grammar, syntax and
vocabulary identification skills, respectively.
SAQ 14: Most foreign learners of English are older than native learners of English when they
learn how to read in English, and consequently, they have a more well-developed conceptual
sense of the world, more factual knowledge about the world, and they can make elaborate logical
inferences from the text. For them,^vocabulary often means remembering a second name for a
well-understood concept. The older the foreign students are, the better use they will make of
metacognitive strategies, and the sooner they will become efficient readers.
SAQ 15: The Statue of Liberty [What do you think the first paragraph of the text is about? The
age of the statue? Its sculptor? Its location?]
In the water around New York City is a very small island called Liberty Island. [What do you
think' the next sentence is about ? ] On Liberty Island there is a very special statue ... [what are
the next words?]... called the Statue of Liberty. It is one of the most famous sights in the world.
[What do you think the next paragraph deals with ? The history of the statue ? An explanation of
its name ? A description of the statue?], etc.
(fragment taken from Folse, 1993, p. 164)
SAQ 17: In preparing pre-reading work, we should ask ourselves what knowledge, icjeas or
opinions our pupils might have on the topic, and how this knowl- I edge could be drawn out and
used. Also we should be able to imagine for what reasons the pupils might want to read that
particular text. The answers to these questions will help us in finding ways of introducing the
text, the new laguage and ' motivating the pupils.
SAQ 18:
'
Pre-reading activities : signpost questions.
While-reading : mistakes in the text, comparison, gapped text. Post-reading activities: do-it-
yourself questions, responde, continue, provide a title, summarise, preface, re-presentation of
content.
2. Writing
A discussion of writing must be preceded by a definition of terms as there are many types of
writing. Writing refers to several suhskills: putting words on paper, making sentences and linking
them in paragraphs, writing poems, developing essays, and many others. Some methodologists
use the term writing to refer to word and sentence level skills and composition to refer to the
skills implied in constructing coherent texts. Here we will use the term writing to refer to all the
language activities that result in the transfer of thought on paper. Th,us, teaching writing is
guiding the pupils in analysing and developing their thoughts, in shaping and organising them
info central .and subordinate ideas, in developing a line of thought and carrying it to the reader.'
But writing is also a support skill. At elementary and intermediate levels especially, it helps
pupils to think and to learn. Writing new words and structures helps pupils to remember them; as
writing is done more slowly and carefully than speaking, written practice helps, the pupils to
focus their attention on what they are learning.
However, if we think of our pupils’ long-term needs, writing is probably the least important of
the four skills. Our pupils’ need for writing is most likely to be for study purposes and also as an
examination skill.
SAQ 1: Which of these activities cannot be performed without writing?
inviting people to your wedding party, explaining to the classmaster your child’s absence from
school, buying property, expressing condolences to your friend on the death of her mother,
informing someone you have fired him, congratulating a pupil on school success, making
regulations for staff.
Like reading, writing is an artificial, learned skill: it needs some form of instruction, and imposes
an appropriate use of language. Learning to write means developing a new set of cognitive and
social relations. A written message may convey not only permanence but also authority, being
often associated with status and power. Yet many of our pupils are unlikely to find themselves
involved in the social roles that require writing in English. Only those who want to make a career
in business, administration or academia, need writing as an essential component in their learning
programme.
2.1 Learning to Write and Writing to Learn

SAQ 2 : Before reading this section, try to remember some of the reasons why you ask your
pupils to write in English.
The traditional ordering of the four skills - speaking, listening, reading, writing - reflects both a
general belief about the natural order of skill acquisition and a belief about instructional priorities.
Modern approaches to teaching writing recognise its dual purpose: as a means (or a support skill)
and as an end (or a communicative skill). In the recent English textbooks, there are two types of
writing activities: those designed to develop the writing skills per se and those Which provide
opportunity of practising English.
SAQ 3: Think of what you did yesterday between 6 and 8 p.m. How many of the things you did
involved reading and how many writing'?
A task which provides little or no practice for the pupils to extend their knowledge of appropriate
content or context or to raise their awareness about the writing process is not really a writing task
but a general learning task using writing.
Writing to learn. Writing is widely used in the English classes as a means of engaging the pupils
with other language skills. The pupils note down new vocabulary, copy out grammar rules, write
out answers to reading or listening comprehension questions, do written tests. In these activities,
writing is mainly a means of getting the pupils to practise a particular language point, or as a
convenient method of testing it.
Learning to write. The activities that have as main objective writing itself practise written forms
either at the level of word or sentence or at the level of content and organisation. In these
activities, the pupils have to express themselves using their own words, they have to state a
purpose for writing, and often to specify a readership. Examples of such activities include
narrating a story, writing a letter or a report. However, some activities combine purposeful and
original writing with the learning or practice of some other skill or content. For example, a
written response to the reading of a controversial newspaper article will combine writing with
reading.

Stop and think! Analyse four writing tasks taken from the textbooks you work with. Ask yourself
what the purpose of the activities are : is it developing writing skills or providing language
practice ? ,
2.2. Developing Writing Competence
Effective writing means conveying a message that represents its author in some way and affecting
the audience in the way intended by its author. The writer constructs an image of the potential
readership, assessing their knowledge of the topic, their interest in and attitude towards it.
Writing Subskills
The difficulty of teaching writing as a skill lies in the fact that it involves die development and
coordination of both cognitive and conceptual subskills, including:
knowledge of the genre (For examples of genres, go back to the reading section, p. 158): The
pupils should be able to recognise the genre in which they are writing, and the grammatical and
lexical choices they need to make in order to match the text to the writing purpose. This includes
knowledge of^
1 . 1 . 4 . content: the concepts involved in the subject area;
1 . 1 . 5 . context: the context in which the text will be read, including the reader’s expectations;
knowledge of the language system : Our pupils need to have knowledge of those aspects of the
language system necessary for the completion of the task. They should also be able to organise
texts appropriately;
knowledge of the writing process : The pupils also need to know how to prepare a writing task:
how to plan, draft, review, edit, etc.
SAQ 4: What factors should a pupil consider in achieving the' purpose his/her writing? After you
answer this question, check ^ the list of suggested factors given at the end of this unit.
Writing in Romanian and in English
SAQ 5: Which of the following kinds of text do you think your
pupils would need to write in Romanian and which in English ?
advertisement, essay, (filling in a) form, journal article, letter to a manager, letter to a
newspaper, letter to a parent, note about a telephone message, newspaper article, poem, pop
song lyrics, postcard, report, shopping list, story, Ph.D. thesis, technical manual.
