FOREWORD

Waterways are hydrotechnical constructions or improvements

made in order to serve water transport. This paper makes no

reference to shipping, the navigation improvements in this area

being the field of those dealing with navigation control.

The importance of the study, design, implementation and

operation of inland waterways results from the great economic

efficiency of water transport - for a wide range of goods and

passengers - compared to land and air transport.

This paper is a reprinting of a previous work, which has been

revised, updated (in what concerns the statistical data), improved

and enriched with a rich photo annex presenting the works in the

field.

This book is intended for students in the Hydrotechnical

Improvements and Constructions study program, but also for those

in specializations related to it or for those wishing to inform

themselves in this field of constructions.

The content is organized into six chapters:

- Water transport

- Civilian transport vessels and their characteristics

- The waterway

- Inland waterways on rivers, lakes or canals

- Sluices

- Ship elevators.

The Authors

Chapter 1 WATER TRANSPORT

 1.1. Introduction

Navigation is the movement on water by means of vessels or

other floating technical systems.

The surface or the strip of water that meets the needs of safe

navigation is called waterway.

Waterways can be: inland waterways (on rivers, lakes or

canals) or maritime waterways (on seas and oceans).

The movement of vessels can be independent (for those self-

propelled) or in convoys (vessels without propulsion plus tow or

pusher; convoys can, therefore, be towed or pushed).

Two or more vessels connected board on board form a berth

(two vessels - double berth, three vessels - triple berth, four ships -

quadruple berth, but this situation is rarely met). In the field of

harbors, a berth is that part of the quay intended for vessel morring.
 The totality of vessels serving a waterway is called fleet.

Moreover, those vessels belonging to a ship owner are also known

as fleet.

The fleet may be of transport or it may be composed of

technical or military vessels. The transport activity of the fleet is

done as fleet courses.

The course is the movement made by a vessel or by a convoy

of vessels from the point of the dispatch of goods to the point of

their destination. It is the fundamental form of the technological

process of transport.

By means of comparing the movement direction in the sense

of the river flow, one can distinguish between upstream courses and

downstream courses. Moreover, courses can be classified in:

- cargo courses and courses without cargo

- regular and irregular courses (by charter)

 Regular courses connect the same points of dispatch and

destination of goods, on a fixed route (line of movement) and using

a precise schedule of departures and arrivals in ports (itinerary).

The course ending in the initial point of departure is called

circular course.

The course duration (tc) is the time needed to perform all

operations between the points of departure and arrival, until the

resumption of the transport process becomes possible, in similar

conditions. The course graphic is the representation of the vessel

movement highlighting all the durations of the operations during the

course.

Inland waterways play an important role in transportation.

The development of inland waterway transport is an attribute of

countries with a developed economy, because the cost of waterways,

ports and fleet is very high (which is, however, subsequently

compensated by means of the much lower transportation cost by

water, compared to motor or rail transport).

 Transport by water is more effective for mass and bulk goods:

coal, ore, grain, construction materials, fertilizer, petroleum etc.

1.2. Water transport in Europe and worldwide

Inland waterways of Europe are grouped into three major

systems:

 the rivers and canals of the northern and western Europe: the

Seine, Rhone, Rhine, Weser, Ems, Elbe, Oder and the canals

between them;

 the Danube system, consisting of the Danube, its tributaries

and the canals of the 10 countries it crosses;

 the rivers and canals of the European part of Russia and other

former parts of the European USSR: Volga, Don, Neva, North Dvina

Western Dvina, Dnieper and the canals that link them (the system

has about four seas: the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Baltic Sea

and the White Sea).

 The Rhine is one of the most powerful shipping lines in Europe:

it covers 75% of the coal transport and 70% of the transport of

Germany's iron and steel production, large quantities of chemicals,

petroleum and iron and steel from France and the Netherlands. At its

mouth, in the North Sea, there is the great Rotterdam Port. The

Rhine is compared to a water transport spine of the Western Europe.

