Introduction to nuclear engineering:

basics and principles

Massimo Zucchetti
Nuclear Energy
● Release of the energy
held in bonds within an
atom
● Different atoms hold
different amounts of
binding energy
● Fission is when we
break the atomic bonds
apart
Comparison of Energy Forms
Energy Consumption and Production

Transportation
Electricity 15%
30%

Heat
55%
Energy Consumption

NASA
Sources of Energy
● Renewable
US Annual Energy Consumption
– Biomass http://www.eia.doe.gov
– Solar
– Wind

– Hydroelectric

– Geothermal
– Gravitational (Tidal)

● Non-Renewable
– Fossil Fuels

– Natural Gas

– Oil

– Coal

– Nuclear Fuel
Fossil versus Nuclear Power
The Evolution of Nuclear Technology

Exploration Pioneering Implementation Renaissance

1940-1956 1951-1960 1960-2008 2008 and Beyond

Meeting Growing Energy Needs
● With worldwide demand for energy expected to double
by 2030, the need for safe, clean, reliable energy is
essential
● Renewable energy sources, while suitable for supplemental
energy, are impractical for meeting baseload energy needs
● Continued reliance on fossil fuels is counterproductive to
efforts to reduce CO2 and other greenhouse gasses
Today’s Nuclear Power
 The Case For Nuclear

A Comparison to other energy sources

 Annual Energy Outlook 2012
US eia: energy information and administration
U.S. Electricity Sources Which Do Not Emit
Greenhouse Gases

Wind
2.9%
Nuclear
73.6%

Hydro
22.0%
Solar
0.1%
Geothermal
1.4%
Source: Global Energy Decisions / Energy Information Administration
Updated: 4/08
 U.S. Electric Power Industry CO2 Avoided
Million Metric Tons, 2007
692.7

205.6

27.4 12.6 0.5

Nuclear Hydro Wind Geothermal Solar

Source: Emissions avoided are calculated using regional and national fossil fuel emissions rates from the
Environmental Protection Agency and plant generation data from the Energy Information Administration.
Updated: 4/07
Capacity Factors by Generation Type
Fuel Type Average Capacity Factors (%)

Nuclear 89.8

Coal (Steam Turbine) 71.1

Gas (Combined Cycle) 39.9

Gas (Steam Turbine) 17.2

Oil (Steam Turbine) 14.9

Hydro 31.8

Wind 30.3

Solar 18.8
 Sustained Reliability and Productivity
U.S. Nuclear Plant Average Capacity Factor
95

● Highlights 90

● Fewer outages in 85

2007 (55 in 2007, 80

65 in 2006) 75

● Average outage 70

duration in 2007 = 65

40.5 days 60
'90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07

Sources: Global Energy Decisions , Energy Information Administration, NEI estimate for 2007
Equivalent
Equivalent Wind
Wind
Turbines 3 deep (3/4 mi)
along the
entire
entire
SC South
coastline
Carolina coastline!

25
25
 Life Cycle Emissions for Various Electricity Sources

Coal - Modern Plant 790 - 1182

Solar Photovoltaic 13 - 731

Natural Gas (Combined Cycle) 389 - 511

Wind 7 - 124 Low

Biomass/forestry/waste
15 - 101 High
combustion
Nuclear 2 - 59

Hydropower 2 - 48

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Source: “Hydropower-Internalised Costs
and Externalised Benefits,” Frans H.
Koch. International Energy Agency
gram equiv CO2/kWh
An Economic Model of the World in 2042
The 100th Anniversary of Fission
● World population will have reached nine billion
● Assume an acceptable standard of living to be half that now enjoyed in
Japan, or $17,250 GDP per capita in constant dollars

