ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

(BFC 3013)
Mohd Hazreek Bin Zainal Abidin
Department of Geotechnical and Transportation Engineering
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Tun Hussein Onn University Of Malaysia
Syllabus:
1. INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
2. MINERALS
3. THE STUDY OF ROCKS – IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND
METAMORPHIC

4. WEATHERING
5. GEOLOGIC AGENTS
6. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
7. GEOLOGICAL SITE INVESTIGATION &
GEOPHYSICS
8. ROCK TESTING
9. ROCK MASS
CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION
TO GEOLOGY
 INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
Geology – study of planet, earth, its origin, history,
composition, structure and dynamics of how it changes.

The term ‘Geology’ has been derived from the Greek

words Geo + logos where Geo means Earth and logos
means discourse (study or science).

Geology – event formed during geological time involving

interpretation and observation of event occurred and still
occurring at present in earth.

Geological process occurred during very large span of

geological time left their record in rocks.
Engineering geology:-

Subfield of geological study

Concerning about the geological inputs and the

uses of the information to solve the engineering
problems.

Exists solely to serve art and science of

engineering through description of the structure
and attributes of rocks connected with engineering
works. (Goodman,1993).
The geologist:
Presents the geological data and
interpretations for use by the civil
engineers.

The role of engineering geology - begins

during the planning stage, where the geologic
data are required in order to achieve
accuracy (design and construction).
Some engineering works that need
understandings/related to geological aspect:

Construction of dam

Landslide - Slope

Rock as aggregates & construction material

Hydro geological

Etc s.
 Earth
The largest of four planets of inner group solar system
i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars and third closest to
the sun.

• Shape - spherical
• Polar radius - 21 km shorter than equatorial radius
• Average radius - 6378 km (3965 miles)
• Surface Area - 510 x 106 km2 (29% is land)
• Overall Density - 5.5 g/cm3
• Mount Everest is 8.8 km above sea level
• Ocean floor is an average 3.7 km below sea level
• Average height above sea level is 7 km
 Principal Division of Earth
Consist of three:-

1) Atmosphere – Troposphere and Stratosphere

2) Hydrosphere

3) Lithosphere
(1) Atmosphere:

Gaseous portion of the Earth extending upwards for hundreds

of miles above sea level.

It is a mixture of 98% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, carbon dioxide,

water vapour and minor amount of other gases.

The atmosphere is divided into two parts which is

Troposphere and Stratosphere.

Troposhere - closest to the Earth ~ 13 km, contains almost all

of the water vapor, clouds and storms.

Stratosphere - overlying layer ~ 55 km above the surface,

contains the ozone layer.

The atmosphere is an important geologic agent and is

responsible for the processes of weathering which are
continually at work on the Earth's surface.
(2) Hydrosphere:

Total mass of water or the surface of our planet

About 98% of water in the oceans and 2% in lakes, rivers

as well as ground water which exist in the pores and
crevices of the crustal rocks and soils.

71% of Earth covered by oceans to average depth of 4

km.

Hydrosphere is in constant motion - evaporating through

atmosphere, precipitating as rain and returning to Earth.

As water moves over the Earth's surface it erodes,

transports and deposits weathered rock material,
constantly modifying the Earth's landscape.
(3) Lithosphere:

Lithos means rock.

The solid portion of the Earth composed of crust and

upper mantle.

It is a layer of rocks about 70 km thick, that rests upon

soft weak material that broken into about 12 major
plates which is slowly moved by the flow of material in a
layer that directly underlies the lithosphere called the
asthenosphere.

There are three basic types of rock: Igneous,

Sedimentary and Metamorphic.
Physical Features of the Earth
Major Concepts

Earth is segregated and concentrated into layers according to

density.

The major internal layers based on physical properties are:

(a) Lithosphere (b) Asthenosphere
(c) Mesosphere (d) Core

Material within each of these units is in motion, making Earth a

changing dynamic planet.

Continents and ocean basins are the principal surface features

of Earth.
 Major Structural Units of Earth

The constituents of Earth are separated

and segregated into layers according to
density.

The denser materials - concentrated near

the center, the less dense - near the
surface.

The internal layers are recognized on the

basis of composition and physical
properties.
The internal layers based of composition are:-

1. Crust – Continental Crust and Oceanic Crust

2. Mantle – Earth mass, which compose of composed of iron

(Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and
oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000°C, the
mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner.

3. Core (inner & outer) - composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is

so hot that cause the outer core is molten, with about
10% sulphur (S). The inner core is under such extreme
pressure that it remains solid.

