CHAP 11: Stabilisation of engineering structure in

rock mass – principle & method

Construction cost of structures (tunnel & slope)

will increase if they need some methods of
stabilisation.
stabilisation. The cost will increase further if the
stabilisation is of higher degree & to be
maintained for a long period of time.
time. Appropriate
design & construction method help to reduce the
amount & cost of stabilisation.
stabilisation.

Design & construction method that are not

according to correct procedures will induce
significant disturbance (thicker yield zone) in rock
mass – consequently will require a higher level of
stabilisation & higher cost!

YIELD ZONE
(ZON ALAH)

CIRCULAR
TUNNEL

SURROUNDING
ROCK MASS

As soon as a tunnel is excavated, surrounding rock mass will be

zone. Design & method of construction
disturbed – formation of yield zone.
must be carefully considered so that disturbance to surrounding
rock is reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

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 YIELD ZONE
(ZON ALAH)

CUT SLOPE

SURROUNDING
ROCK MASS

As soon as a slope is excavated, surrounding rock mass will be

disturbed – formation of yield zone.
zone. Design & method of construction
must be carefully considered so that disturbance to surrounding
rock is reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

Geological mapping & joint survey

Information like types of discontinuity and

their geometrical conditions (dip & dip
direction) are essential for initial indications
on modes of instability, size of unstable blocks
& direction of sliding that can be expected
upon excavation of the rock mass (for tunnel
or slope)

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Take a very strong rock mass, continuous (solid,
no weakness planes/discontinuities) & fresh
(unweathered,
unweathered, Zone 1)

Note: slope height, H ≈ [UCS/γ

[UCS/γ]

Can a near vertical slope be excavated in this

rock mass, any problem on stability???

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. . . . . in terms of rock mass properties of the
‘ideal’
ideal’ rock, a vertical slope is possible

e.g. for granite (UCS = 120 MPa,

MPa, γ = 26 kN/m3)
slope of few km high is possible !!!

But rock mass is always discontinuous, more than

one type of discontinuities at different orientations

Types of structural Rock types

discontinuity
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
Fault plane √ √ √
Joint plane √ √ √
Bedding plane - √ √
Foliation - √ -
Slaty & schistosity - - √

Type & size of discontinuities may indicate size of

unstable blocks. In general, in terms of size, the
largest is fault, followed by bedding plane, and the
smallest is joint

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Typical slope face .... discontinuous, fresh (Grade
I) to completely weathered (Grade V) rock mass

A slope face cut in a fresh (zone 1) and very

strong rock mass but, with horizontal bedding
planes (discontinuity or weakness plane) . . . . .

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Will the stability of the cut slope be affected by
the horizontal bedding planes?

Is there any immediate effect due to rock mass

properties & bedding planes?
planes?

A slope face cut in fresh & strong rock mass

with horizontal bedding planes and inclined
fracture planes (e.g. joints)

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 SLOPE B
SLOPE A

For slope (A), is the stability being affected by the

horizontal bedding & inclined joint planes?
planes?

Let propose another slope (B) on the other side of

the hill . . . .

SLOPE A SLOPE B

The rock properties & the horizontal bedding

planes have no immediate effect on the stability
of both SLOPE A and B.
However, with respect to the orientation of the
inclined joints, SLOPE B is critical

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Effect of dip & dip direction of weakness planes on
stability of slope face in a discontinuous rock

Instability in rock & method of stabilisation

Different mode of instability requires different

stabilisation method hence, it is important to
understand 2 aspects before one can select an
effective method:

What is the mode of prevailing instability (plane,

wedge, flexural or rock fall)?
How specific stabilisation method works
(mechanisms) to produce effective stability?

Most rock stabilisation methods are different from

those used in soils. This is mainly due to the mode
of instability in rock (the less weathered ones)
which is always associated with weakness planes
rather than its material strength

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 Principles of rock stabilisation methods

‰ To help the rock mass to support itself by

improving stability & maintaining the load-
load-
carrying capability of rock near the boundaries
of excavation (within the yield zone!)

‰ To mobilise & conserve the inherent strength

of rock mass so that it becomes self-
self-
supporting!
supporting!