On the Rhine, there have been executed important

regularization works (river bed stabilization, dams, increase of water

transport capacity and improvement of navigation conditions) in the

nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The areas that could not be

improved for navigation in free current have been barred and sluiced

and, in many places, the natural riverbed was given up to, by

executing bypass sluiced canals, in parallel with the very difficult

sectors. Most sluices are twin, of 185 m long (one with a width of 12

m and the other - of 23 m). On the Rhine, one can circulate with

self-propelled vessels and pushed convoys.

 Self-propelled vessels are: of 1,000 tons (draft: 1.6 m) for low

waters and of 1350 and 2000 tons (drafts: 2.5 m and 2.7 m) for high

water levels.

Pushed convoys consisting of two double berths for barges of

1,500 tons and pusher aggregate to the 185 m usable length of

sluices.

The Rhine-Main-Danube Canal is a navigable waterway

connecting the towns Aschaffenburg (on the Main River, a tributary

of the Rhine) and Jockenstein (on the Danube). It has a length of

677 km and it consists of three main sections:

- the Western section - 297 km and 27 sluices - done on the

river Main between Aschaffenburg and Bamberg (completed in

1962)

- the central section - 171 km and 16 sluices (13 of the 16

sluices have economizers), between Bamberg (on Main) and

Kelheim (on Danube); it is a canal of 65 km, between Nurnberg and

Altmühl, the updating of the old Ludwig canal (made in 1845 and

abandoned in 1950). It was completed on 25th September 1992.

- the Eastern section (Danube) - 209 km and 9 sluices - from

Kelheim to Jochenstein (all completed in 1992).

The entire improvement was done in about 70 years and it

was estimated at $ 3,800 million. The canal was opened for traffic

on all of its lenght on 25th September 1992. Most sluices are 190 m

long and 12 m wide (from Regensburg to Jochenstein, twin sluices

24 x 230 m).

The Mittelland Canal, in northern Germany, plays the role of

a belt connecting four major rivers: the Rhine, the Weser, the Elbe

and the Oder.

On the 325 km (between the Ems and Elbe) there are

hydrotechnical works, such as: sluices with economizer pools,

elevators for ships, canal bridges and under-crossings.

The canal sector from the river Ems to Hanover was

completed in 1918 and it was able to take vessels of 600 tons. Half
of the sector from Hannover to Elba was put into operation in 1938

for vessels of 1,000 t. By means of rescaling the section, the canal

provides nowadays, on almost its entire length, the movement of

vessels of 1350 tons.

The canal crosses the Weser River on a concrete bridge (and it

is linked to the river through a sluice) and the Elbe on a metal bridge

(it is connected to Elba by means of a ship-lift).

By the Plane and Ihle canals, the Mittelland canal is linked to

the east with the city of Berlin and by the Havel-Oder and Spree-

Oder canals, the Oder River is reached.

To the west, the canal is linked through the ramifications:

Datteln-Wesel, Datteln-Duisburg and Datteln-Hamm with the Ruhr

coal basin, with the Rhine and Saxony.

The waterways system in the northern and western Europe is

connected by the French artery Sena-Ron with the Mediterranean

Sea and through Du Midi Canal and the Garonne River with the

Atlantic Ocean.
 Danube, with a length of 2850 km (from Donaneschingen, the

confluence of Breg and Brigach rivers), is a major navigation artery

of Europe. It has 120 tributaries in the 10 countries that it crosses

(and it runs through four capitals: Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest,

Belgrade).

The part used for regular navigation has 2379 km long - from

Regensburg (Germany) to Sulina. Upstream of Regensburg, a

regular navigation is done to Ulm (km 2588).

Note. The river measurement in km is done from the mouth to

the source!

The Danube crosses the north-western Carpathians (continued

with the Alps) to Devin, and the Southern Carpathians (continued

with the Balkans) to the Iron Gates. These narrow passes divide the

Danube into three sectors :

- Upper Danube: from source to Devin Gates

- Middle Danube: from Devin to the Iron Gates

 - Lower Danube: from the Iron Gates to its flow in the Black

Sea.

