Gaseous Exchange in human

Breathing is normally involuntary and automatic but can come under voluntary
control. Neurons in the medulla of the brain regulate normal quite breathing.
Respiration adjusts itself to changing requirement of the body for oxygen. A normal
human a 12-15 times a minute, about 500ml of air per breath or 6-8L/min is inspired and
expired. The air (atmosphere) around us has a total pressure of 760 mmHg (1
atmosphere of pressure).

Air is made up of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and small quantities of CO2, argon
and helium. In humans and mammals, respiratory gas exchange or ventilation is carried
out by mechanisms of the heart and lungs. The blood is subjected to a transient electric
field (QRS waves of the EKG) in the heart, which dissociates molecules of different
charge. The electric field exposure and subsequent damped driven oscillation dissociate
gas from hemoglobin, primarily CO2, but more important, BPG, which has a higher
affinity for hemoglobin than does oxygen, due in part to its opposite charge.

Completely-dissociated hemoglobin (which will even effervesce if the electric field

is too strong — the reason defibrillation joules are limited, to avoid bubble emboli that
may clog vessels in the lung) enters the lung in red blood cells ready to be oxygenated.

Convection occurs over the majority of the transport pathway. Diffusion occurs
only over very short distances. The primary force applied in the respiratory tract is
supplied by atmospheric pressure. Total atmospheric pressure at sea level is 760
mmHg (101 kPa), with oxygen (O2) providing a partial pressure (pO2) of 160 mmHg
(21 kPa), 21% by volume, at the entrance of the nares, a partial pressure of 150 mmHg
(20 kPa) in the trachea due to the effect of partial pressure of water vapor, and an
estimated pO2 of 100 mmHg (13 kPa) in the alveoli sac, pressure drop due to
conduction loss as oxygen travels along the transport passageway.

Atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases, making effective

breathing more difficult at higher altitudes. Higher BPG levels in the blood are also seen
at higher elevations, as well.

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The Respiratory System

STRUCTURE FUNCTION

nose / nasal cavity warms, moistens, & filters air as it is inhaled

pharynx (throat) passageway for air, leads to trachea

larynx the voice box, where vocal chords are located

trachea (windpipe) keeps the windpipe "open" trachea is lined with fine hairs called
cilia which filter air before it reaches the lungs
bronchi two branches at the end of the trachea, each lead to a lung

bronchioles  a network of smaller branches leading from the bronchi into the
lung tissue & ultimately to air sacs
alveoli the functional respiratory units in the lung where gases are
exchanged

Adaptation Of Lungs For Gaseous Exchange

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Characteristics of haemoglobin as respiratory pigments
Hemoglobin (also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the iron-
containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of vertebrates, and the
tissues of some invertebrates.

Haemoglobin combines with oxygen, enabling blood to carry 70 times more than
if the oxygen were simply dissolved. Animals that are physically active and larger than a
pea could scarcely survive without it. ‘But for haemoglobin's existence, man might never
have attained any activity which the lobster does not possess, or had he done so, it
would have been with a body as minute as the fly's’ (J. Barcoft).

Haemoglobin, contained in the red cells of the blood and constituting the main
site of iron in the body, is present in all vertebrate species. In the human adult it is
synthesized in the developing red cells in the bone marrow. Many worms have
haemoglobin, but others and also most mollusks have different and more primitive
oxygen-carrying pigments, which have not survived into higher forms of evolution.

Haemoglobin not only distributes oxygen as it is required by the tissues but is

also an important store of the gas. Healthy humans have about 150 g of haemoglobin
per litre of blood, and this can bind with 200 ml of oxygen per litre. With the body at rest
the tissues only remove about one-quarter of the available oxygen reaching them in
arterial blood, the other three-quarters remaining in the venous blood returning to the
lungs. This constitutes an important reserve of oxygen supply which can be called on in
conditions of work and exercise. In a typical total blood volume of 5 litres, even though
more than half is in the veins, we thus have about 0.75 litre of oxygen combined with
haemoglobin in the blood, and we have about the same amount as gas in the lungs. If
we stop breathing, for example by holding our breath, these stores will maintain the
functions of the brain for at the most a few minutes — but without them brain function
would cease almost immediately.

Breathing Cycle
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 Inhalation is the process of taking air into the lungs. For this to occur, the air
pressure inside the lungs must be lower than that of the external atmosphere as air
flows from areas of higher pressure to lower pressure. This is achieved by the
contraction of the external intercostals muscles and the relaxation of the internal
intercostals which acts to pull the ribcage upwards and outwards, hence, increasing the
volume of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm also contracts to extend the cavity further
downwards. Due to the function of the pleural membrane, the size of the lungs is
increased which, in turn, creates an area of lower air pressure inside the lungs; hence,
air is drawn into the lungs.

Exhalation is the process of expelling air out of the lungs. For this to occur, the
air pressure inside the lungs must be higher than that of the external atmosphere as air
flows from areas of higher pressure to ones of lower pressure. This is achieved by the
relaxation of the external intercostals muscles which bring the rib cage inwards and the
diaphragm bulges upwards (recoiling to its original shape) respectively. The internal
intercostals muscles contract so as to pull the rib cage further inwards, hence,
decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity and that of the lungs which, in turn, creates
high pressure in the lungs; hence air is pushed out of lungs. In passive breathing, the
movements of the diaphragm are responsible - the ribs aren't needed.