Pupils progress in language complexity much faster in English than in Romanian. They
understand easily that some of the structural differences observed
between speech and writing in Romanian are similar in English, and soon attempt the same kind
of language adjustments when they write in English.
Stop and think! What forms of transfer from Romanian into English have you diagnosed in your
pupils’ writing? How do you deal with these differences?
Nevertheless, there are features of written language that may cause major problems to our pupils
as they differ from those of Romanian, and our pupils may benefit from an explicit understanding
of how these work. Generally, these operate above the level of the sentence : layout and text
organisation (determined by the social function the text fulfils), relationships between clauses and
clause complexes.
Motivation
Stop and think! Before reading the next section, make a list of ways in which you usually
motivate your pupils to write. How do you encourage their confidence and enthusiasm ?
Purpose. The communicative approach has led us to pay more attention to the purpose of
language, and to the content of the message. However, it is sometimes difficult for both teachers
and pupils to think of writing as a motivating, purposeful activity, especially if the goal of the
activity is grammatical accuracy. In order for the pupils’ writing to be more effective, and for the
reading to be more enjoyable, it is important to create other purposes for writing. The class
should approach their task in terms of two questions : to whom they are writing, and for what
purpose. When the pupils have a better idea of which their readers are, their writing is more
purposeful. For instance, instead of asking them to write a short autobiography, we could tell
them they are applying for a scholarship to spend a year in Great Britain. The purpose of the
pupils’ writing becomes thus more goal oriented. They will have to select the relevant qualities to
speak about and present the information in such a way as to show that one could benefit from
such experience and merits the scholarship over someone else.
Publication. The incorporation of an element of real communication, such as “publication”, is
motivating for most pupils. Going public in newsletters or class magazines and/or organising the
reception of a “real” response (from either a classmate, pupils in another class, pen friends or the
teacher) may determine the production of more effective writing.
Cooperation. Encouraging our pupils to help each other in preparing their written tasks may also
provide motivation and increase their confidence. They can brainstorm ideas on a topic, organise
points for, neutral and against a specified argument, negotiate a line of thought, etc. Pictures, such
as cartoons or drawings, may be used to stimulate ideas. On the other hand, written tasks can also
be the result of cooperative classroom activities such as reading, debates, role play, etc.
Teacher’s feedback. The teacher’s written response on a pupil’s paper can also be an influential
text in a writing class. Some teachers ask their pupils to J keep diaries in which they record
aspects of their life and address the teacher directly to ask for help or advice.
2.3. Approaches to Writing
There are three main ways of approaching writing: focusing on form, on the writer or on the
reader. These three perspectives have determined major approaches to the teaching of writing: the
text-based approach, the process approach and the genre approach. In practice most teachers and
textbook writer draw oh more than one approach and combine and adapt various elements to suit
their classes.

The Text-based Approach

This approach, also called the controlled-to-free approach, focuses on form. Depending on the
degree of freedom the pupils are allowed, the writing activities are characterized as controlled,
guided and free. The teachers often present model texts, usually given in textbooks, for the pupils
to imitate or adapt.
Conformity to models and accuracy rather than fluency are cultivated. The pupils write variations
first on sentences, then on paragraphs, then on very controlled compositions, and finally, at an
advanced level, they work on free composition.
Controlled writing activities provide both content and form. These include copying, gap-filling,
re-ordering words, substitution (e.g. If he stayed/left/spoke they would disagree with him), correct
the facts (e.g. re-write the sentences so that they match a picture), and dictation. They are
typically used with beginners and the objective of this kind of activities is that pupils make as few
mistakes as possible. Usually, the pupils have to add little if anything of their own.
Controlled writing can be made more meaningful and interesting, if the pupils are given a chance
to think about what they are writing. For instance, copying is completely mechanical when the
pupils are asked to copy a string of words that they do not understand. In this case, their attention
is focused only on spelling.
Copying may become more meaningful if the pupils can contribute something to the text. Part(s)
of the sentence can be left out for the pupils to write themselves. The teacher may write the
sentence outline on the board, (e.g. they - home - afternoon), say the whole sentence and ask the
pupils to write what they heard. The teacher can also show or draw a picture to replace part(s) of
the sentence. Alternatively, the teacher may write the sentence on the board, and ask the pupils to
write a similar true sentence about themselves.
Another extremely restricting activity, gap-filling, can become more involving and challenging if
the pupils are given the opportunity to choose between alternatives given in brackets.
SAQ 6: What are, in your opinion, the disadvantages of dictation?
An alternative to traditional dictation is the dictocomp (a combination of dictation and
composition), which is not an exclusively controlled writing technique. It requires not only
careful listening and accurate spelling but also thinking. The pupils listen to a text, jot down notes
and then try to reconstruct the original from notes. Alternatively, they may be given prompts.
They need to understand the text, think about the content and how to reproduce it, and how to
coristruct the sentences. The dictocomp can be used with pupils at all levels, provided the original
text chosen is challenging enough.
In guided/parallel writing content is free but form is given. It generally addresses the paragraph
level and is central to the teaching of connected discourse. It is typically used with pre-
intermediate and intermediate pupils. Here is an example, taken from Raimes (1983):
Sheila and Maura are sisters. They would like to wear each other’s clothes, but they can’t. They
wear different sizes. Look at their sizes:
Sheila Maura
Dress size 10 14
Shoe size 7 8
Blouse size 34 38
Glove size 7 7
Belt size 26 28
Now, look at the paragraph that Sheila wrote:
(1) My dresses are too small for Maura to wear. (2) My shoes are not big enough for her, either.
(3) My blouses are also too small for her to wear. (4)
However, I wear the same size gloves as she does. (5) I like to wear belts, but, unfortunately,
Maura’s belts are too large for me.
Rewrite the paragraph from Maura’s point of view.
SAQ 7: In writing English, which appears to create more difficulties to your pupils, cohesion or
coherence? Look back at pages 5-6 in the Reading section to remind yourself what cohesion and
coherence are.
Paragraph writing has to be practised as soon as the pupils have mastered , basic skills of
sentence writing and need to progress beyond very controlled writing exercises to sentence
combining. The main problem is finding a suitable model, as it is not always possible to use a text
from the textbook.
Free writing - intermediate to advanced. Pupils from intermediate to advanced can be asked to
write narratives based on a picture or series of pictures, describe an occasion when they felt in a
certain way, describe someone they know or write descriptions of people and places based on
photographs or some information about them, write an answer to a (given) letter of complaint,
write application letters, etc.
Free writing A more advanced. More advanced pupils can be asked to describe the process
represented in a flowchart or any kind of diagramme, write reports of books they read, reviews of
books they enjoyed and would like to recommend to their mates, instruction sheets for something
they know how to do well (e.g. prepare some kind of food) or essays on various topics.
