1 (47)

InnoFireWood
Innovative eco-efficient high fire performance wood products for demanding applications

STATE-OF-THE-ART
May 2005

Tuula Hakkarainen, VTT

Esko Mikkola, VTT
Birgit Östman, SP Trätek
Lazaros Tsantaridis, SP Trätek
Harry Brumer, KTH
Peter Piispanen, KTH
 2 (47)

Contents

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 4
2. The present and future of wood products with improved fire performance .......................................... 4
2.1. Present situation .......................................................................................................................... 4
2.2. Prospects –New possibilities....................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1. General trends....................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.2. Market aspects...................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.3. New service classes for different end use applications........................................................... 5
2.2.4. Control of other performance properties................................................................................ 7
2.3. Threats ........................................................................................................................................ 8
3. Intended end-use applications............................................................................................................. 8
3.1. Wall and ceiling linings ............................................................................................................... 9
3.2. External claddings and façades .................................................................................................. 10
4. Burning of wood .............................................................................................................................. 11
4.1. Ignition and combustion of wood............................................................................................... 11
4.2. Fire performance of wood.......................................................................................................... 13
4.2.1. Ignitability .......................................................................................................................... 13
4.2.2. Heat release and fire spread ................................................................................................ 14
4.2.3. Charring ............................................................................................................................. 15
4.2.4. Smoke production and toxicity............................................................................................ 16
5. Improving fire performance of wood ................................................................................................ 17
5.1. Mechanisms of flame retardants for wood ................................................................................. 17
5.1.1. Changing the pyrolysis of wood.......................................................................................... 17
5.1.2. Protecting the surface of wood with isolating layers............................................................ 19
5.1.3. Changing the thermal properties of wood............................................................................ 19
5.1.4. Reducing combustion by diluting pyrolysis gases ............................................................... 20
5.1.5. Reducing combustion by inhibiting the chain reactions of burning ...................................... 20
5.2. Practical techniques for fire retardance of wood......................................................................... 20
5.2.1. Pressure impregnation......................................................................................................... 21
5.2.2. Surface treatments .............................................................................................................. 21
5.2.2.1. Intumescent varnishes and paints ................................................................................. 22
5.2.2.2. Non-intumescent coatings ............................................................................................ 22
5.2.3. Addition of a fire retardant during manufacturing process................................................... 23
5.2.4. Other fire retardant treatment methods ................................................................................ 23
5.2.4.1. Nanocomposite systems ............................................................................................... 23
5.2.4.2. Boron gas treatment ..................................................................................................... 23
5.2.4.3. Modification of wood................................................................................................... 24
5.3 Conclusions on fire retardants for wood...................................................................................... 26
5.4. Structural properties .................................................................................................................. 27
5.5. Suggestions for further research................................................................................................. 27
5.5.1. Chemical modification........................................................................................................ 27
5.5.2. Physical modification.......................................................................................................... 27
5.5.3. Nanocomposites.................................................................................................................. 28
5.5.4. Chemoenzymatic modification............................................................................................ 28
6. European fire classification system................................................................................................... 28
6.1. Test methods ............................................................................................................................. 29
6.1.1. Non-combustibility test EN ISO 1182................................................................................. 29
6.1.2. Gross calorific potential test EN ISO 1716.......................................................................... 29
6.1.3. Single Burning Item test EN 13823..................................................................................... 29
6.1.4. Ignitability test EN ISO 11925-2......................................................................................... 31
 3 (47)

6.1.5. Radiant panel test EN ISO 9239-1....................................................................................... 31

6.2. Classes and criteria .................................................................................................................... 33
7. Predicting SBI test results on the basis of cone calorimeter data ....................................................... 36
7.1. Description of the basic model................................................................................................... 36
7.2. Application of the Model to FR Wood Products......................................................................... 37
7.3. Simulation of fire development.................................................................................................. 40
8. Summary.......................................................................................................................................... 42
References ........................................................................................................................................... 43
 4 (47)

1. Introduction

Wood is nature's most versatile building material. It is renewable, sustainable, energy efficient to harvest
and convert to usable components, easily workable, warm in use, and aesthetically pleasing. Wood has
minimal environmental pollution and a range of excellent physical and mechanical properties. For
centuries, wood has been used in construction both structurally and as a decorative material.

