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Scripta Materialia 68 (2013) 530–533

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Effect of c/a axial ratio on Schmid factors in hexagonal

close-packed metals
Xiao-Long Nan, Hui-Yuan Wang,⇑ Zhi-Qiang Wu, En-Song Xue,
Lei Zhang and Qi-Chuan Jiang⇑
Key Laboratory of Automobile Materials of Ministry of Education and School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanling Campus,
Jilin University, No. 5988 Renmin Street, Changchun 130025, People’s Republic of China
Received 29 August 2012; revised 4 December 2012; accepted 6 December 2012
Available online 14 December 2012

Schmid factors (m) for typical slip modes (basal hai, prismatic hai, pyramidal hai and hc + ai slips) and twinning patterns
(f1 0 1 2g and f1 0 1 1g twins) were systematically calculated in hexagonal close-packed Cd, Zn, Mg, Zr, Ti and Be. A monotonic
effect on m-values was presented for pyramidal hai and hc + ai slips, and f1 0 1 2g and f1 0 1 1g twinning patterns with decreasing
c/a ratio. The results calculated herein were used to characterize deformation behaviors and provide essential data for anisotropic
feature analysis.
Ó 2012 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Slip; Twinning; Plastic deformation; Texture

The axial ratio (c/a) has a significant effect on the
deformation behavior in hexagonal close-packed (hcp)
metals; for example, the f1 0 1 2g twin is considered pffiffiffi to
be a compression twin for Cd and Zn ðc=a > 3Þ p but
ffiffiffi
a tension twin for all the other hcp metals ðc=a < 3Þ
with respect to the c-axis [1,2]. In addition, the dominant
slip mode is hai slip on the basal f0 0 0 1g plane for Cd
and Zn (c/a > 1.633) but on the prismatic f1 0 1 0g plane
for Ti and Zr (c/a < 1.633), apart from certain excep-
tions (e.g. Mg, Be) [3–7]. It is assumed that the texture
evolution depends strongly on the c/a ratio for hcp met-
als [8,9]. Wang and Huang [9] have summarized that the
main features of deformation texture in hcp metals with
different c/a ratios can be broadly classified into three
groups, i.e. the ideal basal texture for Mg with a c/a
of 1.624 close to the critical value and the other two
parts of non-basal textures in which basal poles are
tilted away from the normal direction (ND) either
toward the rolling direction (RD) for Cd and Zn or
toward the transverse direction (TD) for Ti and Zr.
More recently, we calculated the Schmid factors
(m) for four slip systems (basal f0 0 0 1g hai slip, prismatic
f1 0 1 0g hai slip, pyramidal f1 0 1 1g hai slip and f1 1 2 2g
hc + ai slip) and two twinning patterns (f1 0 1 2g and
⇑ Corresponding authors. Tel./fax: +86 431 8509 4699; e-mail
addresses: wanghuiyuan@jlu.edu.cn; jiangqc@jlu.edu.cn
f1 0 1 1g twins), and gave a reasonable interpretation to
describe the flow stress and characterizing deformation
behaviors in magnesium [10]. However, differences from
the m-value of magnesium (c/a = 1.624) remain unclear
when the c/a ratio is far from 1.624. To extend our previ-
ous work [10] to hcp metals with a c/a ratio close to, or
greater or lower than that of Mg, the m-values for relative
deformation modes were calculated for Cd (1.886), Zn
(1.856), Mg (1.624) [10], Mg–(17 at.%) Li (1.607), Zr
(1.593), Ti (1.587) and Be (1.568) in the present work.
Supposing that the loading directions sketched in
Figure 1a are along ½1 1 2c1  (r1, 0°) and ½1 0 1c3  (r3,
30°), then the projective location of the relative loading
direction on the basal plane can be plotted. This is
shown in Figure 1b. The Schmid factors ðm ¼ cos
/ cos kÞ, which have functional relationship with the
angles (h) between the c-axis and the loading directions,
were calculated by:
½u1 u2 þ v1 v2  12 ðu1 v2 þ u2 v1 Þ þ ðac Þ2 w1 w2 
cos /ðkÞ ¼ ð1Þ
½ðu21 þ v21  u1 v1 þ ðac Þ2 w21 Þðu22 þ v22  u2 v2 þ ðac Þ2 w22 Þ1=2
where [u1v1w1] is the 3-index slip (twinning) plane nor-
mal or 3-index slip (twinning) direction, while [u2v2w2]
is the 3-index loading direction. Details of the calcula-
tions used are reported in Ref. [10].
Figures 2 and 3 show the Schmid factors for pyrami-
dal f1 0 1 1g hai slip (Fig. 2a and b), pyramidal f1 1 2 2g