2.3.2. The Writer-based Approach : Writing as Process
The focus on the writer has led to the process approach which lays stress on the activities which
move the pupils from the generation of ideas and collection of data to the production and
“publication” of the text. It emphasises the writing process over the product, with recognition of
the recursiveness of the process and the encouragement of exploration of topics through writing.
Teachers must establish the link between the pupils and their writing. Writing is not only form
and content but also as a series of choices and decisions that the writers make in getting their
ideas to the page. Different writers produce good writing through different processes. This means
that there is no one “right” process of writing. Rather, we should suggest and make available
various possible strategies, encouraging the pupils to experiment and search for one that is
personally effective. A teacher using this approach will match the writing tasks to the needs of
the pupils, encourage their creativity and respect their background, and avoid denying their
experience by imposing ideas or even language on the pupils.
The role of the teacher. In this approach, our role is to function as resources and coaches rather
than critics, writing along with our pupils so that our expectations about the pupils’ writing are
realistic. If we do this, we will face the same self-consciousness and the same problems as our
pupils and this will help us to model the steps of the process for our classes.
Steps in Organising Process Writing
SAQ 8: Think about the latest piece of public writing that you produced. Try to remember the
various stages which you went through to get the text to the desired state. The following
questions may help you remember details :
Did you make preliminary notes or did you just think for a while and then f launch straight into
the writing ?
How far did you get without crossing out/inserting/changing anything ?
How much rewriting did you do ?
Did you finish one part to your satisfaction before going on to the next ?
Did you find yourself writing something that you felt was not quite satisfactory, with a mental
note to come back to it later ?
Did you change the order of “chunks ” of writing as you went on ?
At what stage did you edit formal aspects such as punctuation or grammar ?
How did you feel during the writing process ? Was it interesting, absorbing, tedious, enjoyable ?
If you made preliminary notes, how closely did the final result accord with the plan ?
How satisfied did you feel with it ?
Did you feel you wished someone to read it ?
Were you interested in reading what others had written on the same topic ?
(after P. Ur, 1996, p. 168)
Have you now identified the stages you went through ?
The process approach emphasises the dynamic, creative, unpredictable and non-linear
characteristics of writing. Writing is recursive as during each phase of the process we may return
once or more times to an earlier phase in order to refine the meaning we are trying to develop.
Publishing is the point when we decide to stop writing, although the text itself may be not really
finished.
A. Pre-writing: generating, focusing and structuring. Effective writers understand the importance
of both the context and content of their future writing. They know what its purpose is and who
their potential readers are. These two factors determine the amount of preparation for writing.
During the pré-writing stage, they think about the potential reader, do research and gather
information about the topic, and decide what information to include. Preparation can be done
either collaboratively or on one’s own, but collaboration can lead to increased motivation for
individual writers.
Generating activities help the pupils to find out what they want to write about and to overcome
imaginative blocks. Used with group's, this is a way for everyone to get ideas, before they start to
work on their own.
Focusing activities help the pupils to identify priorities in what they haye to say. The pupils think
how to give emphasis to the most important part of the writing and also make sure that the
writing will be relevant to their potential readers.
Structuringi activities help the pupils to review the way in which they are organising their texts so
that they will communicate effectively to their potential readers.
The activities that are commonly used in generating, structuring and focusing are : brainstorming,
drawing mind maps, speed-/quick-/freewriting, answering w/z-questions.
Stop and think! Which of the activities mentioned above do you usually use ? Which are best
suited for your pupils and why?
Getting ideas for writing on a topic:
Brainstorming can be done individually, in pairs, in groups, or with the whole class. If the class is
given the opportunity to choose their own topics, the pupils may write a list of all the topics that
they wish to write about. They can do this list for homework or individually in class. We can
limit or define the topics in some way, from the very beginning, provided the pupils have enough
choice within these limits. If the pupils find it difficult to come up with topics, the
teacher can organise a group brainstorming: the pupils suggest topics and the teacher writes all of
them on the board.
To share their ideas, the pupils may work in pairs, reading the list aloud to her/his partner. The
partner will have to ask the writer which topic s/he would like to write about, and why and the
writer will answer. We may write the questions on the board, so that the pupils can refer to them
as they share. High-level pupils can ask and answer in English, beginners may use Romanian.
The pair repeats the procedure with the second partner.
Details can also be brainstormed. The class and the teacher write down all the details they can
think of about the topic they have chosen to write about. These can take the form of notes,
phrases, or a list of key words. The pupils can use both English and Romanian. With beginners,
we have to allow some time at the end of this stage for vocabulary questions and/or the
consultation of dictionaries. Again, the pupils will share the details, working in pairs. After the
first pupil has read her/his details, the partner asks which details communicate what s/he wants to
tell the reader, and the first pupil responds. The teacher can write the question on the board. Then
the pupils switch roles and repeat the procedure. More time can be allotted to vocabulary at the
end of this stage.
Using mind maps. Mind maps are especially useful in groupwork where they can be drawn on the
board by the teacher or a pupil as a way of building a consensual view of a problem or set of
problems. Then, the pupils will identify relationships between various aspects and select those
elements which are useful. This strategy can be used to explore almost any topic. Here is a mind
map for the topic. Birthdays:

SAQ 9: Draw a mind map for the topic Education should be free.
Speedwriting is free thinking on paper: writing as quickly as possible without taking the pen off
the page. The writer concentrates on content rather than form, trying to get as many ideas on
paper as possible. However, speedwriting
does not always yield something valuable. At a later stage, the product of speedwriting is
reviewed and redrafted. Speedwriting can also follow brainstorming.
d) Answering w/i-questions referring to controversial statements for discussion can also be a very
effective device for generating content. These questions, elaborated by the teacher, may provoke
answers and reactions which can be developed first orally and later in writing. The pupils can
explore their ideas, confront them with other pupils’ ideas, select and start organising their ideas.
Focusing questions (who ? where ? when ? what ? ) will help them both in generating ideas and
structuring. After getting started, we can ask the pupils to provide more details on various aspects
of their text.
Organising information :
Drawing up prioritizing lists can be used as a focusing activity to select what to write about and
order the selected information.
Picture prompts. With beginner pupils we can use picture prompts. These are less generating
and focusing as a great deal of the content (usually a story) is provided. Yet, the pupils still have
to decide on the best sequence for the story.