● Assume that conservation and energy efficiency will cut worldwide

electricity use per unit of economic output in half to 0.2 kWh

0.2 kWh/GDP X $17,250 GDP/person X 9 billion = 31 trillion kWh

This is 2.3 times the current world electricity production

of 13.5 trillion kWh

Nuclear Power has to be a part of the answer

 Introduction to nuclear engineering
basics and principles

From the Fission Process

to the first

Nuclear Reactor Designs

What is Fission?
 When an nucleus of an isotope becomes
unstable and splits into several smaller
fragments
 2 fission product isotopes
 Each ~50% the original mass
 2-5 neutrons
 b-rays, g-rays, and neutrinos
 ~0.1% of original mass released as energy

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

Lesson 1
 The fission reaction

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

Lesson 1
 Many possible fission reactions

 235U + n  2 n + 92Kr + 142Ba + ENERGY

 235U + n  3 n + 94Kr + 139Ba + ENERGY

 235U + n  3 n + 88Br + 145La + ENERGY

 Fission products go from 72Ge to 154Sm

 (Remarkable: 131I, 137Cs, 90Sr, 85Kr, 133Xe)

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -
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Where Does the Energy Come From?
 235U + n  2 n + 92Kr + 142Ba + ENERGY

The mass seems to be the same on both sides

of the reaction:
235 + 1 = 2 + 92 + 142 = 236
Thus, it seems that no mass is converted into energy.
However, the mass of an atom is more than the sum of the individual
masses of its protons and neutrons.
Extra mass is a result of the binding energy that holds the nucleons
together. When the uranium atom is split, some of the energy that held it
together is released as radiation.
Therefore, the total mass does decrease a bit during the reaction.
Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -
Lesson 1
 Binding Energy
 The energy with
which the nucleus is
held together
 Can be calculated
using the difference
in mass between the
atom and the sum of
its individual
components
 E=mc2

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

Lesson 1
The fission chain reaction

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

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 Animation for fission reaction

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

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Animation for fission chain reaction

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Energy from Fission (U-235)
Emitted Energy Recoverable
Form
(MeV) Energy (MeV)
Fission Fragments 168 168
Fission-Product Decay
b-rays 8 8
g-rays 7 7
Neutrinos 12 --
Prompt g-rays 7 7
Fission Neutrons
5 5
(Kinetic Energy)
Capture g-rays -- 3-12
Total 207 198-207
Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -
Lesson 1 1 eV = 1.602x10-19 J
 Fission Yield for U-235

 Most Common
Fission Products
 Short Half-Life
 Iodine-131
 Barium-140
 Xenon-135
 Long Half-Life
 Cesium-137
 Strontium-90

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 Fission Definitions
 Fissile : Material that fissions from slow
neutrons
 U-233, U-235, Pu-239, Pu-241, Np-237,
Cm-244, Am-241

 Fissionable : Material that can fission

 U-238

 Fertile : Doesn’t normally fission, can

absorb a neutron to make fissile material
 Th-232 -> U-233, U-238 -> Pu-239
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Spontaneous Fission
 Some isotopes will undergo a form of
decay by suddenly splitting in half and
releasing some neutrons
 Usually can only occur in isotopes with an
atomic mass number greater than 230
 Californium-252 is an isotope that is
commonly used for its
spontaneous fissions

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

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Cross Section (Probability)
 Measured in barns
 1 barn = 1x10-24 cm2
 “You can’t hit the broadside of a barn”
 Dependent upon many factors
 Particle energy
 System temperature
 Isotope being bombarded
 And many more…
 National labs are constantly performing
experiments to study cross sections
Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -
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 Cross sections
 Has the unit of barns (1 barn = 10-24 cm2)
 Designated by s - microscopic
 Taking into account the atomic density (N),
the macroscopic cross section is S=Ns cm-1
 Cross sections for each reaction are additive
 Cross sections are energy
dependent

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

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 Types of Interactions

 Total
 Scattering
 Elastic
 Inelastic
 Capture
 Absorption
 Fission

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Interactions of n with matter

 Scattering
 elastic (n,n)
 No energy change
 inelastic (n,n`)
 Endothermic
 Nucleus is left excited
 Returns to ground state by
emitting a gamma

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Absorption reactions

 Capture
 (n,g) exothermic
 Charged particle (n,a) or (n,p) Endo or
Exothermic
 Neutron producing
(n,2n) exothermic
 Fission (n,ff)

