Communication Systems, 5e

Communication Systems, 5e
Chapter 7: Analog Communication

Systems
A. Bruce Carlson
Paul B. Crilly
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies
Chapter 7:
Analog Communication Systems
• Receiver block diagram design
• Image frequency bands that may cause
spurious responses (more filter requirements)
• Signal Multiplexing
– Frequency division (FDM) and
– Time division (TDM)
• Phase-Lock Loops (PLL)

Multiplexing
• Combining multiple signals into a wider
bandwidth system for transmission
– Typically multiplex in time or frequency
• TDM time division multiplexing
• FDM frequency division multiplexing
– For time multiplexing, “PAM sampling”, bandwidth
based on PAM pulse periods
– For frequency multiplexing, bandwidth is the sum of all
the multiplexed elements plus their guard bands
3
Multiplexing Methods
• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
• Time division multiplexing (TDM)
• Quadrature-carrier multiplexing or quadrature

amplitude modulation (QAM) – complex signals
• Code division multiplexing (see Chap. 15)
• Spatial multiplexing
– Antenna direction
– Signal polarization

Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• Interleaved signals in
times that occupy
assigned time slots
– 6 time slots shown;
therefore, 6-TDM
5
Stallings, Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition,
2005 Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN: 0-13-191835-4
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
(FDM)
• Signal frequency
bands stacked
together, but
transmitted as one
wider bandwidth
signal
– 6 frequency bands
shown
– Similar to 6 adjacent
radio stations using
one transmitter
Stallings, Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition, 6
FDM transmitter
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 7.2-1
Stacked Frequency Bands

Guard Bands: allow for
individual frequency band
filter transition bands
• Transmitter
• Receiver
7
FDM receiver
Figure 7.2-2
Guard Bands: allow for
receiver filter transition bands
Cross Talk: unwanted energy
from adjacent FDM channels
Post-De-FDM Baseband Bandwidths:

• Signal Passband + both guard bands 8
FDM MATLAB Example
• FDM Example
– FM Modulate the chirp, gong and train
– FDM of the three FM signals
Sequenctial FFTs of the TDM-FM Modulated Waveform
0
-20
-40
Power (dB)
-60
-80
-100
-120
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency (Hz) 5
9
x 10
FDMA satellite repeater system
Figure 7.2-3
Nominal 36 MHz BW Links

• 1200 Voice Channels or
• 400 channels of 64 kbps or
• 16 channels of 1.544 Mbps each or
10
• One 50 Mbps data stream
FM stereo multiplexing
(a) transmitter (b) baseband spectrum

Figure 7.2-4
BRF  250 kHz

FDM-FM
• FDM baseband
• FM Signal
88 MHz  f C  108 MHz
11
FM stereo multiplex receiver
Figure 7.2-5
BIF  250 kHz
See problems 6.1-4 & 6.1-5
12
Quadrature-Carrier Multiplexing
Figure 7.2-6
sc t   A  x1 t   cos2  f c  t   x2 t   sin 2  f c  t 
A special case of FDM

“Orthogonal” Signals at the same frequency 13
Quadrature Carrier Math
xc t   A  x1 t   cos2  f c  t   A  x2 t   sin 2  f c  t 
y I t    A  x1 t   cos2  f c  t   A  x2 t   sin 2  f c  t  cos2  f c  t  
yQ t   A  x1 t   cos2  f c  t   A  x2 t   sin 2  f c  t  sin 2  f c  t  
A  A
y ILPF t     x1 t   cos   x2 t   sin    x1 t 
A
2 2  2 0
A 
yQLPF t     x1 t   sin    x2 t   cos    x2 t 
A A
2 2  2 0
Two signals multiplexed on the same frequency.