“A DAD CAN”. R. White (1987) suggests an activity designed to help'the pupils to make a
transition from ideas-generating to drafting. He uses a mnemonic to help pupils produce ideas
which can eventually be incorporated into the draft :
A : Associate the theme with something else ;
D : Define it ;
A : Apply the idea ;
D: Describe it;
C : Compare it with something else ;
A : Argue for or against the subject ;
N : Narrate the development or history of it.
yThis yields the mnemonic A DAD CAN. Although this mnemonic may suggest a somewhat
inflexible sequence, we could find ways for our pupils to arrive at a successful piece of writing.
B. Drafting is “translating plans and ideas into provisional text” (Harris, 1993, p. 55). It focuses
primarily on what the writers intend to say. It is free, fast, intuitive, creative and exploratory. It
defers planning, control, organising, and censoring. It includes moments in which the writer tries
to understand the potential readers and their expectations. Drafting is associated with feelings,
irrationality, and impulse and clashes with revising and disciplined thinking. Although it is a
distinct stage in the writing process, drafting cannot be treated in an isolated way.
Most of us progress through a number of untidy drafts before reaching a final version. Generally,
good writers think about content first and form later, but this order is not consistently observed.
The content may be altered at late stages in the drafting, and changes to sentence or paragraph
organisation may be made relatively
early. That is why, even if it may be useful to advise pupils not to worry about spelling and
grammar at the beginning, and to get down their ideas first, it may not be wise to try to impose
this as a rule. Rather, we should encourage them to work through a number of drafts and
revisions, to accept messy drafts as a natural stage and to treat early drafts as transition stages
which will not be assessed.

SAQ 10: How might a lesson be organised so that the pupils help each other in the process of
drafting ?

. Drafting prepares revising. Successful drafts will be written after the pupils have enough
experience, have developed their writing skills and have done enough preparation to appreciate
similar texts.
C. Revising focuses on how writers can get the content right. “Re-vision” means “seeing again”,
this time through the reader’s eyes. Revising is careful,
! conscious, directed, thoughtful, and critical. Connections are analysed and scrutinized and
writing becomes controlled, logical, and accurate. The writers read through what they have
written and make corrections. More than one cycle of I revising and editing takes place before the
final version is ready. Since drafting and revising tend to conflict with each other, it helps most
pupils to work on them separately, by moving back and forth between them.
«''Revision techniques; Revision techniques vary with each writer, but we can advise the pupils
to start working on one thing at a time :
lead (Does the writing draw the reader into the piece?) ;
interest and amount of details (Are there enough details to arrest the reader’s imagination? Does
every detail add something to the piece?);
structure (Can the reader follow the events easily? Are words and sentences arranged in the most
effective order? Are verb tenses consistent with the actions they refer to ? ) ;
transitions (Does the piece move smoothly from one part to the next or did the writer want to be
abrupt ? ) ;
dialogue (Do the characters have a voice ? ) ;
ending (Does the ending give the readers the information they need ? Does it wrap up the piece
neatly?).
Ask-yourself questions. T. Hedge (1988, p. 23) suggests the following list of I questions that
writers could ask themselves during revising :
Am I sharing my impressions clearly enough with my reader ?
Have I missed out any important points of information
Are there any points in the writing where my reader has to make a “jump” (Have I omitted some
argument or have I forgotten to explain something?) Does the vocabulary need to be made
stronger at any point ?
Are there any sentences which don’t say much or which are too repetitive? Can I rearrange any
sentences to make my writing clearer or more interesting ?
Do I need to rearrange any paragraphs ?
Are the links between the sections clear ? Do they guide my reader through the writing?
SAQ 11: How might the classroom activity be organised so that the pupils help each other in the
process of revising ?
Editing involves readjustments and accuracy checks on grammar, spelling, and punctuation. It
consists of reading through and trying to apply a reader’s perspective on the piece of writing. The
writer needs to check the amount and relevance of information, the order in which this is
presented, the layout, spoiling, punctuation, handwriting, vocabulary, and grammar.
Varying from situation to situation, editing is often done following checklists addressing different
areas. Hopkins and Tribble (1989, p. 10) suggest the following checklist for elementary writers :
Check that your writing makes sense.
Is it correctly organised on the page ?
Is the information presented in a clear, logical order ?
Have you put in all the information your reader needs ?
Have you put in unnecessary information ?
Stop and think! What forms of publication of your pupils’ writings have you already used ?
Publishing. The pupils can present their writing to an audience either by reading it aloud or by
giving it to someone (the teacher, a classmate) to read. Publication can also take other forms : the
pupils can make copies of their writing to pass around, or a booklet of pieces from everyone in
the class. Alternatively, the teacher could post some pieces on a bulletin board and the class could
take time to read them. Although publishing is difficult and time-consuming, if tried
repeatedly, both the teacher and the pupils will find writing easier and more rewarding. The
pupils will feel pride in their work and want it to be read. It is therefore extremely important to
provide an appreciative reader audience, whether teacher or classmates.
Problems with the Process Approach
The process approach is especially beneficial for more mature and advanced students, who want
to develop as both writers and thinkers and who need practice in specific genres. It is
inappropriate for those pupils who have not yet learned to write effectively in their own mother
tongue. Also, it does not address the needs of the pupils who have to write for readers unknown
to them or for their classmates who themselves have no expectations of what a text should be
like.

Stop and think! Examine some of the textbooks you work with. How many of the writing
activities suggested in these textbooks give your pupils the opportunity to be creative and
original? How many activities begin with an example text or samples of language that the pupils
have to imitate or incorporate into their own writing?
The process and product approaches are not opposite, but complementary and interdependent.
Our pupils need models to follow, but they will not be totally dependent on these if they are
encouraged to investigate on their own and use all kinds of sources.
SAQ 12: Before asking your pupils to write an example of a 1particular text type, you might want
to go with them through some stages. Put the stages suggested below into an appropriate order
and justify your decision:
practising guided writing which follows prompts (e.g. pictures or sentences that summarise
paragraphs);
doing exercises that practise characteristic features of text type (e.g. passive voice);
reading examples of the text type ;
analysing a sample text to isolate typical features.
The Genre Approach
The third approach, the genre approach, is reader based. It focuses on the ways in which writers
and texts need to interact with readers. Writing is seen as an
essentially social activity in which texts are written to do things. Therefore, if the readers do not
recognise the purpose of a text, the writing will not be successful. This approach can hardly
address non-native pupils at beginner and intermediate levels, as most of these cannot have a
sense of what the native readers expect from a text, or of the extent to which a text represents a
certain genre.
2.3.6. The Communicative Approach
The communicative approach emphasises task-oriented activities that involve the exchange of
information, with focus on fluency. This approach practises a good deal of modelling and
controlled practice, but also pays a lot of attention to motivation and to self-expression. At the
same time, it stresses purpose and audience and encourages interaction among the pupils.