The internal layers based of are physical properties are:-

1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Core
 Layers of the earth based on composition

Outer layer of the Earth, extending from solid surface down to the first major discontinuity in seismic wave
velocity in the lithosphere. Thickness of crust varies from about 8 km under the oceans to about 35 km under the
continents.
There are two kinds of earth crust classified according to two different kinds of rock they contained where
each with its own general composition, thickness and density.
(a) Continent Crust: 35 - 60 km thick
Crust relatively low density
granitic rock
average density: 2.8 g/cm3
(b) Oceanic Crust : thickness rarely exceed 5 km
denser material
basaltic composition
average density: 2.9 g/cm3

The next major compositional layer of the Earth which covers the core and this zone constitute 82% of its
volume and 68% of mass of the Earth. The mantle is composed of iron and magnesium silicate rock, and it goes
down to about 2900 km from surface of Earth. The earth's mantle is a heavy layer of rock which lies under the
Mantle earth's crust. In places where the crust is broken, part of the upper mantle can melt and form a substance called
magma, or molten rock. Magma can be forced through the earths crust. It flows out of volcanoes as lava.
Average density: 4.5 g/cm3

It is speculated that the thickness is about 2250 km and it is made of molten iron and nickel. The outer
Outer core core is so hot that the metals in it are all in the liquid state. Average density: 10.7 g/cm3

The thickness' is about 1300 km and probably consists of mostly iron and nickel. The inner core of the
Earth has temperatures and pressures so great that the metals are squeezed together and are not able to move
about like a liquid, but are forced to vibrate in place as a solid. The temperatures may reach 9000 degrees F.
Inner core and the pressures are 45,000,000 pounds per square inch. This is 3,000,000 times the air pressure on you at
sea level!!!
Average density: 17.0 g/cm3
Internal layers of the Earth based on Physical Properties

Lithosphere Located at the top of the asthenosphere.

About 100 km below the surface.
(rock sphere)
Above the asthenosphere, the material is solid, strong and rigid.
This layer is called lithosphere.
Contains the continental crust of the uppermost part of the mantle.

Asthenosphere A major zone within the upper mantle where temperature and pressure are
just the right balance so that part of the material melts.
(weak sphere) The rocks lose much of their strength and become soft plastic and easily
deformed.
The thickness is about 200 km.
The rock below the asthenosphere is stronger and more rigid than the
asthenosphere because the high pressure at this depth offsets the effect of
Mesosphere high temperature.
The region between the asthenosphere and the core-mantle boundary is
called the mesosphere.
The core of the Earth marks a change in both physical properties and
composition.
It is composed mostly of iron and is therefore distinctly different from the
silicate (rocky) material above.
Core
On the basis of physical properties, the core has two distinct parts - a solid
inner core and liquid outer core.
Heat loss from the core and the rotation of the Earth probably causes the
liquid outer core to circulate and generate the Earth's magnetic field.
Composition of earth
Composition of earth
The internal structure of Earth
•The Earth is divided into several layers
which have distinct chemical and
seismic properties (depths in km):-

0 - 40 Crust
40 - 400 Upper mantle
400 - 650 Transition region
650 - 2700 Lower mantle
2700 - 2890 D'' layer
2890 - 5150 Outer core
5150 - 6378 Inner core
The crust is composed of two basic rock types granite and basalt.

The continental crust is composed mostly of granite.

The oceanic crust consists of a volcanic lava rock called basalt.

Basaltic rocks of the ocean plates are much denser and heavier than the granitic rock of
the continental plates.

Because of this, the continents ride on the denser oceanic plates, the crust and the upper
layer of the mantle together make up a zone of rigid, brittle rock called the Lithosphere.

The layer below the rigid lithosphere is a zone of asphalt-like consistency called the
Asthenosphere.

The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle that flows and moves the plates of the Earth.
The crust
•The mantle is approximately 2900 kilometers
thick, making it Earth's largest layer.
•Has a property called "plasticity" (where a solid
has the ability to flow like a liquid). You might call
the mantle "partially molten".
•Temperature of the mantle increases the deeper
you go.
•This difference in temperature causes
CONVECTION CURRENTS to form. This type of
current forms when hot things rise and cooler
things sink.
•These convection currents tumble throughout the
mantle.
•They cause the Lithospheric plates floating on the
mantle to move around.
•These currents cause our continents and oceans
to change location slightly each year.
•The currents are the driving force for Plate
Tectonics or Continental Drift come from the
mantle.
 Convection Currents

Convection Currents - Large convection systems in the mantle may carry along the plates of the lithosphere like a conveyor belt
Outer Core & Inner core
Inner Core

– The inner core of the Earth has temperatures and

pressures so great that the metals are squeezed
together and are not able to move about like a
liquid, but are forced to vibrate in place as a solid.

– The inner core begins about 4000 miles beneath the

crust and is about 800 miles thick.