What happens if the receiver carrier is not perfectly
synchronized or, for example, 90 deg off? 14
Quadrature FDM Channels
• Each of the frequency bands or channels may have
signal that are in quadrature.
– Doubling the channel capacity
– Phase synchronization of the receiver with the received
waveform is required!
– A precursor to Orthogonal Frequency Division

Multiplexing (OFDM)
15
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• Interleaved signals in
times that occupy
assigned time slots
– 6 time slots shown;
therefore, 6-TDM
16
Stallings, Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition,
TDM – Insert more signals!
Analog signal and corresponding PAM signal: Figure 6.2-1
Signal #1
Signal #2
17
TDM system
(a) block diagram (b) waveforms
Figure 7.2-7
PAM inputs PAM outputs for

multiplexed in time reconstruction
18
TDM synchronization markers

Figure 7.2-9
One time slot used for a marker/synchronization 19

TDM Continuous Transmitter

(a) TDM transmitter with baseband filtering (b) baseband waveform
Figure 7.2-10
20
TDM MATLAB Example
• Time Multiplex Time-sampled Waveforms
– Chirp, Gong, Train
– One “sawtooth” extra channel
– Note: This did not start with true “PAM”; therefore, a
BPF should not be used before demultiplexing.
Sequenctial FFTs of the Initial TDM Modulated Waveform
Time Sequnece of the TDM Waveform 0
1
0.8 -20
0.6
-40
0.4
0.2
Power (dB)
-60
Amplitude
0
-80
-0.2
-0.4
-100
-0.6
-120
-0.8
-1
-140
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0.4515 0.452 0.4525 0.453 0.4535 0.454
Frequency (Hz) 5
Time x 10
21
Cross talk in TDM

Act  A  exp 2  B  Tg  kct  10  log10 
Act   54.5  B  T in dB 
 A  g
B = 3dB Bandwidth
Guard time
Figure 7.2-12
Sufficient time must be available for the receiver to

transition from one PAM level to the next. Otherwise
adjacent signals effect each other – defined as cross talk.
22
TDM/PPM with guard time
• Time-division-multiplexing multiple pulse-
position-modulated signals.
– Pulse center +/- t0
Tg Tg

 22
t0 t0 t0 t0
Ts
M
time
23
TDM/PPM with guard time
4th ed. Figure 7.2-13 is wrong: Fix - Tg is between the signal pulses
5th ed. Figure 7.2-13 is wrong: to is on opposite side of pulses
Tg
 
t0 t0
2 2
Ts
M
Forward and backward maximum locations, t0

Ts  
  t0  Tg  t0 
M 2 2
1  Ts 
t0       Tg 
2 M  24
Comparing TDM and FDM
• TDM based on time slots
– Overlap in frequency domain
– Bandwidth of total signal defines cross talk
– Well supported by digital circuitry, multiple mux rates
– Synchronization concerns
– Time based receiver; therefore, less dependent upon
filter performance or ripple
• FDM based on frequency slots
– Overlap in time domain
– Guard bands and filtering determine cross talk
– Simple frequency assignments
25
TDM, FDM, TDD and FDD
• TDM: Time division multiplex
• FDM: Frequency division multiples
For Two-way Communications

• TDD: Time division duplex
– One side talks and then the other side talks
– Note that only one transmission can happen at a time on
the signal frequency being used
• FDD: Frequency division duplex
– Two different frequencies are used so both sides can
talk simultaneously 26
Frequency Synthesis
• All wireless designs require defined reference frequencies for
transmitting and receiving waveforms.
• Local Oscillators are used to provide the reference frequencies
– Fixed tuned LOs may use RC, SAW or crystals
– Synthesized LOs typically use frequency and/or phase-lock loops
– Carrier/Phase Synchronous LOs are required for synchronous signal
demodulation
 et   dt
1
R
f ref
f out  N 
R
1
N 27
The Phase Locked Loop
• If the phases of two analog or digital signals that
are approximately the same in frequency are
compared, it can be determined which one leads or
lags.
• A difference signal can be generated and a
feedback loop can cause one signal to lock onto
the other …
et 
  dt
f out  f ref
 out   ref
28
Analog Phase Comparator
Phase comparators (a) analog Figure 7.3-1
 
e phase t   A c  cosc t  A v  cos v t   A c  A v  cosc t  cos c t   t   
 2
Ac  Av    Ac  Av Ac  Av
e phase t    cos  t      sint     t 
2  2 2 2
• Performance depends on the small angle approximation