The improvement of Upper Danube began in 1836. This

sector is composed of narrow passes and winding sections that

alternate with large and branched portions of the riverbed. Here and

there, there were rocky crossings where water depth at low-water

line was falling below a meter.

Both improvement works in free current (closure of secondary

branches, riverbed sector adjustments, blasting - dredging,

penetrations of meanders) and improvements under barred

conditions (7 hydrotechnical knots with navigation sluices, executed

between 1928 and 1976) were executed and, finally, the entire sector

with 19 sluiced steps. The Upper Danube sluices have the

dimensions of 24 x 230 m and have double chambers.

The Middle Danube is a typical lowland river, with a wide (5-

20 km), sinuous, uneasy and branched valley (there are also some
areas which are out of this pattern, with rapid changes in slopes and

rocky river beds).

In the Devin-Gönyü sector, by reducing the drain slope (from

0.35 ‰. to 0.17 ‰.), deposits occur and continuous operations are

needed in order to increase transport capacity and dredging of

alluvial deposits. At the Iron Gates, between 1889 and 1898, by

means of blasting - dredging, the Sip canal was made, of about 6 km

long. In 106, at the Iron Gates, Apollodorus of Damascus made a

bypass canal, parallel to the Danube bed, with a length of about

3225 m and a width of about 57 m at the water mirror!

By making the hydrotechnical knots Iron Gates 1 and Iron

Gates 2, all navigation problems in this sector have been solved

(through the large depth of the water in these barrier lakes). On the

middle Danube, there are provided 5 hydrotechnical knots

(including the ones from the Iron Gates) with sluices having the

width increased to 34 m (compared to 24 m on the upper Danube).

 The works on the Lower Danube are less numerous because

there are relatively good navigation conditions. There are some very

winding sectors (Drobeta - Turnu Severin - Lom - 200 km and

Hârşova - Braila).

In this sector, there are proposed three hydrotechnical knots

(Turnu Magurele - Nikopol, Cernavoda - Topalu and Macin).

The biggest navigation problems on lower Danube are raised

by the thresholds consisting of alluvial deposits (especially on

Calarasi – Hârşova sector, of 115 Km long; large volumes of

dredging are annually made).

In August 2003 the Danube flow was of only 1700 m3/s,

which has created great navigation problems (including on the

Danube - Black Sea Canal) and has led to the temporary halting of

the Cernavoda Nuclear Power Plant (which worked in that period

only with Group 1).

Important works are also carried out on the maritime Danube

(Galati - Sulina): riverbed corrections, breakthroughs of meanders

and dredging in order to ensure a depth of 24 feet = 7.32 m

(according to the Danube Convention). In this sense, a problem is

"the Sulina bar”. Due to the clash between the coast current (from

north to south, near the Romanian coast) and the water current

flowed by Danube into the sea, there occurs the dissipation of

energy and the deposit of alluviums in the form of a bank parallel to

the coast: the Sulina bar (Fig. I.1 ). In order to wash it by the

Danube, two jetties were built (light protection dams of access

canals) that had to be continuously lenghtened since, before the new

mouths, a new "bar" was forming.

In order to improve the sea outlet, the Black Sea – Danube

Canal was executed. It has two double (twin) sluices of 25 x 310 m

and a length of 64.2 km. It provides a water depth of 7.5 m and it

ends in the Black Sea, in Constanta port, in the Southern area.

Figure I-1 Sulina “bar” jetties

The Cernavoda sluice can work with an alternating level in

the Danube (lower or higher than the one in the canal) and the

Agigea sluice is singularized through its filling - emptying system

designed so as to avoid the water salinization in the canal (used for

irrigations and water supply).

 The computing convoy on the Danube - Black Sea Canal is a

convoy pushed in three double berths for barges of 3,000 tons (load

capacity) and a pusher (Figure I.2).

Figure I-2

The Volga River and the network of canals, rivers and lakes in

Russia and former USSR European republics are waterways able to

connect seas which are situated far from one another: the White Sea

(and the Barents Sea), the Baltic Sea, the Caspian Sea and the Black

Sea. The first navigation improvements began in Russia in 1708

(Peter I; Vâşenovoloţk system). The Volga River is “the backbone”

of this inland waterways system.