Principally in rock slope we need to stabilise only

the unstable key-
key-blocks, not the whole rock mass!!
In soil, due to weak bonding
between soil grains, the
‘weakness planes’
planes’ are
throughout the soil mass &
in every direction, you need
to stabilise the whole slope.

… this is why method like

retaining wall is not
Key-
Key-blocks practical for rock slope.

The principal → to mobilise

the inherent strength so
that the rock can support
itself!

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Effect of confinement on highly jointed rock

Confining pressure
increases contacts
between loose unstable
blocks, consequently this
increases frictional
strength between unstable
joint blocks → increase
resisting forces

Usually stabilisation of structure is an aspect

that must be implemented.
Stabilisation method is basically to increase
FOS, by increasing resisting forces

FOS = [S resisting forces] / [S disturbing

forces].

Disturbing forces are factors that sometimes

beyond our control (uncertainties
(uncertainties)) – rainfall,
weathering rate, groundwater, rock mass,
earthquakes etc.
Resisting forces are methods that can be
implemented to increase FOS – slope profiles,
avoiding problem areas & installing
stabilisation method

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Considerations for selecting stabilisation method:
method:
(1) Types, size and geometrical orientation of
weakness planes in rock (joint, fault & beddings.
(2) Mode/type of instability in rock mass (plane,
wedge, flexural & rock fall). The mode of
unstability is dictated by the type, orientation and
sets of weakness plane.
(3) Understanding of the reinforcement
mechanisms (reinforcing mode) of each method
i.e. how each element reacts with the existing
instability so to increase FOS.
(4) Type of rock, strengths, weathering grade (HW
& CW). Weaker rocks like schist & highly
weathered granite are not suitable to be
reinforced with rockbolt & dowel.

Mode of instability in rock is controlled by type,

number of set and orientation of weakness planes.

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Plane failure is normally associated with almost
parallel inclined discontinuities (inclined bedding
plane in fold or fault). The unstable blocks are
usually relatively larger in size

More than 3 sets of intersecting joints may result

in rock fall (smaller rock blocks) which eventually
producing or larger failure (ravelling
(ravelling).
). Near
vertical joint set produces flexural toppling

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 A single larger size joint (in granite) can lead to
plane failure, and two intersect joints may lead to
wedge failure

Disturbing force:
mg sin θ
Resisting force: θ
τjoint = σn tan φ

If resisting force >> disturbing force, stabilisation

may not be required. However, long-
long-term effect
must also be considered e.g. water reduces σn, φ
& τ (it acts as lubricant on joint surface)

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Sliding is likely to occur along joint - shear test
is to obtain shear strength of the joint

Larger unstable
blocks resting on an
inclined joint or
bedding plane can
lead to plane
failure. When
weakness planes
intersect it may
lead to wedge
failure.

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 Plane failure + rock fall

3 or more intersecting joint sets that are closely

spaced may produce smaller loose/unstable rock
blocks which may lead to rock falls

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Rock fall (note: some of the rock portion has been
weathered to soil material then, failure mode is
similar to soil slope)

Rock fall

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 Rock fall

Combination of several small & large size

intersecting joints may produce combination of
instability; rock falls + wedge failure

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Rock slope failure at NKVE – wedge failure + rock
falls, associated with 2 intersecting faults and
several joint sets

It is a ‘wedge failure’
failure’
due to two intersecting
fault planes (a major &
common discontinuity)
in granite rock.
The wedge weighs
almost 1000 tonne.
tonne.

One or two joint sets that are in near vertical

position can produce flexural toppling

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Stabilisation and reinforcement of rock:
rock:

The basic principle of rock mass stabilisation

method is to help rock mass to stabilise itself.
itself.
Correct installation of method can help to
mobilise the inherent / internal strength available
in the rock (e.g. frictional or residual strength of
fractured rock, shear strength of discontinuities).

Rock stabilisation methods are divided into 2

main groups:

(1) SUPPORT SYSTEM (penyokong

(penyokong))

(2) REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM (pengukuhan

(pengukuhan))

SUPPORT SYSTEM:
The use of support elements (e.g. steel U-U-section,
pre-
pre-cast slabs, shotcrete & wiremesh)
wiremesh) that are
installed on rock surface.
surface. This system increase
the stability of rock body by imposing a confining
pressure into the rock. The confining pressure
increases the contact between fracture surfaces
(joints) and consequently elevate the existing
frictional strength in the fractured rock.