• A “linear” capture range (linearize sine about zero) 29
Digital Phase Comparator
Phase comparators (b) digital Figure 7.3-1
• The operation tracks leading and lagging edge comparisons

of two digital, 50% duty cycle, square-wave inputs
– Typically, bipolar current pulses are output that represent which
signal leads and how much time mismatch there is.
30
Phase Lock Loop Model
Phase-lock loop
Figure 7.3-2
• Phase Comparator
• Loop Filter A linearized system model in
• Loop Gain phase is used
• VCO 31
Phase Lock Loop Math (1)
Phase-lock loop: Figure 7.3-2


c t   2  f c  t  t   t    c t    v t    2  f  t  t    v t 
2

t
 v t   2  f c  f   t   v t    v t   2  K v   y   d
2
Phase Equivalents in Boxes 32

Phase-lock loop Figure 7.3-2
Steady State
Operation
Derivation
d  t  dt 
 2  f   2   K v  y t 
dt dt
d  t  dt 
 2  f   2  K v  K a  sin t 
dt dt
K  Kv  Ka
A non-linear
d  t  dt 
differential  2  K  sin t   2  f 
equation dt dt 33
• For a stable input frequency reference dt 
0
dt
d  t  f
 sin t  
1

2  K dt K
d  t 
• At steady state dt  0
f  f  f
sin t    ss  arcsin  for 1
K K K
• Resulting in
f f
y ss  K a  sin  ss   K a  
K Kv
 
vss t   cos 2  f c  t  0   ss   
 2 34
• Other steady state inferences: The transient response
d  t 
 2  K  sin t   0
dt
• with the transient error solution of

t   t 0   exp 2  K  t  t 0 
• From before, we can define a frequency “capture”

range for “locking-the-loop” as
f
1 K  f fv  K  f  fv  K
K
35
Linearized PLL Models
• Using a loop model that defines the phases offsets

of the sine or cosine waveforms
Linearized PLL models

(a) time domain
(b) phase domain
Figure 7.3-8
36
PLL Phase Models
Linearized PLL models

(b) phase domain
(c) Laplace domain
Figure 7.3-8
K a  Hs 
Ys     c s 
1  K a  Hs   v
K
s
Ys  s  K a  Hs 

 c s  s  K a  K v  Hs 
37
PLL Model Frequency Response
• Frequency Response for Hs   K H
Ys  s  Ka  KH

 c s  s  K a  K v  K H
• Frequency Response for Hs   p H

s  pH
Ys  s  Ka  pH
 2
 c s  s  p H  s  K a  K v  p H
Ys  s  K a  Hs 

 c s  s  K a  K v  Hs 
38
PLL Model Steady State Error
• Error
 K s  K a  Hs  
s    c s    Ys   1  v     c s 
Kv
s  s s  K a  K v  Hs  
s  
s
  c s  s 
s  K a  K v  Hs 
 
  c s 
s
 ss  lims 
s 0
 s  K a  K v  Hs  
 
• For Hs   K H  ss  lim
s2
  c 0   0
s 0 K  K  K
 a v H 
 s 2  s  pH  
• For Hs   p H  ss  lim 2   c 0  0
s  pH s 0 s  p  s  K  K  p
 H a v H 
39
PLL Integrated Circuits
• Analog Devices: ADF4001 200 MHz Clock Generator PLL
http://www.analog.com/en/prod/0,,770_850_ADF4001%2C00.html 40
Applications of PLL
• Frequency Synthesis
– With tuning steps for radios
• Synchronous Signal Regeneration
– FM Pilot, TV color burst, etc.
– Coherent AM and DSB demodulator/detector
• Clock generation for digital electronics
• FM demodulator/detector
… and much more
41
Frequency Synthesis
• Synthesizing higher frequencies with known step sizes
 et   dt
1
R
f ref
f out  N 
R
1
N
f ref
• Divide fref to provide a reference (or smaller) step size  f step
R
f out f ref
• Divide fout for input at the phase comparator 
N R
N
• Resulting in f out     f ref
R 42
ADF4360-7:
Integrated Synthesizer and VCO
FEATURES
• Output frequency range: 350 MHz to 1800 MHz
• 3.0 V to 3.6 V power supply
• 1.8 V logic compatibility
• Integer-N synthesizer
• 3-wire serial interface
• Analog and digital lock detect
APPLICATIONS
• Wireless handsets (DECT, GSM, PCS, DCS, WCDMA)
• Wireless LANs
• CATV equipment
43
http://www.analog.com/en/prod/0,,770_850_ADF4360%252D7%2C00.html
PLL References
• Analog Devices Technical Articles
• http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/cd/vol33n1.pdf
– Phase Locked Loops for High-Frequency Receivers and
Transmitters – Part 1
• http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/cd/vol33n1.pdf#page=11
– Phase-Locked Loops for High-Frequency Receivers and
Transmitters - Part 2
– Phase Locked Loops for High-Frequency Receivers and
Transmitters – Part 3
44
Synchronous Detection
Frequency Synthesis
• The PLL provides a way to “adapt” to the