 The Moscow City is linked to the Volga by the Moscow -

Moscow River (leading to the Volga) and Moscow - Oka (also

leading to the Volga) canals, where there are placed 3+8 sluices, size

30x290.

The Volga-Don Canal, of 101 km long, has 13 sluices. The

navigation system allows the movement of vessels of 3,000 to 4,000

tons. The following table provides a comparison (in terms of

volumes of works) between several major navigable canals in the

world:

Table I-1

Diggings
Lenght Concrete
Name of the canal (earth+rock)
[km] [106m3]
[106m3]
Panama 81 160 3,9
Suez 164 275 -
Moscow-Volga 128 154 2,9
Nothern German
99 78 0,8
Canal
The Danube- Black 64,2 300 3,55
 Sea Canal

The Panama Canal has a length of 81.3 km; there are located

five sluices, which allow the crossing of a 26 m level difference. The

construction of the canal began in 1903 and ended in 1914.

Currently, in order to allow the navigation of vessels of greater

capacity, the problem of expanding the canal arises with great acuity

(from the same reasons, the Suez Canal has also suffered an

enlargement and reshaping).

1.3.The techno-economic aspects of water transportation

The efficiency of water transportation is determined by the

following main factors:

1) Cost (RON/t· Km)

2) Commercial and traffic speed

3) Waterway transportation capacity

 4) Mass character

5) Permanence and regularity

6) Transport safety

1) The cost for the transportation by water (without

transshipment) has the following components:

a) the redemption quota of the investment in the waterway and

the fleet

b) the maintenance costs for the waterway (relatively small)

and for the fleet (higher)

c) social costs and salaries: they show a downward trend

through the automation of water transportation and the navigation

expansion by means of pushers

d) propellant charges (the cost of fuel and lubricants)

e) insurance costs and general expenditures.

 The cost of the transportation by water (without loading and

unloading operations) is lower than vehicle or rail transport. For

long distance transportation (over 200 km), the transport by water is

competitive with land transport, even including loading and

unloading of goods.

For water courses designed for navigation under free flow

regime (without sluices), the average investment per km may be

lower than the corresponding one for railways but, for sluiced

canals, it is, usually, considerably higher.

2) Inland waterway transportation speed is lower than the one

by rail (when discussing the optimal speed of movement)

Two types of speed are raised into discussion:

a) the technical speed, the speed of vessels or land vehicles

movement, in full march

 b) the commercial speed, or the speed for the transmission of

goods from the embarkment point to the destination, taking into

account all the stops and the technological times on the route.

The comparison of these speeds is presented in Table I.2:

Commercial speeds show smaller differences between rail and

river transportation than the technical speeds (stationary times and

losses on the route are lower than those on rail).

3) The transportation capacity of waterways

a) for waterways improved on rivers and streams, under free

flow regime, it is virtually unlimited and much higher than those of

other routes

b) for rivers and streams improved under barred regime or for

sluiced canals, the transportation capacity is limited to the capacity

of the crossing (traffic) of sluices.

 4) The mass character of water transportation is given by the

fact that ships used today have high load capacities. Even a

relatively small barge - 1000 t – has the load capacity of a freight

train and if we think that barges travel in convoys, then the

advantage belongs clearly to water transportation.

Table I-2

Technical
Type of Type of Commercial
Vehicle type speeld
transport route sped (km/h)
(km/h)
Slack Towed convoy 7-10 5-8
Pushed convoy 10-13 8-10
water,

Unlimited Motorship 14-20 10-16

Fluvial
Space
Towed convoy 5-7 3,5-6
Canal Pushed convoy 6-10 4-8
Motorship 11-15 7-13
 Freight steam
30-35 15-20
train
Railway Railroad
Freight diesel
40-55 * 40,95##
train
Medium trucks 58-66 *
Motor Highway
Heavy trucks 56-64 *
National
Trucks 30-40 *
Route
The data marked with : * are data from older studies.

## - in 2000

In addition, water transportation does not restrictively

condition the gauge of the transported goods, as in railway wagons.

