CHAPTER-1

THEORY OF COMPARATIVE LITERATURE

The term 'Comparative Literature' is difficult to define for it evolves not one but two or
even more than two literatures in comparison at the same time. It becomes still more
difficult task when the comparatist has to take into consideration the multi-dimensional
aspects of comparative literature such as-linguistic, cultural, religious, economic, social
and historical factors of different societies.

In order to understand the term "comparative literature" we must analyse its

nomenclature. Etymologically, the term comparative literature denotes any literary
work or works when compared with any other literary work or works. Hence,
comparative literature is the study of inter-relationship between any two or more than
two significant literary works or literatures. It is essential that while making
comparative study we must take the sources, themes, myths, forms, artistic strategies,
social and religious movements and trends into consideration. The comparatist with his
critical approach and investigations will find out, the similarities and dissimilarities
among various works that he has undertaken for the purpose of comparison and
justification lies in the fact that his approach must be unbiased and unprejudiced to
reach the ultimate truth. It is only his earnest and sincere approach which will bring
forth the naked truth or natural results and this really is the purpose of comparative
study.

Taken broadly, comparative literature is a comprehensive term. Its scope

encompasses the totality of human experiences into its embrace, and thus all internal
human relationships among the various parts of the world are realized, through the
critical approach to literatures under comparative study. It helps to vanish narrow
national and international boundaries, and in place of that universality of human
relationships emerges out. Thus the term comparative literature includes comparative
study of regional literatures, national literatures, and international literatures. However,
there are many over-lapping terms in this concern such as - Universal literature,
General literature, International literature and World literature. Repeatedly, we can
mention here that comparative literature includes experiences of human life and
behaviour as a whole. In the conception of world literature the works of Homer, Dante,

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Shakespeara, Milton, Goetha, Emerson, Thoreau, Valmik, Vyas should be taken as one
for comparison.

Virgil’s Aeneid, Homer’s Iliad, Milton’s Paradise Lost, Indian Epics-the

Ramayana and the Mahabharta can be studied in comparison as world literature.

If taken psychologically, human nature is undoubtedly, the same all over the
world. That is why, human expressions in all literary works or literatures are bound to
have deep-rooted similarities and affinities. Hence there lies affinities between the
masterpieces of different literary works of different nations. Human nature, no doubt, is
very complicated, and this complexity in different kinds of literary works makes
comparative study a complex phenomenon.

As mentioned above, the comparative study is not different from a critical

approach of a particular literature except the fact that here we deal with two or more
than two literatures side by side. In this way, the subject matter becomes vaster and
perspective wider. Boundaries of comparative literature have to be extended to
encompass the entirety of human life and experiences in one's embrace.

The definition of comparative literature given by Bijay Kumar Dass is very

simple vivid and understandable:
The simple way to define comparative literature is to say that it is a comparison
between the two literatures. Comparative literature analyses the similarities and
dissimilarities and parallels between two literatures. It further studies themes,
modes, conventions and use of folk tales, myths in two different literatures or
even more.1

Tagore refers to comparative literature by the name of 'Vishvasahita'. Broadening the

scope of comparative literature he remarks:

"From narrow provincialism we must free ourselves, we must strive to see the
works of each author as a whole, that whole as a part of man's universal
creativity, and that universal spirit in its manifestation through world literature"
(Quoted in Buddhadeva Bose, "Comparative Literature in India, "Contribution
to Comparative Literature ; Germany and India, Calcutta, 1973).2

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 If taken historically, comparative literature has been a result of a reaction
against the narrow nationalism of the 19th century scholarship in England. Though it
was an occasional tradition, the comparative study of literary works was in vogue, right
from the beginning of the Christian era. Romans were the pioneers in the field of
comparative study. They out did the Greeks in the development of comparative study.
The Romans worked out the tradition of comparing the works of great orators and
poets of Greek and Roman and found out many similarities among their studies of
literary works. No doubt, Quintillion was the pioneer in this concern, but Longinus
endeavoured to set the comparative study in systematized discipline. If he had preceded
Quintillion he would have been the pioneer in this field. He brought forth the names of
Homer and Plato etc. In Indian comparative approach the Sanskrit critics emerged out
during the 6th century A.D. It is clear from the commentaries on Kalidasa's Meghduta
and Abhijnanasakutala. After that the critics like Kuntaka and Abhinavagupta with
their qualitative approach paved the way for modern comparatators.