Through the activities, many of them based on information gaps, and done in pairs and groups,
the pupils are exposed to a lot of written language, although listening and reading materials of a
factual nature are also frequently used. Here are some popular ideas of\written communicative
activities
Relaying instructions. One pupil or a group of pupils elaborate instructions for the performance
of a task. They have to tell another pupil or group to perform- the task by giving them written
instructions.
Writing reports, advertisements, brochures. The pupils write items for a school news broadcast or
a school magazine. They can join together to write a brochure about the place they live in or are
studying in. They can write and design their own advertisements.
Co-operative writing. The pupils may write joint stories, each pupil contributing a sentence. They
may start either at the first or the last sentence (these may be or may not be supplied).
The agony column. The pupils identify or invent some problem, write lettera to the “columnist”
and then have them answered by other members of the class.
Letters of complaint. The pupils write letters of complaint about faulty goods they purchased or
bad service they received. The “company representatives” reply to these letters.
Job applications. The applications will be judged and a decision taken about who is successful.
Journals. We can write a letter to the pupils in a (small) class, telling them something about
ourselves and inviting them to write letters to us, which we • would reply to personally. The
pupils may engage in correspondence about learning, their experiences, how they feel about
school, etc. They will use writing for genuinely communicative purposes and get individual
attention from us. The disadvantages of this procedure, are firstly that some pupils get “too close”
to the teacher and secondly that it takes a lot of our time.
Alternatively, we can ask our pupils to keep diaries. Here the pupils will write what they want
about what interests them. They will comment on the classes, on their personal experiences, on
politics or they will write stories. They can be asked to write in their diaries for five minutes at
the end of every class, but also when they themselves want to. Such an activity ensures frequent
writing practice and a chance for the pupils to use English to reflect their own thoughts and
feelings. These diaries are not to be corrected, but rather reacted to, as content feedback is far
more important than form feedback.
Projects. Projects are longer pieces of work that involve the collection of information and
reporting. The quality of the end product is important. The pupils can use all kinds of sources,
from native speakers they can find to libraries (ihcluding electronic ones).
2.4. Feedback on Writing
Some teachers feel a terrible temptation to take the pupils’ work, indicate all the places that need
fixing, and return it to the pupils. Undoubtedly, the work would be better if the pupils handed it in
a second time. The question is whether the pupils want to put it into acceptable form and whether
we know how to encourage them to do that.
Other teachers, although fully aware of the importance of content and organisation, find
themselves dealing mainly with language accuracy in their feedback, conveying the implicit
message that this is what matters. This happens because language mistakes are difficult to ignore,
they catch the eye ; they are more easily and quickly diagnosed and corrected than the ones of
content and organisation. Moreover, many of our pupils want their language mistakes to be
corrected.
SAQ 13: In your own experience as a learner of English, what kinds of feedback did you receive
from your teachers ? How useful did you find their feedback?
Roles of the Teacher when Giving Feedback
Tribble (1996) identifies four basic roles that teachers may assume when giving feedback:
audience, evaluator, examiner and assistant.
As audience we read the text and say how we find it. We respond to the pupils’ ideas, feelings,
and attitudes and indicate whether the author’s point is
clearly formulated and whether we enjoyed reading the text. Unfortunately, teachers often avoid
this role and assume the other three, identifying problems, commenting and grading.
2) Our purpose as evaluators is to give feedback on the present strengths and weaknesses of a
text, with a view to help our pupils to improve their future performance. The text is assessed on
all dimensions : task fulfillment, content, organisation, vocabulary, language, and mechanics.
Each dimension is normally accompanied by descriptors, adapted to the class level and task
purposes and made public. A checklist for the pupils, containing such descriptors can be devised
for any writing assignment. Here is a simple example:
Main idea (organisation): Which sentence expresses the main idea ? Where is it placed ?
Supporting details (organisation): Which sentences develop the main idea ? Where are they
placed ?
Verb tenses (language): Is every verb in the correct tense ?
Verb forms (language): Have you used the correct form of each tense ?
SAQ : What are the advantages of using descriptors for
marking compositions?

3) Examiners. Evaluating is pointing out strengths and weaknesses, while examining is assigning
a grade. By giving a grade we indicate the degree of excellence that a task has achieved. Once a
task has been graded, the pupils will give it little thought or work.
We assess the pupils’ skills on the basis of a product or a portfolio that is evaluated based on
explicit criteria. The use of explicit criteria helps the pupils to understand what is expected from
them and how a weak paper can be improved. Giving separate scores, one for each area (task
fulfillment, content, organisation, vocabulary, language, and mechanics), will also help our pupils
to understand their strengths and weaknesses. Giving content and ideas twice as many points as
language or structure, for instance, will underline the importance of content.
4) As assistants, we tell the pupils if we find their writing effective in relation to its purpose, we
pass advice on language, genre, structure, and subject matter. We devote time to their command
of language, trying to assist them in their learning of the language. We can assist at each stage in
the process, and encourage collaboration among pupils. The most significant contribution that we
can make in the writing classroom is to create a community of readers. However, we will not help
the pupils to improve a text if we also grade it.
2.4.2. When to Give Feedback ?
As audience, evaluators, and examiners we give feedback on the pupils’ writing as end product.
Our comments come too late to influence their writing. Our feedback is usually limited to
grading, commenting (superficially) and correcting errors. The pupils are given no indication of
what they are to do next or what they have to work on. If the task has not been clearly specified
and if the pupils do not really know what the purpose of the writing has been, this sort of
feedback can be time-consuming and demoralizing for both teacher and pupils. What we need is
strategies to give constructive comments on drafts. If feedback is done effectively, by the time
writing is finished, most of the problems will have been solved. Moreover, the pupils will have
understood the purpose of our feedback at each stage.
SAQ 15: Consider the following comments made by pupils. Try to identify what role their
English teacher has assumed when giving feedback:
My teacher wrote at the bottom of the page that my grammar is acceptable, but I still have some
problems with the present perfect.
2. She told me to change the introduction, making it more interesting for the
reader.
The teacher re-wrote my text, without changing its content and arguments and brought both my
draft and hers to class. We all discussed and compared text organisation, development of ideas,
sense of audience and style, but my classmates were not told whose drafts the teacher used.
I got an 8 in my last assignment.
2.4.3.What to Focus on when Giving Feedback ?
Writing involves content, organisation, style, syntax, mechanics, grammar and spelling. When
looking at any piece of writing, we often feel we have to respond to all of these. However, the
most important thing to consider, especially at post-beginner level, is content, followed by
organisation and presentation. Feedback on content, unlike feedback on grammar, can determine
the improvement of wfiting. If we limit our feedback to pointing out and/or correcting errors, our
pupils will concentrate on producing error-free writing, neglecting the interest or even the
meaning of the content. The equation teaching writing = error elimination is counter-productive.