– The temperatures may reach 9000 degrees F and

the pressures are 45,000,000 pounds per square
inch. This is 3,000,000 times the air pressure on you
at sea level!!!
Geologic Processes that Change the Earth's Structure

Geologic Forces: Earth has undergone great changes over

million of years.

Generally this come form the processes of gradation,

tectonism and volcanism.

(a) Gradation:-

Degradation: Erosion results from wearing of rocks by

water, air and ice.

Aggradation: Deposition results in accumulation of

sediment and ultimate building up of rock strata.
(b) Tectonism

Plate tectonics - a dynamic process of the

lithospheric plate which moves over a weak
plastic layer in the upper mantle.

These plates interact with one another along

their boundaries.

Produce faulting (fracture and

displacement), folding, subsidence and
uplift of rock formation.

Responsible for formation of mountain

ranges.
Earth’s lithosphere is composed of seven large plates
with thickness ranging from 75 to 125 km.

Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate

Antarctic Plate North America Plate

Indian Plate South American Plate

Africian Plate 20 other small plates in between

Major Plates of the Lithosphere
Major Plates of the Lithosphere
(c) Volcanism

Volcano - a vent in the earth's crust

through which molten rock materials within
the earth, lavas, ashes, steam and gas are
ejected.

Responsible for the formation of plutonic

rocks, once solidified at great depth.

Majority of volcanoes are located along

the margins of tectonic plates.
 Geologic Time Scale
The Earth's crust is known to be at least 40 million centuries old.

The time span of the earth is called eras and subdivided into
periods (see Table 1.2).

Rocks have been created and destroy throughout geologic time.

Rocks which are created during that particular period for example
Cambrian are said to belong to the Cambrian system.

The nature of rocks created or formed during various eras can

actually reveal about its strength and condition.

For example rocks from the Precambrian era are known to be very
hard, crystalline materials but often with many fractures and
microstructures, whereas sandstone formed from Pilocene
series tends to be porous as soil and easily excavated without
blasting.
 GEOLOGIC TIME
Era Period Absolute (million years)
Cenozoic Holocene 0.012
Pleistocene 2

Tertiary Pilocene 7
Milocene 26
Oligocene 38
Eocene 54
Palaeocene 65

Mesozoic Cretaceous 135

Jurassic 195
Triassic 225

Upper Paleozoic Permian 280

Carboniferous 345
Devonian 395

Lower Paleozoic Silurian 440

Ordovician 500
Cambrian 570

Proterozoic and 4600

Archaeozoic
 Tectonic Plate
What is a tectonic plate?

A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) - a

massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock,

Generally composed of both continental and oceanic

lithosphere.

Plate size can vary greatly - from a few hundred to

thousands of kilometers across. (e.g. The Pacific and
Antarctic Plates are among the largest)

Plate thickness also varies greatly, ranging from less

than 15 km for young oceanic lithosphere to about
200 km or more for ancient continental lithosphere.
This massive slabs of solid rock can float despite their
tremendous weight because Continental crust is
composed of granitic rocks which are made up of
relatively lightweight minerals such as quartz and
feldspar.

By contrast, oceanic crust is composed of basaltic

rocks, which are much denser and heavier.

Most of the boundaries between individual plates cannot

be seen because they are hidden beneath the oceans.

Yet oceanic plate boundaries can be mapped

accurately from outer space by measurements from
GEOSAT satellites.

Earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated near

these boundaries.
The theory of tectonics plate
The theory of plate tectonics
states that the Earth's outermost
layer is fragmented into a dozen
or more large and small plates
that are moving relative to one
another.
The present is the key to the past, the geologic forces and
processes - gradual as well as catastrophic - acting on the
Earth today are the same as those that have acted in the
geologic past.

Continental Drift - introduced by a German meteorologist

named Alfred Lothar Wegener. He contended that,
around 200 million years ago, the supercontinent
Pangaea began to split apart.

Alexander Du Toit, Professor of Geology at Johannesburg

University, proposed that Pangaea first broke into two
large continental landmasses, Laurasia in the
northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland in the
southern hemisphere.

Laurasia and Gondwanaland then continued to break

apart into the various smaller continents that exist
today.
 According to the continental drift theory, the supercontinent
Pangaea began to break up about 225-200 million years ago,
eventually fragmenting into the continents as we know them today

PERMIAN TRIASSIC
225 MILLION YEARS AGO 200 MILLION YEARS AGO

JURASSIC CRETACEOUS
135 MILLION YEARS AGO 65 MILLION YEARS AGO

PRESENT DAY
Major plates of the lithosphere are broken into a dozen or
so rigid slabs that are moving relative to one another
Major plates of the lithosphere
Cont’d

Wegener's theory - based in part on remarkable fit of the

South American and African continents.

For example, the matching animal fossils found on

coastlines of South America and Africa, and the
evidence of dramatic climate changes on some
continents.