Due to its natural combustibility, timber burns if exposed to severe fire conditions. However, wood
products can be used safely either by improving their fire performance or by choosing the end use
conditions properly. Methods for improving the fire performance of wood products include chemical,
biochemical and physical modification, as well as structural means. A wide range of wood based
products can meet even very stringent requirements, thus extending the market use of wood as a building
material.

2. The present and future of wood products with improved fire performance

2.1. Present situation

In many applications, ordinary wood cannot be used due to fire risks and restrictions in national building
codes [1]. The main advantage of wood based products with improved fire performance is that they
extend the usability of wood. High fire performance wood products can meet the requirements of class B
in the European classification system for construction products, whereas ordinary wood products
typically fall into class D.

At present, the level of development of wood products with improved fire performance is not high
enough for their extensive utilization. The main problem is the long-term durability of fire retardant
treatments in exterior applications where weather exposure may leach out the fire retardant chemicals. In
interior use, the most important durability issue is the permanence of the aesthetic appearance that
cannot always be predicted or guaranteed. Many traditional fire retardants are hygroscopic that might
cause e.g. salt crystallization on surfaces also at interior applications [2].

Even though some wood products with improved fire performance exhibit excellent fire properties,
examples of products with hardly any benefit compared to ordinary wood also exist. The main reason is
the vast range of variation related to the manufacture of fire retarded wood products: the properties of
wood can vary notably even within a species, e.g. the permeability that mainly influences the possibility
to impregnate the wood. The product properties can therefore vary from a batch to another [3]. Another
problem is the selection of an unsuitable product for a certain application.

The financial aspects of high fire performance wood products are greatly affected by general trends in
the society and the resulting needs at present and in the future. The branch of activity is highly
dependent on the regulations set by the authorities. If ordinary wood meets the requirements, or if there
are no requirements for a certain application, wood with improved fire performance is rarely selected. In
most cases, the additional costs outweigh the fire safety benefits.

2.2. Prospects –New possibilities

2.2.1. General trends

The needs to prevent fire risks and reduce the number of fire fatalities empower the market outlook of
high fire performance wood products. Wood products with improved fire performance provide a
continuous means to decrease the risk of initiation of a fire. This improves the fire safety especially for
people with limited physical or mental capacity, e.g. the elderly and the handicapped.
 5 (47)

In addition to societal fire safety aspects, increasing need to prepare for fires can be seen in the private
sector. In this case, the willingness to improve the fire safety level is not based on the regulations but
other needs, for example protecting the corporate image or reducing insurance premiums.

The current trend of fire safety systems is to proceed from prescriptive criteria towards performance-
based approach. This development will probably facilitate the use of high fire performance wood
products. Performance-based fire design increases the freedom of architects, designers and constructors
to choose materials and structures, as far as the solutions meet the fire safety objectives defined for the
application. Therefore, high fire performance wood products have equal opportunities with other
construction products.

2.2.2. Market aspects

The fire performance of internal surfaces is regulated in most countries. The most stringent requirements
are usually set for corridors and exits to ensure safe egress in case of fire. Extensive use of wood
products as surface linings necessitates therefore a high-quality fire retardant treatment and offer market
potential for high fire performance wood products, because wood is often preferred as a furnishing
material for aesthetic reasons. Furthermore, the price of wall and ceiling linings is seldom the main issue
in public premises and office buildings of large companies.

Another demanding market possibility for high fire performance wood products is external claddings,
possibly combined with a wooden frame in three to five-storey buildings. This kind of buildings are
increasingly allowable in many European countries as a result of performance-based fire codes.
However, the durability of fire retardant wood has to be demonstrated for such a demanding application.

The currently available methods for improving the fire performance of wood require continuous
development in order to maintain and expand their market share. New, innovative products might open
whole new market areas. One of the new fire retardant solutions with a considerable market potential
could be a combination of a fire retardant and a wood protective liquid. Such a product would be useful
in practically any exterior application where the possible contribution to fire spread of wood must be
taken into account.