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Experimental
 Assume mono energetic
 Nsdx is the fraction
reacting
dx
I0 Ix
-dI
 Nsdx
I
-Nsx
I x  I oe
-Sx
x I x  I oe
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Lesson 1
 Cross-section hierarchy
Total

Absorption Scattering

Capture Fission
ss  se  si
s a  s c  s f  sg
Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -
st  ss  sa
Lesson 1
Example: absorption x-sec

Thermal region
1
sa 
v
sa
Fast region

Epithermal (resonance) region

.01 10 103 107

Energy, eV
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Energy Dependence
 Resonance region  1/v - at low energies
 a result of excited the sg varies with
quantum states neutron energy
 Breit- Wigner  Some important
formula predicts
nuclides are not 1/v
cross sections in
resolved resonances

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

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Typical cross sections
U-235 U-238

1 eV neutron sc=0.43
sc=110 b b

2 MeV neutron sc=1.37 b sc=0.06

b

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 Slowing down (moderation)
 Energies of fission neutrons are 1-2 MeV
But at 1-2 MeV, U-235 has
a small fission cross-
section

So you have to slow down

neutrons

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 Neutron Energies
 Thermal Neutrons
E < 0.4 eV

 Epithermal Neutrons
0.4 eV < E < 500
keV

 Fast Neutrons
E > 500 keV

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

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Scattering
Scattered
Neutron
E’,p’

Incoming Neutron 
E,p
Recoiling Nucleus
EA,P

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

Lesson 1
Capture to Fission ratio

 Capture vs Fission are

competing reactions

sg
a
sf
 The probability of each
reaction is defined by the
cross section

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

Lesson 1
Fission Cross Section

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

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 Neutrons and “Moderation”
• Neutrons are released from fission with a high
energy (“fast” neutrons, E = 1-2 MeV)
• The fission cross section (probability) in much
higher for low neutron energy (“thermal” neutrons,
E = 0,025 eV)
• It is necessary to slow down (moderate) neutrons
in order to have a fission chain reaction
• The smaller the atomic size of the moderating
material, the more energy is lost from the neutron.
• Low-Z elements (e.g., Hydrogen) are the best
basis for “moderators”
Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -
Lesson 1
 Moderating materials
• Low-Z elements (e.g., Hydrogen) are the best
basis for “moderators”
• Other important factors:
• Density
• Low neutron capture (fission competitor)
• Materials:
• Light water H2O
• Heavy Water D20
• Graphite
Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -
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Fission chain (revisited)

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A first fission reactor scheme

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Criticality Definitions

 Subcritical
 Reactor does not produce sufficient neutrons
to sustain a steady-state reaction in a reactor
 Critical
 The number of neutrons produced equals the
number of neutrons consumed in a reactor
 Supercritical
 More neutrons are produced than consumed
in a nuclear reactor

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

Lesson 1
Controlling Fission Chains
 Control Rods
 Typically boron
 Used to reduce neutron population and
maintain the reactor critical
 Neutron absorption cross section greater
than the fission cross section of the fuel
 Poisons
 Samarium, molybdenum, erbium
 Used to reduce initial fuel effectiveness to
provide uniform fuel power over an extended
period of time
 Neutron absorption cross section greater
than the fission cross section of the fuel
Critical Mass
 Need to have sufficient neutrons to
maintain a critical reactor
 Important Factors
 Geometry of System
 Type of Materials
 Density of Materials
 Purity of Materials
 System Temperature

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

Lesson 1
Natural Uranium
 Natural uranium (NU) refers to refined
uranium with the same isotopic ratio as
found in nature. It contains 0.7%
uranium-235, 99.3% uranium-238, and a
trace of uranium-234 by weight.
 In terms of the amount of radioactivity,
approximately 2.2% comes from
uranium-235, 48.6% uranium-238, and
49.2% uranium-234.
Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -
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 Enriched Uranium
 Enriched uranium is a type of uranium
in which the percent composition of
uranium-235 has been increased through
the process of isotope separation.