For example, the discovery of fossils of tropical plants

(in the form of coal deposits) in Antarctica led to the
conclusion that this frozen land previously must have
been situated closer to the equator, in a more
temperate climate where lush, swampy vegetation could
grow.

Other mismatches of geology and climate included

distinctive fossil ferns (Glossopteris) discovered in now-
polar regions, and the occurrence of glacial deposits in
present-day arid Africa, such as the Vaal River valley of
South Africa.
 These two maps showing the American and African
continents may once have fit together, then later separated.
Left: The formerly joined continents before their separation
Right: The continents after the separation
As noted by Snider-Pellegrini and Wegener, the locations of certain fossil plants
and animals on present-day, widely separated continents would form definite
patterns (shown by the bands of colors), if the continents are rejoined
 Understanding Plate Motions
There are FOUR (4) types of plate boundaries:

(1) Divergent boundaries

(2) Convergent boundaries:-

 Oceanic - continental convergence
 Oceanic - oceanic convergence
 Continental - continental convergence

(3) Transform boundaries

(4) Plate boundary zones

(1) Divergent boundaries

 The new crust is generated as the plates pull away

from each other.

(2) Convergent boundaries

 The crust is destroyed as one plate dives under

another.

• Oceanic-continental convergence
• Oceanic-oceanic convergence
• Continental - continental convergence
(3) Transform boundaries

 The crust is neither produced nor destroyed

as the plates slide horizontally past each
other.

(4) Plate boundary zones

 Broad belts in which boundaries are not well

defined and the effects of plate interaction
are unclear.
 An illustrating the main types of plate boundaries;
East African Rift Zone is a good example of a continental rift zone
 Divergent boundaries
Occur along spreading centers where plates are moving
apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up
from the mantle.

E.g. The rate of spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

averages about 2.5 centimeters per year (cm/yr), or
25 km in a million years (between South America and
Africa continents).

In East Africa, spreading processes have already torn

Saudi Arabia away from the rest of the African
continent, forming the Red Sea.

The actively splitting African Plate and the Arabian Plate

meet in what geologists call a triple junction, where the
Red Sea meets the Gulf of Aden.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which splits
nearly the entire Atlantic Ocean
north to south, is probably the best
-known and most-studied example
of a divergent-plate boundary
Map of East Africa showing some of
the historically active volcanoes (red
triangles) and the A far Triangle
(shaded, center) -- a so-called triple
junction (or triple point), where three
plates are pulling away from one
another: the Arabian Plate, and the
two parts of the African Plate (the
Nubian and the Somalian) splitting
along the East African Rift Zone
 Convergent boundaries
The Earth's unchanging size indicates that the crust must be
destroyed at about the same rate as it is being created.

Such destruction (recycling) of crust takes place along

convergent boundaries where plates are moving toward each
other, and sometimes one plate sinks (is subducted) under
another.

The location where sinking of a plate occurs is called a

subduction zone.

Convergence can occur between an oceanic and a largely

continental plate, or between two largely oceanic plates, or
between two largely continental plates.
Subduction zone and Mid Ocean Ridges
Oceanic - continental convergence
Oceanic-continental convergence also sustains many of the
Earth's active volcanoes, such as those in the Andes and the
Cascade Range in the Pacific Northwest.

The eruptive activity is clearly associated with subduction.

Oceanic – continental convergence

Oceanic - oceanic convergence

Oceanic – oceanic convergence

The Marianas Trench (paralleling the Mariana Islands), the best example, marks where the fast-
moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower moving Philippine Plate.

Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of

volcanoes.

Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a
submarine volcano rises above sea level to form an island volcano.

Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs.
Continental - continental convergence

Continental – continental convergence

The Himalayan mountain range dramatically

demonstrates one of the most visible and spectacular
consequences of plate tectonics.

When two continents meet head-on, neither is

subducted because the continental rocks are relatively
light.
 Transform boundaries
Occur at the zone between two plates sliding
horizontally past one another.

Was called a transform-fault boundary, or simply

a transform boundary.

Most transform faults are found on the ocean

floor.

However, a few occur on land, for example the

San Andreas fault zone in California.

They commonly offset the active spreading

ridges, producing zig - zag plate margins, and are
generally defined by shallow earthquakes.
Transform fault jointing segments of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 Plate-boundary zones
Not all plate boundaries are as simple as the
main types discussed above.

In some regions, the boundaries are not well

defined because the plate-movement
deformation occurring there extends over a
broad belt (called a plate-boundary zone).

Because plate-boundary zones involve at

least two large plates and one or more
microplates caught up between them they
tend to have complicated geological
structures and earthquake patterns.
 End of the Chapter 1…

Q & A

Thanks for your attention… TQ