To increase the efficient use of timber resources, forest products industry has developed technologies for
converting low-quality wood into high-grade structural products, e.g. different types of wood-based
panels and structural elements. These products are currently not much manufactured as fire retarded, but
new solutions could be created by introducing the benefits of high fire performance. Such composite
wood products are also much easier to treat than solid wood products.

Market prospects for high fire performance wood products can be found in regions where earthquakes
are a considerable risk factor. Due to their flexibility, wooden structures tolerate vibrations caused by
earthquakes notably better than concrete and other rigid materials. However, ordinary wood products
can spread fire ignited as a result of an earthquake, thus increasing the damage. This risk can be reduced
using wood products with improved fire properties.

2.2.3. New service classes for different end use applications

A new Nordic system with service class requirements for different end uses, as short term use, interior
and exterior use has been developed in order to guide the potential users to find suitable FRT wood
products [4, 5, 6, 7], see Table 1. It is intended to supplement existing requirements for the fire
performance in national building codes. Suitable procedures for test verification and performance
 6 (47)

criteria are presented [8, 9]. The supplementary service classes are needed in order to form a basis for
new and reliable wood products with improved fire performance.

Table 1. Draft requirements for service classes of FR wood products in different end uses.
Service class Existing fire New performance requirements at different end use
requirements of FR wood products 1)

Intended use Fire performance Moisture resistance Weather durability

- Short term National / European - -
fire class
I Interior - - Moisture content <[30] % -
fluctuating -"- - No salt at surface and no
humidity exudation of liquid
Maintained fire
U Exterior -"- -"- performance after
- Accelerated ageing
or
- Natural weathering
1) To be fulfilled at the same or higher retention levels of chemicals as for the fire performance .

A new Nordic labelling system has also been developed with symbols for the different service classes.

Draft labels for the Nordic service classes

I - Interior ('Inomhus' in Norwegian/Swedish)
U - Exterior ('Utomhus' in Norwegian/Swedish)

The new system has been developed upon Nordic initiatives from industry and research. It consists of
both a control system for the durability properties of FR wood and experience of suitable test
procedures. The system is based on existing systems in the UK and USA, see Table 2.

A Nordic project (NICe 04150) to agree and approve a standard for the service classification system is
underway during 2005 [10]. It might result in some changes in terminology, requirements and labelling.

The service class system offers possibilities to introduce a quality mark for fire retardant wood products
in addition to the basic fire properties. It has the potential of increasing the reliability of the products
among different actors on the market.
 7 (47)

Table 2. Types of FRT wood based on durability at humid and exterior conditions.
Intended UK types US types
application
Interior Type A Type B
- low RH Based on simple inorganic salts. If no specific need for the use of material of low
Prolonged exposure at high RH results hygroscopicity, the requirement is < 28%
in salt efflorescence and/or migration. moisture content at 78% RH.
Restricted to use in interior (Type B was removed in 1996 for lack of use)
environments at < 75 % RH.
Interior - Type B Type A - Low Temperature (LT)
- high RH Humidity resistant type based on semi- If specific need for use of materials of low
complex systems, far less sensitive to hygroscopicity, the requirement is < 28%
high or fluctuating relative humidities moisture content at 90 % RH and 27oC (ASTM
due to the lower solubility in water of D 3201)
the chemicals and a degree of chemical Type A - High Temperature (HT)
interaction. Can be used in practically If used in high temperature applications such as
all interior situations and in certain roof trusses and framing the strength shall be
weather protected exterior situations. tested (e.g. by ASTM D 5664) in addition to the
requirements for type LT.
Exterior Type C Exterior
Leach resistant type often based on If used outdoors subject to rainfall, material shall
polymeric resin systems, can be used in show no increase in fire hazard classification
all interior and exterior situations. Full after subjection to standard rain test (ASTM D
exterior exposure may lead to reduced 2898-Method A or B). Special rules for roof
effectiveness but at a much slower rate shingles (ICBO 1997, UBC 1997).
than with other types of FR treatment.