One problem is how to maintain a fair balance between form and content when assessing and
giving feedback. This depends, to some extent on our own teaching situation, experience and
opinion.
Strategies for the Correction of Mistakes
SAQ 16: In section 2 we have distinguished between learning to write activities, meant to help
our pupils learn to write and writing to learn activities, meant to help them write to learn. What
essential difference will there be between the way we respond to texts that have been written with
these two different purposes ?
The problem of correction of mistakes is one of potential conflict between two of the roles of the
teacher: language instructor versus assistant. If we accept that language should be corrected, then
the problem arises: should all language mistakes be noted ? Sometimes there are so many
mistakes that so much correcting can be discouraging, demoralizing and distracting. Also, over-
emphasis on language mistakes can distract the pupils’ attention from content and organisation.
How do we judge which mistakes to relate to and which not?
One solution is to ignore the language mistakes that do not hinder learning. We may correct only
those mistakes which are very basic and those which affect meaning. Other errors may go
uncorrected, but while identifying them we can make a list of error types as they occur, and thus
create an individual grammar syllabus.
Using Errors to Help Learners Develop
a) Giving clear instructions. To help our pupils to concentrate on particular aspects of language,
we can tell them that a piece of work will be corrected for only one thing, the use of tenses, for
instance. By doing this, we ensure that their work will not be covered by red marks, and we
encourage them to focus on particular aspects of written language. We can individualise language
work by identifying for each pupil a few kinds of errors and assigning tasks that focus on these.
Using pupil work as material. Where a piece of writing contains a number of common errors, we
may photocopy the work (erasing the writer’s name) and show it to the whole class, asking them
to identify problems. In this way the attention of the class can be drawn to common mistakes and
the photocopied document can form the basis for remedial work.
Discussing errors. We will learn about our pupils’ errors if we give them the opportunity to make
them, fix them, and discuss them. We can ask our pupils to discuss where they think their
mistakes come from and why they make them.
This will help us to realise which mistakes the pupils can recognise and which ones they cannot.
Asking the pupils to discuss their mistakes may provide us with information about their transfers
from Romanian or from another foreign language they learn, their application of interlanguage
rules, their interpretation of teaching, and their use of communication strategies. In this way, the
mistakes will no longer be everybody’s enemy, but clear evidence of language learning,
enlightening for pupils and teachers alike.
d) Pointing out strengths as well as weaknesses. Another strategy is to point out both strengths
and weaknesses. Thus, our pupils will have the chance to perceive a correct model in their own
use of language and will be likely to continue taking risks if they see that their good qualities are
noted and encouraged.
2.4.6. Using Correction Codes
We can indicate mistakes in written work by putting a mark in the margin to show what kind of
mistake it is (e.g. VO for vocabulary, WO for wrong word order, WW for wrong word, V for
missing word, SP for spelling, P for punctuation, GR for grammar, VF for verb form, VT for verb
tense, ? for meaning or handwriting unclear, [ ] for something that is not necessary, etc.). We
need symbols for spelling, wrong tense usage, agreement, inappropriate language, punctuation,
missing words, unclear meaning, etc. Whatever symbols we use, our pupils should understand
clearly what they mean. When we first use the symbols, we should underline the word in the text
and put the symbol in the margin. Later we will only use the symbol in the margin for the pupils
to identify the mistake.
Indication of mistakes is less time consuming than correcting for the teacher and more effective
for the pupils. The latter have to re-read the text and spend time in identifying and correcting
themselves the mistakes signalled in the margin. When we bring back to class pupils’ writing
with comments on content and the correction symbols in the margin, we should allow the pupils
time to identify their mistakes and correct them. While they are identifying their problems, we
can help where they do not know what is wrong. If this stage is not gone through, our pupils will
not take advantage of the system of correction symbols.
SAQ 17: Use a correction code to signal the language mistakes in the following piece of writing:
I am studying english because I want to work for a big company when 1 will graduate. Perhaps I
may to continue my studis. So I must to reach a good level of english because of when I will go
abroad send by the company, I’ll need to understand all. My father who is mecanic engineer he
says that english is a interesting language for all kinds of reasons.
Another reason that I am studying english is that 1 like myself to listen to the music. I am
learning new expressions and improve my listening, too. I can mix learning with the pleasure of
listening to the music. Something else is we often have foreigners invited for dinner at home who
are invited by my parents and usualy english is the language of comunication.
Creating a mistake-correction policy. There is certainly no perfect approach to giving feedback
on writing. Yet it is essential that our pupils understand how we want the feedback system to
work. We should write out both for the pupils and for ourselves what our policy on mistakes
correction is, what symbols and abbreviations we use, and what we want our pupils to do with
their drafts and our comments when they receive them.
Rewriting
When we receive written tasks, we normally correct and comment on them and give them back.
The question is whether we should insist on the pupils’ rewriting their tasks, incorporating our
suggestions. They do not like doing this, but, on the other hand, frequent opportunities for writing
and rewriting are an important tool for improving language, content and structure. Irrespective of
the feedback the pupils receive from us, they improve their work when they rewrite their texts.
According to A. Raimes (1983), the number of language mistakes in re-writes decreases by about
20%, even when the teacher’s response includes no explicit correction of mistakes.
Peer Correction\
VI
Correcting written work is very time-consuming, particularly if we have large classes. One
possible solution is to let the pupils correct and edit each other’s writing. Even if they cannot
discern all the strengths and weaknesses of a piece of writing, they will detect at least some of
them. The problem is whether our I pupils feel comfortable correcting, or being corrected by their
peers, and whether they accept criticism (positive or negative) from each other. Their comfort
will '" I depend on the general classroom climate, which in its turn is created by the I attitudes of
both pupils and teacher. Peer correction is helpful if there is mutual trust; a real listening to each
other; a mutual recognition that whatever is said is a subjective opinion and not necessarily the
absolute, objective truth, and a general desire to take into account the others’ reactions.
Constructive peer feedback. The pupils should be trained in giving and asking for specific and
constructive feedback. For instance a statement like
“I think that this description would be better if you added some colour words” is constructive
while “Your argument is obscure” is destructive. The pupils should be encouraged to ask for
feedback on all areas. Also, they should constantly check with their group members to make sure
their comments are clear. They can be taught to ask questions like :
Is there any place in my text that is hard to follow ?
Is there any point that you do not really understand ?
Is there any place in which my examples, reasons, or explanations need
developing ?