1359-6462/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2012.12.006
 X.-L. Nan et al. / Scripta Materialia 68 (2013) 530–533
Figure 1. (a) Schematic relations of four slip systems (basal f0 0 0 1g
hai, prismatic f1 0 1 0g hai, pyramidal f1 0 1 1g hai and f1 1 2 2g hc + ai
slips) as well as two twinning patterns (f1 0 1 2g and f1 0 1 1g twinning)
and two loading directions (r1 and r3), and (b) the projective location
of relative loading direction on basal plane.
hc + ai slip (Fig. 2c and d), f1 0 1 2g twinning (Fig. 3a
and b) and f1 0 1 1g twinning (Fig. 3c and d) with
decreasing c/a ratios, from the 1.886 of Cd to the
1.568 of Be, respectively. Unlike the polar mechanism
in deformation twinning, dislocation slip allows simple
shear in both the forward and backward directions
[2,11], and the absolute m-value is then used for pyrami-
dal hai and hc + ai slips. The roman numerals (i–vi) (see
the right side) in Figures 2 and 3 represent the variants
for corresponding deformation modes, where the super-
position of m-curves is characterized by two numbers
(e.g. variants i and iv or ii and iii in Fig. 2a).
It can be seen that the variants i (iv), ii (iii) and v (vi)
(Fig. 2a) in the r1 loading direction and variants i (iii), ii
(v) and iv (vi) (Fig. 2b) in the r3 loading direction show
m-curves that overlap for pyramidal hai slip. The
m-curves of variants ii and v calculated here exhibit a
constant zero in the r3 loading direction. A monotonic
tendency in m-values with decreasing c/a ratio is present
at a definite h angle (e.g. shown by the grey arrow in
Fig. 2a). Except for the unique monotonic regularity
in the m-curves for variants i and iv (Fig. 2a) and the
constant zero of m-values for variants ii and v
(Fig. 2b), all of others exhibit multi-section monotonic
Figure 2. Schmid factors for (a, b) pyramidal f1 0 1 1g hai slip and (c,
d) pyramidal f1 1 2 2g hc + ai slip along the r1 and r3 loading
directions, respectively, as a function of the angles between the c-axis
and the loading directions.
531
Figure 3. Schmid factors for (a, b) f1 0 1 2g twinning and (c, d) f1 0 1 1g
twinning along the r1 and r3 loading directions, respectively, as a
function of the angles between the c-axis and the loading directions.
m-curves. Unlike most variants, which present two con-
versely monotonic m-curves for pyramidal hai slip, three
sections of monotonic m-curves are noted in most of the
variants for pyramidal hc + ai slip (Fig. 2c and d).
Different from the multi-sections of monotonic
m-curves in most variants on pyramidal slips (hai and
hc + ai) and f1 0 1 1g twinning (Fig. 3c and d), all of
them for f1 0 1 2g twinning in Figure 3a and b appear
with unique monotonic regularity. Note that variants i
(ii) exhibit an overlapping m-range but the opposite var-
iation tendency with decreasing c/a ratio compared with
variants iv (v) in Figure 3a (shown by the red arrow).
Similar appearances can be observed between variants
i and iv and between variants iii (v) and ii (vi) in Fig-
ure 3b, respectively. In addition, the Schmid factors of
variants iii (vi) in Figure 3a show less dependence on
the c/a ratio.
Table 1 gives the Schmid factors of all six variants in
Cd, Mg, Ti and Be along three particular loading direc-
tions, i.e. parallel with the c-axis (h = 0°) and in the
½1 1 2 0 and ½1 0 1 0 directions (h = 90°). The numbers
in brackets (i.e. 2, 4 and 6) refer to the number of vari-
ants presenting the relative m-value. Schmid factors of
Zn (1.856), Mg–(17 at.%) Li (1.607) and Zr (1.593) are
not shown in Table 1; however, these can be represented
approximately by the values for Cd (1.886), Mg (1.624)
and Ti (1.587), owing to their similar c/a ratios. For
example, with decreasing c/a ratio from 1.624 (Mg) to
1.607 (Mg–17 at.% Li), there is only a limited increase
in Schmid factors, from 0.447 to 0.449 and 0.415 to
0.418 for pyramidal hc + ai slips and f1 0 1 2g twinning,
respectively, in c-axis loading.
Note that the m-values vary monotonically with
decreasing c/a ratio at constant angles; however,
whether the function is monotonically increasing or
decreasing depends on the variants and the h angles. A
significant effect of the c/a ratio on m-values is observed,
e.g. the maximum Schmid factors for pyramidal hc + ai
slip increase from 0.414 (0.310) in Cd to 0.453 (0.340) in
Be when tensioned along the ½1 1 2 0 ð½1 0 1 0Þ direction
(Table 1). The Schmid factors for basal hai and pris-
matic hai slip were also calculated in the aforementioned
hcp metals, indicating a negligible effect of c/a ratios on
m-values at the same h angle. Details of the m-values for
532 X.-L. Nan et al. / Scripta Materialia 68 (2013) 530–533