Natural field exposure (followed by fire testing) is one

way to provide evidence of the durability of the fire
retardant treatment at exterior conditions (= service
class U).
The picture shows natural field exposure of fire
retardant wood panels both vertical (90º) and at 45º
slope. The panels are painted in order to increase the
durability of the fire retardant treatment.

2.2.4. Control of other performance properties

Several other properties of FR wood products may be influenced and changed over time. Among them
corrosion, mould growth, paint or glue adhesion and mechanical strength are probably most important.

The corrosion on metallic fasteners in FR wood may be enhanced since the fire retardants often are
either acidic or alkaline, which both might cause corrosion on metals during the service life of the wood
product [11].
 8 (47)

Mould growth has been observed in several cases even at moderate relative humidities, but is seldom
reported in literature [12]. The growth has mainly been associated with some fire retardants containing
phosphorous and nitrogen and is in fact not surprising since both these substances are fertilisers and
nutrition for micro-organisms. However, it is important to differentiate between non-destructive surface
mould and true fungal decay of the wood material.

The adhesion to paint layers or glue lines may be influenced by the fire retardant treatments. This is
usually solved during the product development.

Mechanical strength of FR wood may be decreased [13, 14] and special test methods have been
developed in the USA [15, 16]. In Europe, FR wood is mainly used in applications where the
mechanical strength is not critical.

It is most essential to be able overcome the negative effects of some fire retardants on other wood
properties in order to increase the reliability and quality of fire retardant wood products.

2.3. Threats

High fire performance wood products in construction encounter two main problems related to
legislation. Firstly, the division of construction products to combustible and non-combustible materials
can prevail for a long time despite the fact that performance-based fire codes are becoming more
common. Secondly, new regulations will be set for fire retardants, because the stipulations for the trade
and use of chemicals are becoming stricter.

The trade of wood products with improved fire properties is to some extent vulnerable to fires in
buildings where such products have been used, even though the ignition of fire and the damages were
not directly related to wood. There are two reasons for this problem. Firstly, doubts are constantly
presented on the safety and usability of wood products. Satisfactory fire safety properties of wood
products are not considered possible because wood is known as a good fuel. Therefore, wood is not
regarded as a suitable construction material for many applications subject to fire safety regulations.
Secondly, the history has shown that inappropriate use of wooden structures and claddings can cause
severe fire safety risks. Even though properly used high fire performance wood products increase the
safety level against fires and in fire situations, problems can arise as results of inappropriate use and
low-quality products.

For the determination of properties other than fire performance, only a few methods and standards exist
for wood products with improved fire behaviour. The lack of generally approved European methods for
determining the product properties hinder the trade of high fire performance wood products. If such
methods are not developed, the growth of the area of business can be prevented or at least delayed.

The overall threat is that fire retardant wood will remain to be considered as an unreliable and non-high-
quality construction product.

3. Intended end-use applications

Wood with improved fire performance is used in several interior and exterior applications. The most
common applications are
- internal wall and ceiling linings,
- external claddings and facades,
- transportation (railway carriages, buses and maritime).
 9 (47)

Other uses are furnishing and decoration of public premises and restaurants, exhibition stands, museums,
TV and theatre scenery, wooden scaffolding for both offshore, onshore and in mining applications,
pallets for the chemical industry, and military use (e.g. packing cases).

In the USA fire retardant wood products are also used for structural purposes such as roof constructions.
These applications are not used in Europe and care should be taken, since the US experience shows risks
for degradation of the mechanical strength of the treated products, see Section 5.3.

Some practical examples of the use of fire-retarded wood products are presented below [17].