incoming frequency and lock to the phase
• This is required for a “synchronous receiver” for

any of the modulation forms previously described!
45
Providing a Synchronous LO
PLL pilot filter with two phase discriminators: Figure 7.3-3
For systems where a carrier can be isolated, such

as AM, FM Stereo, NTSC-TV, etc. 46
Costas PLL
Costas PLL system for synchronous detection: Figure 7.3-4
t
y ss  sin 2   ss    x  t 2
 dt  sin 2   ss  
1
 Sxx
t T
T
For systems where a carrier is not isolated, such as DSB. 47
FM Demodulation with a PLL
1 j  f  K  Hf 
PLL Phase Ys      c f 
K v j  f  K  Hf 
2   f  X  f 
FM Phase c  f  
j  2  f
1 j  f  K  Hf   f  Xf 
Ys    
K v j  f  K  Hf  j f
f  K  Hf  
Ys      Xf 
Kv  j  f  K  Hf  
Let H s   K H f  K  KH 
Ys      Xf  LPF of Message
Kv  j f  K  KH 
48

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Communication Systems, 5e

Chapter 7: Analog Communication

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies

• Quadrature-carrier multiplexing or quadrature

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies

Stacked Frequency Bands

Post-De-FDM Baseband Bandwidths:

Nominal 36 MHz BW Links

(a) transmitter (b) baseband spectrum

BRF  250 kHz

BIF  250 kHz

See problems 6.1-4 & 6.1-5

sc t   A  x1 t   cos2  f c  t   x2 t   sin 2  f c  t 

A special case of FDM

y I t    A  x1 t   cos2  f c  t   A  x2 t   sin 2  f c  t  cos2  f c  t  

yQ t   A  x1 t   cos2  f c  t   A  x2 t   sin 2  f c  t  sin 2  f c  t  

Two signals multiplexed on the same frequency.

– A precursor to Orthogonal Frequency Division

Analog signal and corresponding PAM signal: Figure 6.2-1

PAM inputs PAM outputs for

TDM synchronization markers

One time slot used for a marker/synchronization 19

TDM Continuous Transmitter

Cross talk in TDM

Sufficient time must be available for the receiver to

Forward and backward maximum locations, t0

For Two-way Communications

Phase comparators (a) analog Figure 7.3-1

• Performance depends on the small angle approximation

Phase comparators (b) digital Figure 7.3-1

• The operation tracks leading and lagging edge comparisons

Phase-lock loop: Figure 7.3-2

Phase Equivalents in Boxes 32

Phase-lock loop Figure 7.3-2

• with the transient error solution of

• From before, we can define a frequency “capture”

• Using a loop model that defines the phases offsets

Linearized PLL models

Linearized PLL models

• Frequency Response for Hs   p H

… and much more

• The PLL provides a way to “adapt” to the

• This is required for a “synchronous receiver” for

PLL pilot filter with two phase discriminators: Figure 7.3-3

For systems where a carrier can be isolated, such

Costas PLL system for synchronous detection: Figure 7.3-4

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