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U-section/steel arch – support methods installed on
tunnel surface. For effectiveness the system must
be active (it must yields along with the movement
of surrounding rock upon tunnel excavation

Stabilisation of large tunnel using shotcrete +

concrete slab + rock bolt + wire mesh

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 Steel U-
U-section as support with concrete slabs
as lining in between the U-
U-sections

Shotcrete is to reduce infiltration of surface run-

run-off
water into the slope & occasionally to prevent
falling of smaller rock blocks. Bonding between
the shotcrete & rock surface must be strong or
otherwise the shotcrete will detach

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 Mixing of shotcrete

Steel welded mesh to restrain smaller size

unstable rock blocks from falling down especially
the ‘key-
key-blocks’
blocks’. Falling of smaller rock blocks
may lead to a larger slope failure - ravelling.
ravelling.

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Spraying of shotcrete on rock surface which has
been fixed with welded mesh. Shotcrete is
impermeable, thus weep-
weep-holes must be installed
to drain water out of the slope

Shotcrete + wire mesh + weep holes.

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 Shotcrete + weep holes.

Shotcrete is also applied on tunnel surface to

increase stability (falling of small key rock
blocks) & to reduce inflow of groundwater

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Since shotcrete is impermeable to water it must be
installed with weep-
weep-holes. This to drain water out
of the slope or otherwise there will be built-
built-up of
pore-
pore-water pressure in the slope

The difference in properties between soil and rock must be

understood, methods applicable to rock may not be suitable for
soil (or weak rock e.g. schist) – shotcrete is only applicable for
strong rock for good bonding between shotcrete & slope face

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 Steel wiremesh (chain-
(chain-link or welded mesh) is used to restrain
smaller size unstable rock blocks from falling down especially thethe
‘key-
key-blocks’
blocks’. Falling of smaller rock blocks may lead to a larger
slope failure - ravelling.
ravelling.

Rock bolt or dowel is used to secure/anchor the

wire mesh on rock surface. If this anchorage is
not effective (bolting in weak rock) then, the wire
mesh may be detached from the rock surface &
become ineffective

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REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM:
The use of reinforcement elements (e.g. dowel,
rockbolt,
rockbolt, rock anchor & grout) that are installed
inside the rock body. This system stabilises the
rock by increasing its internal inherent strength.
strength.
The element must be installed across a weakness
plane. In principal it is similar to the action of
rebars in reinforced concrete or pre-
pre-tensioned
rebar in pre-
pre-stressed concrete.

When weakness plane that induces instability can

be identified (distinctive) then, the inherent
strength of this plane can be utilised to obtain
stability – approach is to increase its shear
strength by increasing normal stress on this plane

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Rock bolt & dowel are used to stabilise unstable
blocks. Bolt must be of sufficient length so that it
extends well beyond the weakness planes thus
anchoring the unstable blocks to a stronger rock

REINFORCEMENT
ELEMENT: steel rebar

LOCKING BONDING AGENT:

NUT resin or grout

BEARING PLATE

Main components of ROCK DOWEL

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 Basic design of rock bolt & dowel

A rock bolt is an active (tensioned) dowel used for

stabilising rock joints. Similar to the use of
tensioned rebar in pre-
pre-stressed concrete. Tension
induced immedaitely during installation

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Installed rock bolt with spherical bearing plate &
tensioning nut. Spherical seat ensure even
distribution of bolt tension

Various types and surface finished of rebar used

as for rock bolt, material can steel, fibre
reinforced concrete (FRC)

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ROCK BOLT: 25 mm Steel rebar (15 to 30 mm
diameter) with threaded length & locking nut

Tensioning rock bolt during installation;

hydraulic jack & stressing chair

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 Use of rockbolts for larger unstable blocks

Rockbolt has limited tensile strength (150 – 200

kN per bolt) and length is between few m to
about less than 12 m. Installation is complex &
expensive.
In stabilising a larger unstable block (e.g. wedge
of several thousands tonne),
tonne), the number of bolts
required may exceeds its economical limit and
their effective lengths may not be sufficient
Need for a larger size and higher capacity rock
reinforcement method