R.S. Pathak, giving the historical development of the new discipline,

comparative literature says:

Mathew Aronold made meaningful efforts in English world and emphasized

strongly the significance of the comparative approach to literary works. He
wrote in a letter in 1848, "Every critic should try and possess one great
literature at least besides his own and more the unlike his own, the better. 3

Thus, he pioneered the comparative criticism in England and gave inspiration to

other critics to work on this new discipline. It is hearby suggested that the comparatist
should undertake the master pieces of creative writers, whose works have cosmopolitan
status in literary fields. That is why, Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot called for a criticism of
poetry on parameters of universal world-poetry, or the works of maximum excellence.
This type of approach will direct comparative study of literature towards international
level.

In his article, “Comparative Literature and Aesthetics: the search for a

significant order" R.S. Pathak has indicated well-known aspects of traditional
comparative studies i.e. Folklore, Influence, Genres and Themes:

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Folklore
Folklore offered the starting point and in some cases the frame work, for
successful studies in thematology.

Influence
Mazzini once said that a developed, cultivated literature, nurtured by itself,
without influence from a foreign literature, is something unthinkable, centuries
before him the Indian Poetician Rajasekhara had maintained that it is not that
poets are not thieves. Writers have borrowed and even plagiarized occasionally
in all ages, and some points of affinity between masterpieces of different
literary traditions can be established on comparison. 4

In the support of above mentioned facts we can give details from Indian
National and Regional Literatures.

Sanskrit being the language of ancient Hindu scriptures had its influence on
Indian literatures especially on Northern Indian languages leaving aside Urdu, which is
a language of the recent origin. Undoubtedly, it had not influenced much on Southern.
Indian literatures Still being the language of Hindu religion and culture, it did play a
significant role in the process of development of Southern languages.

The Perso-Arabic influence had its effect due to political infrastructure. With
the advent of Muslim rule in India, Persian though a foreign language highly affected
the Indian literature as well as Indian culture, art, architecture, music, dance etc. A
hybrid cultural came into existence. The Kathak dance, the form of Ramlila was
enjoyed at the Mughul Court. Muslim monuments acquired Hindu temple motifs.
Urdu, a dialect originated from the barracks, became a highly sophisticated and sweet
language of literary expressions having no religious text at its support.

It is a fact that Arians and Muslims settled in India and made India their home.
They influenced Indian culture and also adopted the Indian ways of life. The English
ruled Indian from abroad and did not follow the main stream of Indian culture.
Influence of the west could be seen in all aspects of Indian life, Indian culture,
philosophy, politics, educational policies even medical sciences. English schools were
opened and they taught English to the Indian people for communication purposes and

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they also propagated their religion on Indian soil. On the other side when Raja Ram
Mohan Roy visited Europe in 1830, it was just the first attempt of an Indian scholar to
explore Europe and the process of give and take continued.

Initially, Americans came to India for trade and commerce, with the passage to
time they began to take interest in cultural exchange, and further this closeness resulted
into a keen American interest in the literary and philosophical heritage of India. When
western world was indulged in material prosperity, the American scholars looked upon
the east as their only hope for their spiritual rejuvenation. The Transcendentalists like
Emerson, Alcott and Thoreau found a close kinship with ancient Hindu philosophy.
Indian classics were translated into English by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Sir William
Jones and the Charles Wilkins and Americans responded to these translations
enthusiastically. Even Mahatma Ghandi was highly impressed by the philosophical
views of Thoreau and found many similarities between their thoughts.

Genre
Genre has been an important element of comparative literature curriculum.
Ferdinand Bruntiere was the first showing deep interest is the evolution of
genre. According to him every literary type has a birth, hayday and its wane.