Is there any place where I should add more details ?
Is there any place where I seem to wander from my topic ?
Are there any unclear or missing transitions ?
If peer correction works, it can be a substitute for teacher first-draft reading. The pupils can work
together, giving each other feedback on language, organisation and content. They then rewrite
and give in the final version to the teacher.

SAQ 18: The following activity is intended to teach pupils how to evaluate the content clarity and
effectiveness of a classmate’s composition. The order of the steps has been modified. Your task is
to try to put the steps in logical order:
Without looking at the text, tell the author what you think s/he is saying, or, if it is a narrative, tell
the story back to the author as precisely as you can;
After each of you has given and received feedback, rewrite your task;
Then your partner(s) should give you the same type of feedback on your text;
Ask your partner(s) about anything that seems unclear or ask for constructive suggestions;
Read each other’s paper carefully.
(after Koch and Brazil, 1978, pp. 86-87)
Self-Correction
V. Zamel (1991) suggests four self-correction/critical reading techniques that the pupils can use
to correct their own work in class with a critical eye.
The pupils read their papers aloud to other pupils. This will help them spot some of the mistakes.
In most cases, they will naturally hesitate when a sentence does not seem to work.
A classmate reads the paper aloud. The new reader may pause when coming across a mistake or
when a sentence is problematic.
The pupils take their text, cover up everything on the page except the first sentence, put their
pencil point to one word at a time, and say the sentence aloud, word by word. They try to pick out
the core (subject+verb) of the sentence.
The pupils read their last sentences first and so on, backwards through the text, sentence by
sentence. This is a way of focusing attention on sentence- -level accuracy and preventing the eye
from leaping ahead for the content.
The question of class climate, personal relationships, trust and willingness to accept criticism and
help from one another remains. As critical reading does not come naturally for many pupils, the
teacher can help them with checklists and/ or questions to answer.
SA A : Using the following checklist, examine how a textbook you work with covers the
following criteria referring to writing activities :
How does the material haniue - controlled writing ?
guided writing?
free writing?
Is there appropriate progression and variety of task ?
Are there conventions of different sorts of writing taught ? Which ones are taught and how are
they presented ?
Is paragraphing taught (adequately, depending on level) ?
Is there emphasis on the style of written English ?
Is there attention to different styles according to text type ? (only for advanced level activities)
Is attention given to the language resources specific to the written form, such as punctuation,
spelling, layout, etc. ?
How much emphasis is there on accuracy ?
Are pupils encouraged to review and edit their written work ?
Is a readership identified for writing activities ?
Do the pupils find the activities motivating, stimulating and interesting?
Are the activities of an appropriate level for the pupils ? Or do they find them too
easy/difficult/childish/sophisticated ?
Are the writing activities relevant to the pupils’ needs?
Do you, the teacher, like the activities ?
(after Cunningsworth, 1995, p. 84)
Suggested Answers to SAQs on WRITING
SAQ 1: All these activities could involve writing. Public events and events that involve many
participants are typically dependent on written documents.
SAQ 2: Some of the reasons you may have mentioned are: for diagnostic purposes, to develop
linguistic competence, to encourage the development of fluency, to provide practice in writing
skills.
SAQ 3: Reading is more often used than writing: activities ranging from looking at the clock, to
glancing at the newspaper and checking a phone number, all involve reading. The probability that
you usually spend a lot of time writing is very low. Reading is a survival skill which enables
modern people to react to social demands, while writing puts them in a proactive posture.
SAQ 4: Here is an (incomplete) list of suggested factors : grammar, vocabulary and stock
phrases, cohesion, coherence, rhetorical organisation, formulae, layout, paragraphing, spelling,
punctuation.
SAQ 5: Most people can function effectively with the ability to write simple things such as
shopping lists, letters, postcards, and to fill in official forms. Only a few people need to write
reports, and even fewer need to write essays, manuals, novels or newspaper articles. Advanced
English learners may need to write business letters, reports, or even essays. The role of written
English in the life of foreign speakers of English is very different from the one it occupies in the
lives of native speakers.
SAQ 6: Dictation can be very time-consuming, especially if it is corrected word by word
afterwards. The main disadvantage is that it does not really develop writing skills: the pupils do
not express ideas in a written form, nor do they construct sentences. Moreover, it is unrealistic as
the pupils listen to a text read “word by word” and at an unnaturally slow speed.
SAQ 7: Although conventions of text organisation may vary according to culture, the pupils who
write coherently in Romanian will transfer this ability to English, as coherence is closely
connected to logical thinking. However, problems may arise caused by the inadequate command
of cohesion, complex structure constructions, deixis and definiteness devices. Cohesion is the
main difficulty encountered by pupils working at paragraph level. Cohesion is difficult in writing
because we do not get direct feedback from our readers and we are not in a position to clarify
points which have not been understood. Typical activities
practising cohesion are: sentence combining, sentence reordering, and noun and sentence substitution.
SAQ 8: The most common stages are prewriting, drafting, revising, editing and publishing.
SAQ 10: In pairs, the pupils may read their (rough and incomplete) drafts. The partner may ask: “What do you
think about this piece ? ” and “What else does the reader need to know? ”. After the first pupil responds, the
partners switch roles. Such questions are meant to ask for the writers’ opinion about the draft. The opinion of
the partner will be asked for only after the writer has given her/his own answer to the questions and only if the
writer wants that contribution. The writer is free to accept the partner’s suggestions, adapt them or disregard
them completely.
SAQ 11: The pupils can read their revised pieces to their partners, who ask “How is this version different from
the first/previous version? ” After the writer responds, the partners exchange roles.
SAQ 12: Reading is an important key to good writing. All the stages suggested are necessary to familiarize the
pupils with text types. Only after reading and analysing a text type, can we ask the pupils to write examples of
the respective text type themselves. The stages can be covered over several lessons. A possible sequence is c, d,
b, a.
SAQ 13: The kind of feedback we like to receive is largely a matter of experience. Generally speaking, the red
pencil is intimidating and discouraging. Some think that grammar and spelling is everything and find it useful
and even like their writing to be corrected in detail, others that the teacher’s going over every mistake is a waste
of time.
SAQ 14: One main advantage of the descriptors is that the pupils know the basis on which their work is
assessed and thus their attention is focused on the critical features of the particular task. Another is that the
teacher can recognise excellence in one aspect while indicating weaknesses in others. This will help the pupils
to identify the areas they have to work on. If they are not too vague (e.g. good work, well done), evaluations can
encourage the pupils and point them in the right direction for future writing.
SAQ 15: 1. evaluator, 2. audience, 3. assistant, 4. examiner.