Option is ROCK ANCHOR with length exceeds 20

m and capacity few thousands tonnes

Fully-
Fully-grouted rock anchor & anchor head; debonded
over free tendon length with fixed anchor protection
– material is multiple strands steel cables, similar to
the cables used in suspension bridge

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 Tensioning of rock anchor

Weathered strong rock like granite (Zone 4 – 6) are

not suitable to be reinforced using rockbolt.
rockbolt. In weak
rock the bonding between bolt and surrounding rock
are weak. Weak bonding will not produce sufficient
tension in the bolt

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 Minerals arrangement (slatey
(slatey & schistosity)
schistosity) in
metamorphic rocks may weakening these rocks
(similar to grannular soil). Reinforcement method
like rock bolt & rock anchor are not recommended
in these rocks, mainly due to weak bonding

Use of rock bolt as tunnel reinforcement

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 Use of rock bolt as stabilising mechanism for
rock slope

Rock dowel, rock bolt and Rock Anchor

In principle, these three reinforcement elements

are similar in design. The only differences are
their stabilisation capacity, purpose and
installation.
They consist essentially of tendon/bar, anchorage
(bonding agent) bearing plate & tensioning device
Rock bolt is more expensive to install than rock
dowel, they are effective for long-
long-term
stabilisation (civil engineering structure).
Rock dowel is for short-
short-term reinforcement (for
mining & temporary support in tunnel).
They are used to increase the inherent strength of
weakness planes in rock e.g. shear strength of
unstable joint

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For larger unstable blocks (e.g. unstable blocks
of several tonnes in plane failure) rock anchor is
recommended. Instead of tendon rock anchor
consists of high capacity multiple strands steel
cables (cables used in suspension bridge)

The difference between dowel and rock bolt

Dowel is passive bolt, installed without any

tension. Tension in dowel develop eventually
after there is movement in joints it intersect.
Rock bolt is active dowel, installed with
pretension (usually about (60 – 70 % Tb). Due to
this pre-
pre-tension, rock bolt exhibits several
positive characteristics as permanent
reinforcement.

tn T

Inclined bolt
th

Rockbolt installed at an angle to the weakness

planes may increase its stabilising effect

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Sliding of rough joint surfaces may lead to dilation
(opening of joint). Dilation induces tension into
rock dowel and additional tension to rock bolt.
bolt.

Rock bolt intersecting rough clean joint: dilation

leads to an increase in bolt tension (positive
effect)

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Rock bolt intersecting filled joint: no dilation due
to compressibility of infill, this leads to eventual
loss (creep) in bolt tension (negative effect)

Roof section is the most critical part of a tunnel.

Rock bolt of different lengths are used to
reinforced highly jointed/fractured roof section
(reduce roof failure rock fall & wedge failure)

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 h2 = 2.4m
Bedded strata

h1 = 1.2m

Rectangular-
shaped tunnel

w = 12m

Excavation of rectangular tunnel in horizontally bedded sedimentary

sedimentary
rock may induce a phenomenon called ‘bed separation’
separation’ at the tunnel
roof. If the lower bed is thinner this leads to a larger deflection
deflection δ (as δ
∝ 1/h ). When the lower bed deflects more downwards, it will be
3

separated from the upper bed creating a gap between the beds

h2 Rock bolts

h1

‘Bed separation’
separation’ can be reduced by installing rock bolts at the roof
tunnel. When the lower & upper beds are bolted together they formform
a composite beam (beam setara),
setara), the resulting bed is thicker (thus
smaller δ) and higher shear strength at the bedding plane.

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 Stability & drainage are the main problems with
slope excavated in schist & slate (metamorphic
rocks). Even with gentle & low angle profile (2 m
height with benching) the slope remains unstable

Rock slopes can fail in various modes & each

method of stabilisation is only suitable/effective
for specific mode of unstability.
unstability.
Usually more than one methods are required to
stabilise a rock slope.
Commonly used method are: rockbolt + wiremesh
+ shotcrete.
shotcrete. Long-
Long-term effect due to weathering is
reduced by minimising the presence of
weathering agents through drainage system:
surface drainage & weep-
weep-holes.
Sprayed concrete/shotcrete
concrete/shotcrete (special cement mix
of 20-
20- 30mm thick) applied on the slope face helps
to reduce weathering agent from seeping into the
slope (Chemical weathering in Chap 6.0).