Theme
The term themes literally interpreted would include various thematological
categories such as motif, recurrent images etc. The study of themes may also
take into account 'associations' of all types governed and directed by a variety
of psychological and cultural factors which establish rules and patterns for
them.5

Moreover, Hudson is of the view that the comparative method will be of great
service when it will deal literature historically. After his return to Russia in 1870,
Alexander Veselovsky brought out a series of studies on the migration of themes,
ranging all over the western and eastern world. Similarly, Richard Price, in his preface
to the new edition of Warton's History of English Poetry (1824) regarded literature as a
huge treasure house of themes which spread, multiply and migrate. French scholars
also collected evidences about literary relations and migrations of themes and motives
all over the world.

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 The two other important aspects of comparative literature are literary criticism
and translation.

Criticism
Criticism is an important factor in the field of comparative study. Criticism of
literary work does not mean to find out its weaknesses or shortcomings only. Critics
should highly eulogize the good qualities of the work ‘if discovered’. To Renan-The
comparative method is a “grand instrument of criticism” (L’ Avenir de la science)
(Paris, 1890 p.269).6

Translation
One thing more is worth mentioning hear that in comparative studies translation
has a significant place. Translations are valuable in bringing about similarities and
dissimilarities between significant works of literature and are very helpful in the field
of research. Fitzgerald's translation of Omar Khayyam's Rubaiyat is an important point
to be considered. Translation should be as close to the original work as possible. Only
and only then, it is possible to understand and evaluate the original literary work.
Translation can be used as a tool for comparative study. English translation of
European classics will help Indian students to make their comparisons with Indian
literatures. Similarly, Indian classics in English translation will be helpful for European
students in comparative study with their own literatures. Thus translation helps the
students of comparative literature to develop an international approach in different
spheres such as literary, economic, social, philosophical, religious, cultural, historical
and artistic values.

Translation is of paramount importance in comparative studies of world

literatures as well as regional literatures. Without successful translation the
comparative approach will miscarry. Moreover, the comparatist who compares two
literary works written in two different languages must be bi-lingnal as well as a
successful translator. If a literary work is written in Persian and the other is in Punjabi,
the task of comparison will be easy if he knows both the languages, Again if he knows
even a third language (suppose English) the work of comparison will be easier.

It is true that translation of a literary work of literature cannot render the

original taste yet it can convey the very message the author wanted to express and thus

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it imparts a sense of discovery and hold together the body of world literature. On rare
occasions a translation may be better than the original and at times it may have
remarkable qualities to survive for a longer time.
According to Henry Gifford:

 A work translated can never be more than an oil painting reproduced in

black and white.
 A translation, however impressive, cannot truly coexist with the original.
 The original works and their translations are not obviously one and the
same.
 Translation is an instrument however fallible, without which vast areas of
world literature would be lost to us.7

In the present era the interest of comparative studies especially in multilingual

countries is ameliorating. In Canada there are two main comparative literatures -
English and French. The famous Canadian comparatists whose names are worth
mentioning here are - Northrop Frye, Victor Graham, D.G. Jones, Ronald Sutherland
etc. They have contributed much in the field of comparative literature. The name of
Canadian Comparative Literature Association who founded the journal - The Canadian
Review of Comparative Literature published by the Deptt of Comparative Literature,
the University of Alberta, can be taken with pride. We can mention here the name of
leading Australian comparatists like David Myers and many others of Queensland
University. Their job in the sphere of comparative literature is praiseworthy. In India
there are many leading comparatists namely, R.K. Dhawan R.S. Pathak, Viney Kirpal,
O.M.Anujan, K.V.S. Murti, A. Ramakrishana Rao, O.P. Bhatnager, Bijay Kumar Das,
Avadhesh Kumar Singh etc. have made significant contribution in the field of
comparative literature. Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Simla, has done an efficient
job in this field by organizing a seminar on Comparative Literature, Theory and
Practice. in June 1987.