Table 1. Schmid factors for pyramidal f1 0 1 1g hai slip, pyramidal f1 1 2 2g hc + aislip, f1 0 1 2g twinning and f1 0 1 1g twinning at two basal h angles
(0, 90°) in the r1 and r3 loading directions.
h (degree) Loading direction Cd (1.886) Mg (1.624) Ti (1.587) Be (1.568)
Pyramidal hai 0 c-axis 0(6) 0(6) 0(6) 0(6)
90 r1 ð½1 1 2 0Þ 0.394(4)/0(2) 0.382(4)/0(2) 0.380(4)/0(2) 0.379(4)/0(2)
r3 ð½1 0 1 0Þ 0.394(4)/0(2) 0.382(4)/0(2) 0.380(4)/0(2) 0.379(4)/0(2)
Pyramidal hc + ai 0 c-axis 0.414(6) 0.447(6) 0.451(6) 0.453(6)
90 r1 ð½1 1 2 0Þ 0.103(4)/0.414(2) 0.112(4)/0.447(2) 0.113(4)/0.451(2) 0.113(4)/0.453
r3 ð½1 0 1 0Þ 0.310(4)/0(2) 0.335(4)/0(2) 0.338(4)/0(2) 0.340(4)/0(2)
f1 0 1 2g twinning 0 c-axis 0.498(6) 0.499(6) 0.498(6) 0.498(6)
90* r1 ð½1 1 2 0Þ 0.374(4)/0(2) 0.374(4)/0(2) 0.374(4)/0(2) 0.373(4)/0(2)
r3 ð½1 0 1 0Þ 0.125(4)/0.498(2) 0.125(4)/0.499(2) 0.125(4)/0.498(2) 0.124(4)/0.498(2)
f1 0 1 1g twinning 0* c-axis 0.379(6) 0.415(6) 0.420(6) 0.423(6)
90 r1 ð½1 1 2 0Þ 0.284(4)/0(2) 0.311(4)/0(2) 0.315(4)/0(2) 0.317(4)/0(2)
r3 ð½1 0 1 0Þ 0.095(4)/0.379(2) 0.104(4)/0.415(2) 0.105(4)/0.420(2) 0.106(4)/0.423(2)
The numbers in brackets refer to the numbers of variants presenting the relative m-value, while the values in bold represent the maximum m-value in
relative loading directions.
*
Negative Schmid factors forf1 0 1 2g and f1 0 1 1g twinning indicate their favorite orientation within a compression loading direction.