 Enriched uranium is a critical component

for both civil nuclear power generation
and military nuclear weapons

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

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Enriched Uranium

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Prompt vs Delayed neutrons

 Prompt neutrons are emitted during the

fission event
 Delayed neutrons are emitted when a
fission fragment decays (less than 1%
and extremely important for control)
 Defined in 6 characteristic groups
 Delayed fraction is b

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

Lesson 1
Delayed neutrons

Prompt neutrons Delayed neutron

FF-143

FF-90
U-235 200MeV
FF-89
FF-90

50 secs later
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 The Oklo Natural Reactor

 Oklo Mine in Gabon, Africa

 15 Natural Reactors
 Found low amounts of U-235
 >1.5 billion years ago
 ~3% U-235
 Water
 Favorable geology
 Fission Products Found
 Plutonium has moved <10 ft
 Discovered in 1972

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

Lesson 1 http://www.skb.se/
 Enrico Fermi (1901-1954)
 1922 – PhD Physics,
University of Pisa
 1930 – Professor, University
of Rome
 1934 – Important
experiments with neutrons in
Rome
 1938 – Nobel Prize in Physics
 1942 – Chicago Pile, First
Nuclear Reactor
 (Manhattan Project)
 1946 – Professor in Nuclear
Studies, University of Chicago
 Chicago Pile-1 (Dec. 2, 1942)
 Racquet Courts under
Alonzo Stagg Field Stadium
at the University of
Chicago
 Roughly Spherical Design
 Uranium Pellets
 Graphite Blocks
 Wooden Framework
 Cadmium-Coated Control
Rods
 SCRAM – Safety Control
Rod Axe Man

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 X-10 Graphite Reactor
 Oak Ridge, TN
 World War II
“Secret City”
 November 4, 1943
 Production of first
significant amounts
of plutonium for
bomb construction
 A “big” Fermi Pile

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Lesson 1
 F-1 Graphite Reactor

 Moscow, “Kurchatov”
Institute
 December 25, 1946

 A replica of the Fermi Pile

 First critical reactor on

the Euroasiatic continent
 Still working today!

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 F-1 Graphite Reactor

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 F-1 Graphite Reactor

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F-1 Graphite Reactor
F-1 Graphite Reactor

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering -

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Nuclear Power in the US
 1951 (Dec. 20) First electricity is generated from
atomic power at EBR-1 Idaho National
Engineering Lab, Idaho Falls. This is a
government-funded demonstration project.

 1954 (Sept. 6) Ground broken for Shippingport

Atomic Power Station (Pennsylvania).

 1955 (July) Arco, Idaho becomes the first U.S.

town to be powered by nuclear energy.

 1956 Ground broken for GE-Vallecitos, a boiling

water reactor, near Pleasanton, California.
Issued Power Reactor License #1 by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
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Nuclear Power in the US
 1957 (July) The Sodium Reactor Experiment in
Santa Susana, California, generates the first power
from a civilian nuclear reactor.

 1957 (Aug. 3) Vallecitos goes critical.

 1957 (Oct. 19) Vallecitos connects to the electrical

grid and becomes the first privately funded plant to
supply power in megawatt amounts to the electric
utility grid. It closed in 1963.

 1957 (Dec. 2) Shippingport, a pressurized water

reactor/light water breeder reactor, goes critical in
Shippingport, Pennsylvania. It holds the honor as
the first commercial nuclear power plant in the
United States. It closed in Oct 1982.
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 Atoms for Peace, December 8, 1953
 Contributions to an International Atomic Energy
Agency
 Fissionable material would be allocated to serve
the peaceful pursuits of mankind. Experts
would be mobilized to apply atomic energy to
the needs of agriculture, medicine, and other
peaceful activities
 A special purpose would be to provide abundant
electrical energy in the power-starved areas of
the world
 Nuclear powers would share the use of nuclear
materials with other countries in return for the
Dwight D. verifiable promise that the use of the materials
Eisenhower would be for peaceful purposes and no effort
would be made to develop fuel cycle
technologies
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