Broadening the horizon of comparative literature Bijay Kumar Das comments:

Comparative literature transcends the narrowness, provinciality and

parochialism of national and general literatures. The complacence of regional
writers are shaken when the comparatists study their writings along with the

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 writings of other writers in different other languages.8

1. According to Max Muller "all higher knowledge is gained by comparison and

rests on comparison"
2. According to Bosanquet “comparative literature can be of immense value … in
freeing the mind from the shackles of provincialism and literary myopia.”9

Hence, comparative studies will brighten the perspective of literary criticism and
research. But still, the scope and methodology of comparative literature have been a
subject of dispute for many critics:

It has been felt difficult to define precisely the content of comparative literature
and to determine its scope. That is why, Wellek and Warren found the term
'troublesome' (Wellek & Warren, P - 46) Lane cooper goes to the extent of
saying that comparative literature is a 'bogus term and "makes neither sense nor
syntax." ('Experiments in Education' (Ithaca, Ny, 1942) (P - 75).10

Broadening the scope of comparative literature Henry Gifford explains in detail:

The study of literature is increasingly bracketed with that of philosophy and
history. It has always been difficult to set precise limits round the subject, and
more and more other disciplines have thrown their shadows across literary
studies. To interpret the great works of the past or for that matter of the present,
the most multifarious knowledge will be required. Nearly all the subject taught
in a faculty of arts will be laid at some time under contribution. 11

According to Posnett:
Comparative literature means the general theory of literary evolution, the idea
that literature passes through stages of inception, culmination and decline. 12

According to Rene Wellek:

Comparative literature will study all literature from an international perspective,
with a consciousness of the unity of all literary creation and experience
(Discriminations, p. 19).13

From the above discussion, we can conclude that the concept of comparative
literature should be taken neither by too narrow, nor by too comprehensive out look. A

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comprehensive and workable methodology will facilitate the comparatists to reach their
goals. Otherwise he is prone to delusions more easily than other research scholars or
critics because comparative literature has not yet fully established or founded a viable
means of comparative study. Rene Wellek goes to the extent of saying:-

Comparative literature is still a controversial discipline which has not yet been
able to establish a distinct subject matter and specific methodology
(Discriminations, p.1).14

So, boundaries of comparative study must not be defined so that it may not
distract from its way to uncontrolled extension. A comparatist should not depend upon
comparison but only also make use of description, characterization, interpretation,
narration, explanation and evaluation of different works.

Manikar has explained the phenomena in different words by saying:

Comparative literature studies can include the application of the usual aesthetic
values to a literature an understanding of the different literary movement and
tendencies of an age, studies of themes and idea that appear in different
literatures, and finally the study of genre, of structures and patterns. But perhaps
the most important of all are the literary relations. 15

So in comparative literature, as a subject of study the comparatist must keep a

balance between expansion and concentration, make use of new tools and techniques
for analysing the features of a work, get benefit from the insight formed in the
discoveries of other disciplines such as Anthropology, Philosophy, Sociology,
Psychology, History of Art and most important of all in this field - Linguistics, Bijay
Kumar Das while giving his opinion about the nature of study of comparative literature
remarks that:

Comparative literature analyses the similarities and dissimilarities and parallels

between two literatures It further studies themes, modes, conventions and the
use of folk-tales, myths in two different literatures or even more. 16

Comparative literature is a study of relationships between two or more

literatures. For example - English literature, American literature, Canadian literature,
Australian literature, Indian English literature and Caribbean literature - all are written

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in English language. The study of comparative literature encompasses all these
literatures in its scope.

Now let us think of the prospect of comparative literature in India a

multi-lingual, multi-cultural, and multi religious country. The critics argue that Indian
literature though written in many languages yet it is one. The fact is that Indian culture
has a certain kind of unity in diversity. This unity in cultural, social and religious
background of Indian society, makes all literatures to be one i.e., Indian. Here the
views of R.K. Gupta and Priyalakshmi are worth quoting:

If languages were in fact the decisive factor in determining the unity of a

literature, then literatures written in a single language but in different nations
would be regarded as one not as many literatures. But we know that this is not
to be the case, English is primary vehicle of several national literatures - British,
American, Canadian and Australian to name just a few and also a secondary
vehicle of literary expressions in many countries of Asia, Africa and Latin
America. If there can be several national literatures written in a single language,
there can also be single national literature (including Indian literature) written in
several languages.17

The ultimate truth is that it is not language that renders unity to a

literature/literatures rather the social, cultural economic, philosophical and religious
movements and political environments play their role in this concern. Uniformity of
theme is one of the main factors among Indian regional literatures. Language is a
cultural phenomenon conditioned by its locale and socio - historic forces that are in
operation through ages.