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Use of shotcrete + wiremesh:
wiremesh:

It is a normal practice to spray shotcrete on slope

face which has been protected with wiremesh,
wiremesh,
this is mainly due to:
Both methods compliment with each other
although each method delivers different
mechanisms of stabilisation.
stabilisation.
Thin layer of shotcrete is weak and exhibits lower
stiffness, wiremesh can act as ‘reinforcement’
reinforcement’ for
this layer of shotcrete.
shotcrete . By covering the wiremesh
(steel) with layer of shotcrete provide protection
against corrosion (contact with water & O2)
This procedure ensures both methods to function
effectively for a long period of time

Maintenance costs on slope & stabilisation

methods (after construction) can be costly.
Selection of appropriate & effective method, &
correct installation procedures ensure
stabilisation methods are functioning effectively
for the required safety level and duration .
Rockbolt is a method recommended for long-long-
term stabilisation however, its effectiveness
greatly depending on how it is installed e.g.
borehole size, tension level & tensioning device
(bearing plate & nut.
Figure 11.3 exhibits several methods for
stabilising rock slope of different surface
conditions.
Table 11.1 Examples of stabilisation methods
for slope & tunnel in rock mass.

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 Support and reinforcement methods Type of structures
Grouted rock bolt + wire mesh + shotcrete. Structures excavated in rock mass e.g. road
tunnel and service tunnel in mining.

Grouted bolt + wire mesh + shotcrete +
suitable drainage system (surface drainage
& weep holes).
Yielding steel arches + concrete slabs +
water-proof lining + shotcrete + rock anchor
+ grouted rock bolt.
Excavation of slope for highways and building
structures.
Permanent underground excavations e.g. h.e.p.
cavern house, mining service tunnel & sport
complex.

Table 11.1: Methods of stabilisation for civil

engineering structures and mining activities (after
Stacey & Page, 1986)

Plane failure is usually associated with a ‘large unstable block’

block’
that tends to slide along a weakness plane (e.g. bedding or fault
fault
planes). Reinforcing the unstable block to a more stable rock
mass is highly recommended, using rock bolts and rock anchor.

42
 Wedge failure is associated with unstable medium to large size
block that tends to slide along intersecting weakness planes
(joints or faults). Similar to plane failure, reinforcing the unstable
block to a more stable rock mass is recommended using rock
bolts (for medium block) or rock anchor (for large blocks).

Toppling or rocks fall is associated with smaller size blocks. Failure

is not along distinctive sliding planes.
planes. The unstable rocks are blocks
that have been separated from the main rock body by intersecting
joints (> 3 sets). Water can penetrate the slope easily due to many
many
joint sets. Reinforcement alone is not suitable for this type of
unstability. Support system like wire-
unstability. wire-mesh & shotcrete together with
rock bolts are recommended.

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Flexural toppling is unstability due to rock blocks that are separated
by at least one set of near vertical joints or bedding planes. Failure
Failure is
associated with sliding plane. The slender (thin) vertical rock blocks
can be made stronger by bonding them together (composite beams)
using rock bolts (thinner blocks) or rock anchor (thicker blocks)
blocks)

Drainage system (method of stabilisation)

stabilisation) is an essential measure
for rock slopes excavated in tropical countries (high annual
rainfall). The drain also acts as buffer zone for any fallen rock
rock

44
Drainage system (method of stabilisation)
stabilisation) at the crest of
protected slope

Methods of stabilisation for rock slope

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Comprehensive drainage system (surface & internal drainage]
for large size slopes and where water is a critical factor.

MAY THIS KNOWLEDGE BE APPLIED

ON THE RIGHTFUL COURSE, GOD
WILLING !

ENGINEER IS BEING ENTRUSTED WITH

SOCIAL OBLIGATIONS &
RESPONSIBILITIES

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