basal hai and prismatic hai slip for other hcp metals are
given in Ref. [10].
Generally, as a relevant parameter, Schmid factors
are applied in various aspects. First, they are frequently
used to predict the nature of the slip system that can be
activated in a specific zone [12–14]. For example, Bridier
et al. [13] found that the activated slips in duplex a/b
titanium alloy clearly appear in good correspondence
with the highest m-value domains. Secondly, the strain
accommodated by twinning (the twinning strain, etwin)
can be calculated by: etwin ¼ ftwin  m  ctwin , where ftwin ,
m and ctwin represent the volume fraction of the twin,
the average Schmid factors and the characteristic twin-
ning shear, respectively [3,15]. This has been calculated
for Zr–2.5%Nb, providing values of about 0.048 and
0.006 for the f1 0 1 2g twinning strain during two differ-
ent rolling processes [16]. Moreover, Brown et al. [17]
presented a relation between the fraction of total strain
accommodated by twinning and strain rates (104–
104 s1) during compression deformation of beryllium.
Based on the assumption that grains under ½1 0 1 0 com-
pression twin more easily because of a largest Schmid
factor of 0.5 (i.e. 0.498 in Table 1), Brown et al. sug-
gested that twinning has a more important role at high
strain rates (25% total strain) than at low strain rates
(lower than 5% total strain) with an upper bound of m
of 0.5. Studying compression transverse to the basal
poles in textured AZ31 (Mg–3Al–1Zn), Brown et al.
[18] showed that 61% strain was accommodated by
f1 0 1 2g twinning from 0–5% early plastic deformation
with an m of 0.32 (see Table 1, (0.374 + 0.499 +
0.125)/3  0.33).
Ultimately, the Schmid factor is thought to be a per-
tinent parameter to show the selection of specific twin-
ning systems; for example, the activated twinning
systems during compression testing in AM30 (Mg–
3.4Al–0.33Mn) tubes were found to have high m-values
[19]. However, the Schmid factor criterion for twin selec-
tion was brought into doubt by the absence of many po-
tential high m-twins but the presence of low and very
low m-twins [20]. In recent statistical analyses, the prob-
ability of twin variants with highest or second-highest
m-values was shown to be only 56–60% or 21–23%
in Zr [21] and 47% or 27% in Mg [22], respectively.
Note that the departure between high Schmid factors
and twin variant selections resulted from local stress
variations, or the accommodation strain required to per-
mit their formation [20,21,23,24]. For instance, there
was good agreement with the Schmid factor criterion
for f1 0 1 1g primary twinning, but a departure from
the f1 0 1 2g secondary twinning in that only the 38°
h1 2 1 0i variant was favored in f1 0 1 1g primary twins,
as only this showed the strain compatibility needed for
secondary twins to grow [24]. It was considered that
the Schmid factor cannot be the only relevant parameter
for twin variant selection [23,25,26]. Therefore, Schuman
et al. [26–28] proposed a new energetic twin variant
selection criterion considering the deformation energy
needed to create a primary twin, i.e. the selected twin
variants
pffiffiffi were those with a maximal absolute value of
e033 = L, where e033 and L are the twinning deformation
expressed in the sample coordinate system and the max-
imum length of a variant in a grain, respectively. For
pure titanium, the Schmid factor criterion gave only
50% correct prediction of the twin variant selection;
however, the energy rule showed more than 85% correct
prediction when taking the grain size as one of the essen-
tial factors [27,28].
It should be recognized that Schmid factors are
indeed very important in describing flow stress and
characterizing deformation mechanisms [12,29,30]. Re-
cently, Chun and Davies [31] provided systematic
experimental data on the stress–strain curves of a highly
textured AZ31 (Mg–3Al–1Zn) plate under uniaxial ten-
sion and compression states, which showed similar yield
stress (67 MPa in RD or TD compression and
62 MPa in ND tension) but a distinct appearance in
stress–strain curves. Similar results with yield stresses
of 66 and 58 MPa were also obtained by Hong et al.
[32,33] for RD compression and ND tension in hot-
rolled AZ31 (Mg–3.6Al–1.0Zn–0.5Mn). The minor
higher yield stress in RD (or TD) compression than
ND tension may result from the lower average Schmid
factor of 0.437 (i.e. (0.374 + 0.499)/2) rather than
 X.-L. Nan et al. / Scripta Materialia 68 (2013) 530–533
0.499 (see Table 1, where h is 90 and 0°, respectively).
Supposing a critical resolved shear stress of 30 MPa
[34] for f1 0 1 2g twinning, the theoretical yield stresses
for RD (or TD) compression and ND tension would
be 68.6 and 60 MPa, showing the closest correspon-
dence with experimental results [33].
Extensive applications of Schmid factors can also be
seen when analyzing deformation behaviors and under-
standing the texture evolution in other hcp metals [3,7].
It can be concluded that hcp metals with certain orienta-
tions will show a pronounced tendency of geometrical
hardening or softening, arising from the change in
m-values due to the lattice rotation during the slip
process [3]. For example, during the c-axis compression
of beryllium, the rotation of basal poles close to the
loading direction will result in geometric hardening
due to the decrease in m-values of the basal slip system
[7]. Note that the Schmid relationship is crucial for char-
acterizing the activation of slip or twinning behaviors in
single crystals. Similarly, Schmid factors as relevant
parameters are also required when investigating the
effect of texture on the mechanical behavior in zinc,
titanium and zircaloy-2 sheets, etc. [35,36]. Therefore,
the calculated results in this study could provide essen-
tial data for anisotropic feature analysis in hcp metals.
In summary, the Schmid factors of four slip systems
(basal f0 0 0 1g hai, prismatic f1 0 1 0g hai, pyramidal
f1 0 1 1g hai and pyramidal f1 1 2 2g hc + ai slips) and
two twinning patterns f1 0 1 2g and f1 0 1 1g twins) have
been systematically calculated in Cd, Zn, Mg [10],
Mg–17 at.% Li, Zr, Ti and Be. The c/a ratio shows a
monotonic effect on the Schmid factors dependent on
the angle between the c-axis and the loading directions.
The Schmid factors calculated herein show some reason-
able applications, especially for determining the yield
stress in hcp metals.
Financial support from The Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 51271086) and The Special
Fund for the Author of Excellent PhD Thesis in China
(No. 201148) is greatly acknowledged. Partial financial
support come from The National Key Technologies
R&D Program (2011BAE22B03) and Doctoral Fund
of Ministry of Education of China (20120061110031).
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