SAQ 16: In writing to learn activities, our pupils need clear, unambiguous feedback on the language they used,
as they need to learn from their mistakes. The purpose of the writing task is to practise English in a controlled
way. In
learning to write activities, we have to respond to the learner’s needs, as we see them, and refrain
from acting as a judge. Our approach should vary according to context and pupils’ individual
needs. In any situation, our comments should relate to the task assigned. If the pupils are first
asked to express their ideas in English freely and then to read critically what they have written in
order to make changes, then we should also give a two-stage response, by separating our response
to content and structure from our response to language accuracy.
SAQ 17: Here is a possible use of the code for correction of mistakes :
SP I am studying english because I want to work for a
VT, G big company when I will graduate. Perhaps I may, to
SP, G continue my studis. So I must to reach a good level
SP, VO, VT, VF of english because of when I will go abroad send by VO, P the company,
I’ll need to understand all. My father
Art, G, SP, Artwho is mecanic engineer he says that english is a
interesting language for all kinds of reasons.
SP, WW Another reason that I am studying english is that I
G, Art, V like myself to listen to the music. I am learning new
expressions and improve my listening, too. I can mix Art learning with the pleasure of listening
to the music.
VO, VF, G Something else is we often have foreigners invited
VF for dinner at home who are invited by my parents
SP, SP, SP and usualy. english is the language of cmiunication.
The use of a code is limiting, isn’t it? How did you deal with Something else is we often ... ?
SAQ 18: The recommended order of steps is 5, 1, 3, 4, and 2.

Glossary
Agony column = a part of a newspaper or magazine where experts give advice on all kind of
matters (e.g. marital problems, trouble at work).
Anaphora = reference to an element previously mentioned.
Cataphora = reference to an element mentioned later.
Cognate = a word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word in another
language, e.g. contemporary - contemporan, to validate - a valida, etc.
Coherence = the way in which utterances or strings of utterances, or sentences and groups of
sentences in a discourse make sense in relationship to each other.
Cohesion = grammatical and lexical relationships between the different elements of a text,
including relationship between different sentences or between different parts
of a sentence. Cohesion also involves the ordering of sentences, and the use of cohesive devices.
Connectors = words or phrases that serve as links, and indicate the relationship between what
they are linking. For instance, as and because indicate cause, consequently indicates result,
although indicates contrast, and and moreover indicate addition, then indicates sequence, etc.
Connectors act as signposts and help the readers to anticipate and find their way through a text.
Deictics = terms that cannot be interpreted without an immediate context, words that have a
“pointing” function in a given discourse context. For instance, the following note, pinned on a
door : “Sorry I missed you. I’m out of the office. Back in an hour” cannot be interpreted without
knowing who wrote the note, who it is addressed to, or what time it was written. Deictic
expressions are typically pronouns, demonstratives, certain time and place adverbs (here and
now), some verbs of motion (come and go), and even tenses. These words cannot be given a
precise meaning in a dictionary because they are dependent on context for interpretation.
Discourse = language (spoken or written) that has been produced as the result of an act of
communication.
Ellipsis = the leaving out of words or phrases after they have been referred to qr mentioned, e.g. /
saw a deer and you (saw) a stag.
Embedded clause = a clause within a sentence, e.g. : The news that he died surprised them.
Figures = information presented in the form of diagrams, tables, maps, graphs, illustrations, etc.
Genre = different text types (spoken or written) with particular and distinctive similar
characteristics in terms of structure, style, content and intended audience, used in different social
activities, e.g. recipes, letters of complaint, essays, reports, etc. A genre changes : it is not a rigid
set of rules for text formation. Social practice, that is subject to change itself, makes a genre
dynamic.
Graphic conventions = layout, punctuation, type face, use of symbols and so on. ,
Hyponymy = a relationship between two words, in which the meaning of one of the words
(superordinate) includes the meanig of the other word (hyponym), e.g.v flower (super-ordinate) -
rose (hyponym).
Information gap = a situation where information is known by only some of those involved in
communication. In order to promote communication in the classroom, there must be an
information gap between pupils, or between pupils and teacher. Without such a gap, the
classroom activities are mechanical and artificial.
Mnemonic device = device, such as a string of letters or a line of verse, used for helping one to
remember something.
Open-ended question = a question which allows the pupils to answer in their own way, in contrast
to questions with limited multiple-choice possibilities.
Paralinguistic features = not a systematic part of language. Include such features as : the way
someone is speaking - loudly or softly, shouting or whispering, the facial expression and physical
gestures they use when they speak.
Portfolio = work that has been produced and accumulated over a period of time and submitted for
assessment.
Prosodic features = non-verbal aspects of language used systematically to help give meaning to
utterances: rhythm, phrasing, and pauses
Proactive = type of behaviour characterized by initiative and responsibility for one’s own life.
Proactive people are value driven and make things happen. The opposite type of behaviour is
reactive - affected by physical environment.
Reference = the relationship between a word or phrase and an entity in the external world.
Reference covers all the devices that allow lexical relationship within a text: words that refer to,
or are used instead of other words (pronouns, demonstratives, comparatives). For instance, the
sentence “She asked John to go home and he did” has three examples of reference: she, he, and
did. Only did can be interpreted from the given context. Reference also covers such lexical
relationships as substitution, ellipsis, synonymy, hyponymy, anaphora and cataphora.
Reference material = all the parts of a text that help the reader to locate information or predict
what the text contains, such as titles, index, blurb and so on.
Scanning = speedy reading to extract specific bits of information.
Schema (pi. schemata) = an underlying structure or general way of organising ideas which
provides a basis for the listener’s and reader’s expectations of how a text will develop.
Skimming — reading to get the general picture, without paying attention to details. Skimming
entails the reader’s ability to pick out main points rapidly, discarding what is not essential or
relevant to that general picture.
Substitution = replacing a word or phrase that has already been mentioned, e.g. use of pronouns,
so, not, etc.
Synonymy = relationship between words which have the same, or nearly the same meaning, e.g.
hide - conceal.

Bibliography
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Doff, Adrian (1988), Teach English, CUR
Dvorak, Trisha (1986), “Writing in the Foreign Language”, in L.M. Calkins (ed.) Listening,
Reading and Writing : Analysis and Application, Northeast Conference on the Teaching of
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Elbow, Peter (1986), “Teaching Two Kinds of Thinking by Teaching Writing”, in Embracing
Contraries, Oxford University Press.
Emig, J. (1981), “Non-magical thinking : Presenting writing developmentally in schools”, in C.
Frederiksen & J. Dominic (eds.) Writing : The nature, development and teaching of written
communication, (vol. 2), Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum.
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