Every literature has its own specific character of form, style, images, symbols,
nuances and associations etc. Having this thing in view, we realize the fact that French
literature is dissimilar from English literature, from German literature and Russian
literature. Similarly, if closely seen Bengali literature differs from Marathi, Tamil or
Hindi literatures. They are not different just because the fact that they are written in
different languages but because the fact that all these literatures developed under the
influence of different socio- historic environment. There are many similarities and
dissimilarities among them. For justification, Bijay Kumar Dass quotes Sunit Kumar

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Chatter Ji and Dr. Radha krishnan respectively:

1. A fundamental unity does prevail in all Indian literatures types, genres and
expressions among all the medical and modern literatures.
2. These is unity of outlook as the writers of different languages derive their
inspiration from a common source or face more or less some kind of
experience, emotional and intellectual. 18

Even Tagore and Sisir Kumar Das give emphasis on internal unity/uniformity in
diversity in Indian literatures. The fundamental principle in comparative study is based
upon the inter relationship between two or more than two literatures. The most
essential aspect of comparative literature is the problem of method of studies.
Comparative Literature can be studied fruitfully and purposefully in Indian context
under the following heads, sources, themes, myths, forms, movements and trends etc.

Movements and Trends during the composing period should be given equal
weightage while comparing any two literary works or literatures.

Comparative literature demands the most multifarious knowledge, world wide

farsightedness, comprehensive awareness, unbiased critical sensibility, meticulous
susceptibility from the comparators to literary works or literatures so that he may
collect the fact about sources, forms, themes, myths and movements and trends and
vividly.

He should not waste his energy on the trivial, banal or pap material.

(i) The Bhakti movement strongly influences almost all the regional literatures of
India during he middle-ages It had deep impact on Bengali, Hindi, Punjabi and
Orriya and many more regional literatures of our country. It brought Hindus
and Muslims closer. They began to live together. Cooperation and toleration
developed among two religious.

(ii) Yearning for freedom from the foreign yoke during the 19 th century, has its
profound impact on all the regional literatures of India. Patriotic songs were
composed and sung. Influence was found in every form of literature, poetry,
novel, drama etc.

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(iii) Four Varunas in Indian society, especially in Hindu religious scriptures have
been in operation for centuries. After the advent of Sikhism, the Sikh Gurus
tried their best to equalize the human beings. Being the children of one God,
Guru Gobind Singh while creating Khalsa Panth in 1699, created a casteless
society. Since then untouchability has been a recurring theme in various
regional literatures including Indian English literatures.

(iv) Due to religious thinking partition of the country had an important effect in
determining the theme of several regional literatures especially novels. Indian
English literature such as - Train to Pakistan by Sh. Khuswant Singh -'A Bend
in the Ganges by Malgonkar - The Dark Dancer, by B - Rajan - Sunlight on a
Broken Column, by Attia Hussani - The Rape, by Raj Gill and Azadi, by
Chaman Nahal and so on.

(v) Myth is an other important element in different regional and national literatures.
Myth forms an excellent area of comparative study in Indian literatures
especially the religious ones. Hindu puranic literatures and Sikh scriptures have
hundreds of mythological characters Sikh Gurus, Bhagtas, Bards, Bhai Gurdas
and Bhai Nand Lal have made much use of them:

Comparative literature’s a relatively is a new discipline but it is a happy augury

that most of the Indian universities have included it in Master’s Degree
curriculums. (V.R.N.P. Prasad’s, Essay: The Concept of Comparative Literature
in the Indian Context).19

English being international language will prove very helpful in this tremendous
task. English Departments of our universities can prove beneficial by Translating
regional literatures into English. In this way, widening the scope of comparative study
of different Indian literatures on national and international level. Comparative literature
has been a part of syllabus at post graduate level at various universities. Thus
broadening the scope of comparative study these universities may facilitate the task of
literary criticism. Moreover, Indian English literature can be compared with Anglo
American literature. Ancient Indian critical theories can be studied at par with western
critical theories. Rasa-Dhvani theory can conveniently be compared with Reader -
Response theory of the West.