3.1. Wall and ceiling linings

Location: Lohja, Finland

Application: Interior panels on walls and ceilings
Architect: Juhani Vainio, City of Helsinki, Public
Work Department, Architectural Division
Constructor: NCC Puolimatka Oy
Regulatory achievement: Meets the requirements
of the Finnish building regulations E1 class 1/II
(ignitability/fire spread)
Type of wood: pine
Type of FR treatment: The panels have been
surface sprayed with BSM-Protex and BSM-2000
Outamo special school
fire retardants manufactured by Oy Interenergy
Ltd Presso Center and varnished with Natura
varnish manufactured by Teknos Winter Oy

Location: Helsinki, Finland

Application: Interior panels in the gymnastic hall
Architect: Rainer Virtanen and Jatta Ulin by the
architects office Olli Pekka Jokela Oy, Helsinki
Constructor: Skanska Etelä-Suomi Oy
FR treatment: Koralli-Tuote Oy, Kokkola
Regulatory achievement: Meets the requirements
of the Finnish building regulations E1 class 1/II
(ignitability/fire spread)
Type of wood: pine
Type of FR treatment: Surface impregnation
with BSM-2000 fire retardant manufactured by Oy
Interenergy Ltd Presso Center
Herttoniemenranta elementary school
 10 (47)

Location: Sudbury, Suffolk, UK

Application: Internal ceiling
FR treatment: Arch Timber Protection
Regulatory achievement: BS 476 Part 7 Class 1
surface spread of flame
Type of wood: European redwood
Type of FR treatment: Vacuum-pressure applied,
pre-treated, humidity/leach resistant type (NON-
COM EXTERIOR®)
Other information: Durability: life of timber;
Finish: DECOR microporous Woodstain by Arch
Kingfisher Leisure Centre Timber Protection

3.2. External claddings and façades

Location: Solna, Sweden

Application: Upper parts of the façade (painted
white)
Architect: Skanska
Regulatory achievement: Full scale fire façade
test SP FIRE 105, Swedish building code
Type of wood: spruce
Type of FR treatment: treated with Moelven
FireGuard IV, painted

Multi-storey dwelling

Location: Stieltjesweg 1, Zuidpolder, Delft, the

Netherlands
Application: Façade (height > 13 m)
Architect: Liag architecten, Den Haag
Regulatory achievement: Reaction to fire class 2,
NEN 6065
Type of wood: Western red cedar
Type of FR treatment: Impregnation with HCQ
40 manufactured by Flameguard Sales
Other information: The timber is painted with
stain. This is necessary for the durability of the
Office building fire treatment.
 11 (47)

Location: St. Helier, Jersey, Channel Islands, UK

Application: Façade (viewed as a roof)
Architect: Mason Design Partnership / Alsop and
Stormer
Main Contractor: Cameron Ltd
Client: Jersey Waterfront Enterprise Ltd
Timber Supply: Normans Timber Merchants
FR treatment: Arch Timber Protection
Regulatory achievement: BS 476 Part 3 AA
Rating to UK Building Regulations
La Frégate Café Type of wood: Western red cedar
Type of FR treatment: Vacuum pressure applied,
pre-treated, exterior, leach resistant type (NON-
COM EXTERIOR®)
Other information: Durability: lifetime of wood;
Finish: natural

4. Burning of wood

The reduction of ignitability and combustibility of wood products is based on chemical and physical
means that have an effect on different stages of ignition and burning, for example:
• heat induced changes of the internal structure of wood in molecular level;
• physical and chemical processes of compounds produced in these changes, both inside the wood
and in the gases formed above it;
• transfer of heat in a wood product;
• transfer of oxygen into reaction areas.

4.1. Ignition and combustion of wood

Many materials in our environment, including wood products, burn “indirectly”in the sense that the
materials do not actually burn, but combustion takes place as a reaction between oxygen and the gases
released from a material (an exception from this rule is the glowing combustion of charred wood where
oxygen reacts directly with carbon). Under the influence of heat, wood produces easily substances that
react eagerly with oxygen, leading to the high propensity of wood to ignite and burn.

Ignition and combustion of wood is mainly based on the pyrolysis (i.e. thermal decomposition) of
cellulose and the reactions of pyrolysis products with each other and with gases in the air, mainly
oxygen. When temperature increases, cellulose starts to pyrolyse. The decomposition products either
remain inside the material or are released as gases. Gaseous substances react with each other and
oxygen, releasing a large amount of heat that further induces pyrolysis and combustion reactions.
Pyrolysis and burning processes are illustrated in Figure 1.
 12 (47)

Figure 1. A schematic picture of pyrolysis and combustion of wood:

a) External heating increases the temperature of wood.
b) Pyrolysis starts and the chemical structure of wood is decomposed. Light pyrolysis products volatilize
from the surface.
c) Combustion starts. Pyrolysis products react with oxygen and produce more heat, causing a strongly
growing chain reaction.