INHALATION

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INSPIRATION

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 Respiratory organs Inhalation Exhalation

Intercostals muscle Contracts Relaxes

Diaphragm muscles Contracts Relaxes

Thoracic cavity Volume increases Volume decreases

Air pressure decreases Air pressure increases

Air in the atmosphere Air moves out of the lungs

moves into lungs into the atmosphere

Gaseous Exchange In Plants

Like all other organisms, flowering plants require a constant supply of energy.
Most of this energy is supplied by the process of aerobic respiration of carbohydrate,
some by anaerobic respiration. Most flowering plants are autotrophs, manufacturing
carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water by the process of photosynthesis. Both
respiration and photosynthesis require a constant supply of gases and a means of
disposing of any gaseous waste products. The most obvious source and sink for these
gases, for terrestrial plants, is the atmosphere.
The problem is this: adaptations which increase the efficiency of gas exchange
also increase the rate of water loss, hence increase the chance of the plant dying from
desiccation (plants need water for metabolic processes and for turgidity). Flowering
plants have evolved to overcome this conflict. All living cells in all parts of a plant must
respire and therefore need to exchange respiratory gases, but by far the most active
gas exchange in terrestrial flowering plants, takes place through their leaves. Leaves
are especially adapted to enable efficient gas exchange, yet at the same time avoid
excessive water loss.

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Stoma

 Occurs mainly through pores called stomata.

 Found on the epidermis of leaves and stems of flowering plants.
 In dicotyledonous leaves the stomata are found mainly on the lower epidermis.
 Each stoma consists of a stomata pore surrounded by two guard cells.
 Each guard cell is kidney-shaped and contains chloroplast.
 The epidermal cells surrounding the guard cells are called subsidiary cells.

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STOMATA OPENING STOMATA CLOSING

Blue light is absorbed by phototropin which ABA binds to receptors at the surface of
activates the plasma membrane of the guard cells.

A proton pump in the plasma membrane The receptors activate several

of the guard cell.
ATP, generated by the light reactions of
photosynthesis, drives the pump.
As protons are pumped out of the cell, its
interior becomes increasingly negative.
This attracts additional potassium ions into
the cell, raising its osmotic pressure.
interconnecting pathways which converge
to produce
The increased Ca ions in the cytosol
blocks the uptake of K ions into the guard
cell while
The increased pH stimulates the loss of Cl
ions and organic ions from the cell.
The loss of these solutes in the cytosol
reduces the osmotic pressure of the cell
and thus turgor.

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Lenticles

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2.0 Investigation about the blood circulatory system in human from the website.

a) Method :

a. Surfing the internet.

b. Find the information about blood circulatory system in human.

c. Analyze what is the importance of blood circulatory system in human.

b) Observation :

a. The importance of blood circulatory system

- To move materials throughout the body :

- Oxygen, carbon dioxide & other wastes, nutrients, hormones, and

antibodies.

- It moves oxygenated (oxygen-rich) blood to organs and body

tissues.

- It returns un-oxygenated (oxygen-poor) blood to the heart.

- carry the blood to every part of your body.

- Blood moves oxygen and nutrients to cells.

- Carries carbon dioxide and other wastes away from the cells.

- Sometimes the blood carries substances made in one part of the

body to another part of the body where they are needed.

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c) Graphics :

A- Heart.

A heart is an organ made of cardiac muscle tissue. Heart is located behind the
breastbone, called sternum, and between the lungs. It has four compartments called
chambers. This chambers is divided by two which is the two upper chambers are called
the right and left atria. While, the two lower chambers are called the right and left
ventricles. During one heartbeat, both atriums contract at the same time. Then, both
ventricles contract at the same time. A one-way valve separates each atrium from the
ventricle below it. The blood flows only in one direction from an atrium to a ventricle,
then form a ventricle into a blood vessel. A wall prevents blood from flowing between
the two atriums or the two ventricles. This walls keeps blood rich in oxygen separate
from blood low in oxygen. If oxygen-rich blood and oxygen-poor blood were to mix, the
body cells would not get all the oxygen they need.

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B Trace the pathway of blood from heart to lungs and back

A Blood, high in carbon dioxide and low in oxygen, returns from the body to the
heart. It enters the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cava.

B The right atrium contracts, forcing the blood into the right ventricle. When the
right ventricle contracts, the blood leave the heart and goes through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs. The pulmonary arteries are the only arteries that
carry blood that is high in carbon dioxide.

C Oxygen-rich blood travels from the lungs through the pulmonary vein and into the
left atrium. The pulmonary veins are the only veins that carry oxygen-rich blood.

D The left atrium contracts and forces the blood into the left ventricle. The left
ventricle contracts, forcing the blood out of the heart and into the aorta.

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Reflection
During completing this task I have learned a lot. It as well improved me and
inspires me in a lot of way in my thinking. It also shows me that we appreciate the h

By the way, searching appropriate information about this topic is quiet hard and
tough to find as most information in the internet or the book just touching on surface.
After went through the Google search engine, I just found a little bit about it. But it
doesn’t break my confident at all.

I have collaborated with my friends in order to complete this task. By doing

several brainstorming we find different opinion from each of us in every time we discuss.

I learned that, human is a complex organism. There are many system in human.
The crucial system is respiratory system. Without a healthy respiratory system we might
have a thousand of disease

During collaboration with the lecturers I found it very easy and my work less
mistakes since I had put all my effort as much for this coursework.

I also read the Malay version of biology books so that I can understand deeply.
Thank god I did not face any problem during printing because last time my printer was
broke down.

Lastly, I hope that I can get good marks in this task.

Thank you.

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