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At last we can quote the hopeful views of Henry Gifford: for the progress of
comparative study:

On the one hand, the reciprocity between national literatures is constantly

growing; and more and more a common fund is being built up on which writers
in any language may draw. The master pieces that have hitherto stayed the
possession of one people are becoming available to the world. 20

I am hereby taking the comparative study of three significant poets of 16th and
17th century A.D. Firstly, the Bhatts have eulogized the first five Sikh Gurus in Sri
Guru Granth Sahib. Secondly, the works of Bhai Gurdas are also subjected to the
eulogy of six Sikh Gurus (from Sri Nanak Dev Ji to Sri Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji) and
interpretation of the different concepts of Sikh theology. The bards have used classical
Punjabi. Their language, more or less is similar to the language used by the Sikh Gurus
and the saints whose Bani is included in Sri Guru Granth Sahib. The third poet taken
for comparative study is Bhai Nand Lal who has also praised the Sikh Gurus and their
doctrines and principles of Sikh theology. He has been devout Sikh of Sri Guru Gobind
Singh Ji. He has eulogized all the ten Sikh Gurus. Most of his works are in Persian.

The poetic style, meters and language similarities and dissimilarities all
compared and contrasted. Bhai Gurdas used the medieval Panjabi of the Majha dialect.
All the three poets have a single motif i.e to praise the Sikh Gurus and preach the Sikh
theology. Though they have a single aspect of their study i.e. eulogy of Sikh Gurus yet
differences are calculated in their approach to praise their patrons. Thus, the research
work, propounds an interesting comparative study of the works of poets referred above.

13
 References
1. Bijay Kumar Dass, (ed), Comparative Literature, Atlantic Publishers and
distributors B-2 Vishal Enclave, Opp. Rajouri Garden New Delhi-27, Year-
2000 p.1.
2. R.K. Dhawan, (ed), Comparative Literature, Behari Publication, New Delhi,
1987 p. 2.
3. Ibid, p. 22.
4. Ibid, pp. 23-24.
5. Ibid, pp. 23-24.
6. Ibid, p. 26.
7. Henry Gifford, Comparative Literature, Humanities Press New York. 1969,
pp. 45, 49-50.
8. Bijay Kumar Dass, Comparative Literature, Atlantic Publishers and distributors
B-2, Vishal Enclave, Opp, Rajouri Garden New Delhi-27, Year-2000, p. 4.
9. R.K. Dhawan, (ed), Comparative Literature, Behari Publication, New Delhi,
1987 pp. 27-28.
10. Ibid, p. 28.
11. Henry Gifford, Comparative Literature, Humanities Press New York. 1969, p.58.
12. H.M. Posnett, Comparative Literature, London, 1886, p. 86.
13. R.K.Dhawan, Comparative Literature, Behari Publication, New Delhi, 1987,
p. 28.
14. Ibid, p. 29.
15. T.G. Manikar, "Comparative Literature for India, Jadavpur/ Journal of
Comparative Literature", 1976-77, p. 52.
16. Bijay Kumar Dass, (ed) Comparative Literature, Atlantic Publishers and
distributors B-2, Vishal Enclave, Opp, Rajouri Garden New Delhi-27, Year-
2000 p. 1.
17. Ibid, p. 160.
18. Ibid, p. 161.
19. G.S. Amur, B.V.N. Nemakde, P.S. Deshpande, K.R.Shirwedkar, Essays on
Comparative Literature and Linguistics, 1984, p. 18.
20. Henry Gifford, Comparative Literature, Humanities Press New York, 1969,
pp. 77-78.

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