Depending on environmental conditions (such as temperature, oxygen concentration, moisture, fire

retardants, pH etc.), the pyrolysis of wood can proceed mainly on two pathways presented in Figure 2a.
The tar forming pathway, taking place in a temperature of approximately 300 °C, is related to the
“normal”burning of wood. In this case, pyrolysis produces a lot of tar including levoglucosan that
decomposes easily into burning gases under the influence of heat (see Figure 2b). Thermal
decomposition can take place also through char forming pathway. In this process, cellulose is first
transformed to unstable, “active”cellulose that further decomposes so that reaction products are mainly
carbon dioxide and water, and the “backbone”of cellulose containing a lot of carbon (see Figure 2c).
 13 (47)

a)

flammable
”tar”
ca. 300 °C gases/ combustion
(levoglucosan)
endothermic vapours
exothermic strongly
exothermic
cellulose

exothermic - carbon, CO2,

ca. 200 °C H2O, CO
slightly
”active”
- free radicals
endothermic cellulose
- carbonyl
groups etc.

Figure 2. a) The two main reaction pathways of thermal decomposition of wood.

b) Splitting of cellulose molecules in the tar-forming reaction (normal combustion).
c) Splitting of cellulose molecules in the char-forming reaction.

The pyrolysis of wood is dependent on external factors, such as the way of heating, warming-up rate of
the material, etc. Therefore, wood products do not have an explicit ignition temperature, but ignition
takes place on a certain temperature range where the probability of ignition becomes large enough. The
temperature for the piloted ignition of wood is typically about 350 °C, whereas the spontaneous ignition
requires a temperature of approximately 600 °C.

4.2. Fire performance of wood

The reaction-to-fire properties, such as ignitability, heat release and flame spread, are most relevant for
fire retardant wood products. Charring as a fire resistance characteristic property may also be influenced
especially by surface protective layers.

4.2.1. Ignitability

In order that wood can ignite, its temperature must rise so high that pyrolysis takes place strongly
enough and the chemical reactions of combustion start. Therefore, the ignition of a wood product is
 14 (47)

dependent on the way of heating, that is, the thermal properties of the material, and the way of heat
attack on the material.

The factors affecting the ignition of wood are well known in general: wet wood is difficult to ignite, thin
pieces of wood ignite more easily than thick logs, and light wood species ignite quicker than heavy
species. External factors having an influence on ignition are the intensity of heat exposure and its form
of effect (e.g. the distance of flames from the surface).

The moisture content of wood has an effect on ignition mainly as a heat sink. Heating-up of the water
and especially its vaporization consume heat energy. In addition, moisture increases the thermal inertia
of the material.

The ignition of wood products with different thicknesses is dependent on their thermal thickness.
A thermally thin layer ignites more quickly than a thermally thick material. When a thermally thin
product is exposed to heat on one side, its opposite side heats up very close to the temperature of the
exposed side by the time to ignition. In the case of a thermally thick product, the opposite side does not
heat up but remains at the ambient temperature when the specimen ignites. The thermal thicknesses of
practical products fall between thermally thin and thick. As a rule of thumb, a wooden product is
thermally thin if its thickness is not more than a few millimetres, and thermally thick if its thickness is of
the order of 10 mm or more.

The dependence of the time to ignition tig on the internal properties of a material under radiative heat
exposure can be described as follows [18, 19]:

(Tig − T0 ) for a thermally thin product (1)

t ig = ρ c L0
′′
q& net
π (Tig − T0 ) 2 for a thermally thick product (2)
t ig = ρ c k
4 ′′ 2
q& net
where ρ, c and k are the density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of the material, respectively, L0
′′ is the
is the specimen thickness, Tig is the ignition temperature, T0 is the ambient temperature, and q& net
net heat flux to the specimen surface.