On water, there can be transported very large and heavy pieces (see,

however, the air gauge under bridges etc.).

5) The regularity and permanence of water transportation are

not fully satisfactory for several reasons:

 a - water freezing - the average navigation period varies greatly

with the geographic area: on the Danube 270-300 days per year, on

the rivers of Russia 170-270 days per year etc. In order to fight

against this shortcoming, icebreakers or hot water from the cooling

of power plants can be used.

b - seasonal low water levels in rivers and streams (or dry

periods). A hydrological forecasting system can be entered. The

vessels can run at reduced load (smaller draft) or low-draft vessels

can be used.

c – high waves usually produced by the wind (mostly on lakes)

- may result in the temporary interruption of navigation.

The interruptions give water transportation a coefficient of

irregularity and require the construction of buffer storage

(warehouses), both in dispatch and destination ports.

Instead, interruptions can be used for reviewing and repairing

the vessels.
 6) The safety of inland waterway transport is very high, as

shipwrecks are rare. Therefore, the fleet has a long exploitation

period and the annual redemption rates are much lower than those of

other means of transport, and this also calls for the profitableness of

the transport by inland waterways.

7) Other favorable characteristics of water transportation are:

- the mechanization in a high percentage of loading and

unloading operations

- the reduced staff (number) that accompanies the goods (in

the case of pushed convoys: 1 at 1000-2000 t)

- the low metal consumption for building the vessels, related

to the transported mass unit, compared to motor or railway

transportation means.

1.4. The main traffic indicators

 The main traffic indicators are:

a) the weight of goods (the number of passengers)

b) the distance covered by the goods and the transportation

distance

c) transport intensity

a) – The weight of goods or the number of passengers - the

most important traffic indicator – is determined by the transport

balance (the evidence of the surplus or of the scarce products of the

region served by the waterway in question; the local freight traffic

and the goods in transit shall also be taken into account).

The direction in which the highest volume of goods is

transported is called direct navigation sense and the other –

backward direction.

The weight of the goods transported by the Romanian inland

waterways has evolved, as in the following table:

Table I-3
 2001

2006
1938

1948

1960

1970

1975

1985

1989

1991
Year

14,94
11,34
Transport

by

navigable

37,37

12,04
1,33

0,81

1,91

3,40

6,10

18,4
inland

waterways

[mil.t]

Despite the increase in absolute quantity of the goods

transported by water, in fact, the participation share of this type of

transport in relation to land transport (road and rail) in the total

traffic has declined during the recent years. The participation share

of rail transport has decreased. One of the main reasons of this

phenomenon is the massive takeover of goods by road transport

(with significant increases in traffic and pollution problems),

especially for short distances and relatively in small quantities, and

also the strong development of pipeline transport (gas and liquid).

 b) – The distance covered by goods (passengers) is an

indicator which better characterizes the transport than the simple

expression of the quantity of the transported goods. As water

transportation distances are usually longer, the workload by water

transport may be better emphasized.

The distance covered by goods - PM (or of travelers - PC) is

the product of the quantity of goods transported - Q (the number of

passengers - Y) and the transport distance - d:

PM   Qi  d i [tkm] (I.0)

PC =  Y i  d i [passengersKm] (I.0)

The distance covered by goods is an indicator that reflects the

production of transport industry (but it should be noted that the

increase in the transportation of goods by increasing the distance is a

negative aspect of the efficiency of this activity).

 The average transport distance is obtained by dividing the

covered distance to the amount of freight (the number of

passengers):

PM
d=
Q [Km] (I.0)

or

PC
d=
Y
[Km] (I.0)

c) – The transportation intensity is given by the ratio of the

distance covered by goods (passengers) and the length of the

analyzed transportation route - L (or of the network of the

transportation route):

PM
I=
L
[(tKm)/

Km] (I.0)

PC
I=
L
[(passengersKm)/Km] (I.0)
 Currently, the intensity is lower than the tonnage of the

carried goods (number of passengers) because not all goods are

transported on the entire length of the transportation route

(network).