When the thermal thickness of the product is between thermally thin and thick, the exponent describing
′′ and the temperature difference Tig –T0 is between 1 and 2.
the effect of the net heat flux q& net

4.2.2. Heat release and fire spread

Heat released in combustion is the driving force of a fire: the larger the heat released by a burning object
is, the faster the fire spreads and the hotter the gases and limiting surfaces of the fire enclosure become.
Thus, one of the most essential quantities describing the burning of materials is the rate of heat release,
denoted with Q& and expressed in kW or MW.

In addition to the internal structure and properties of a material, the rate of heat release is strongly
dependent on external factors. Therefore, exact Q& values for different materials cannot be given. The
most important external factors having an effect on Q& are the net heat flux q& net
′′ to the surface and the
oxygen concentration of the ambient, described with the factor f (O2). The internal properties of a
material affecting on Q& are the heat of combustion ∆Hc, the heat of gasification Lv, and the specific heat
capacity C. The following equation shows the rate of heat release per unit area of a burning material:
 15 (47)

Q& ∆H c (3)
Q& ′′ = ′′ ⋅ f (O2 ) ⋅
= q& net
Aburn Lv + C (Tig − T0 )
where Tig is the ignition temperature and T0 is the ambient temperature. It is noted that, in addition to the
incoming heat flux on the surface, q& net′′ is also dependent on the heat losses from the surface.

The rate of heat release per unit area Q& ′′ can be measured for example using the cone calorimeter [20]
that describes burning in a well ventilated environment (the early stage of a fire). The results obtained
describe the heat release properties of materials, though they are to some extent dependent on the heat
exposure level used in the test, the properties of the exposed surface (in the case of wood, e.g. grains,
knots and tendency to crack), and the specimen thickness.

When wood burns, flames spread on its surface. Flame spread can be regarded as a sequence of
ignitions. Therefore, flame spread is governed by the same factors as ignition. The heat released by
a burning area has an effect on flame spread rate, directly by the flames and through the warming-up of
the fire enclosure. Thus, the factors governing the rate of heat release are essential also for the flame
spread.

4.2.3. Charring

When a wood product burns at a constant rate of heat release per unit area, the boundary between the
pyrolysed material and the intact wood, i.e. the pyrolysis front, proceeds to the wood in depth direction.
Since all pyrolysing wood can be considered to char, the charring rate β corresponds to the propagation
rate of the pyrolysis front. Charring rate is an essential quantity for the fire resistance of wooden
structures, because the wood under the char layer preserves its original properties.

′′ , and the
Important factors for the charring rate of wood are the density ρ, the external heat flux q& ext
moisture content w [21]. Charring rate decreases with increasing density according to the power law
β ∝ ρ -υ where υ is between 0.5 and 1 (υ = 0.5 results from studying only heat transfer and υ = 1
corresponds to a model covering only the conservation of mass). Charring rate increases linearly with
′′ . An approximate relationship between charring rate and moisture content
the external heat flux, β ∝ q& ext
is β ∝ (1 + 2.5w) −1 .

A typical value of the charring rate of wood is approximately 0,5 - 1 mm/min. Table 3 shows design
values of charring rate for various wood products as presented in the European design standards EN
1995-1-2 [22, 23].

Charring rate is not generally much influenced by fire retardants [24]. However, the char yield is usually
increased quite a lot, that might contribute to the protection of the wood core. Protective coatings may
generally be efficient in preventing ignition and charring of wood.
 16 (47)

Table 3. Design charring rates for wood products [22]. Symbols: ρk = characteristic density, d =
thickness, β0 = design charring rate for one-dimensional charring under standard fire exposure, βn =
design notional charring rate under standard fire exposure.
Product β0 (mm/min) βn (mm/min)
a) Softwood and beech
Glued laminated timber with ρk ≥ 290 kg/m3 0.65 0.7
Solid timber with ρk ≥ 290 kg/m 3 0.65 0.8
b) Hardwood
Solid or glued laminated hardwood with ρk = 290 kg/m3 0.65 0.7
Solid or glued laminated hardwood with ρk ≥ 450 kg/m 3 0.50 0.55
c) LVL
with ρk ≥ 480 kg/m3 0.65 0.7
d) Panels
Wood panelling *) 0.9 –
)
Plywood * 1.0 –
Wood-based panels other than plywood *) 0.9 –
* The values apply to ρk = 450 kg/m and d = 20 mm. For other densities ρk and thicknesses d,
) 3

charring rates can be calculated by multiplying β0 with correction factors 450 ρ k and 20 d .

4.2.4. Smoke production and toxicity

Smoke formed during a fire consists of small, mainly carbon containing particles that reduce the
visibility. High smoke production in the early phases of a fire is very harmful considering the fire safety
of buildings, because it endangers emergency egress through the reduction of visibility and the irritating
and incapacitating effects of smoke gases. Smoke production is dependent on the burning material, but
also external factors, such as fire type (flaming / smouldering) and oxygen supply, are important.

Compared to plastics, the smoke production of wood products is minor. In well ventilated conditions,
the smoke production of wood is typically about 25–100 m2/kg, whereas plastic products release
hundreds or thousands m2/kg of smoke.

A common assumption is that fire retardants increase the smoke production of wood. This may be the
case, since fire retardants may cause incomplete combustion, but a fire retardant can also reduce the
smoke production. The proverb “no smoke without fire”holds true: if a fire retardant treatment hinders
burning well enough, smoke production is also reduced.

The main products of combustion are carbon dioxide and water, but also other chemical compounds can
be released. If these compounds are toxic, they impede the egress of occupants from a burning building.
The main cause of intoxication in fires is carbon monoxide (CO). It is the dominating toxic combustion
product from burning wood. The formation of CO is strongly dependent on ventilation: well-ventilated
combustion produces considerably less CO (less than 10 g/ kg of burning material) than oxygen-
controlled burning where CO production is of the order of 100 g/kg of burning material. Also the
temperature is a significant factor, because it has a strong effect on the course of the chemical reactions
in combustion.

The production of toxic gases by wood products with improved fire performance is dependent on the
substances used as fire retardants. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor possible toxic combustion
products and keep their release well within acceptable limits.
 17 (47)

5. Improving fire performance of wood

5.1. Mechanisms of flame retardants for wood

The flame retardant techniques for wood aim at delaying the ignition of wood and reducing the heat
released during combustion [25]. These goals can be pursued for example the following ways:
• changing the pathway of pyrolysis;
• protecting the surface by isolating layers;
• slowing down ignition and burning by changing the thermal properties of the product;
• reducing combustion by diluting pyrolysis gases;
• reducing combustion by inhibiting the chain reactions of burning.

Many practical fire retardant systems combine different mechanisms. For instance, systems based on
protecting the surface with an isolating intumescent coating often include components that modify the
pyrolysis reaction.

Combinations of fire retardants with different mechanisms are often used in order to make the treatment
more efficient and to create synergisms.

Several overviews have been presented [26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Some new ideas have been published [31].

5.1.1. Changing the pyrolysis of wood

The most common and best known fire retardance methods for wood are based on changing the pathway
of pyrolysis. In this simple and inexpensive method, wood is treated with a substance that enhances the
pyrolysis reaction of cellulose through the pathway leading mainly to char formation (the lower pathway
in Figure 2a). Ideally, the reactions would proceed so that cellulose decomposes to char and water:
(C6H10O5) n → n (6 C + 5 H2O). In practice, fire retardants based on this principle reduce the amount of
burning pyrolysis products and thus decrease the heat released by the product. Substances used for
changing the pyrolysis of wood are introduced in Table 4.

Substances influencing on pyrolysis often react with the hydroxyl group attached to the sixth carbon
atom of cellulose molecule, leading eventually to the stabilization of the structure through the formation
of a double bond between the fifth and sixth carbon atom. Reactions take place through either
dehydration or esterification as shown in Table 5. The fire retardant acts as a catalyst in the reactions.
Substances are usually added as, for example, ammonia salts decomposing in heat and producing
phosphoric or boric acid.

A fire retardant may also slow down pyrolysis reactions and stabilize the chemical structures of wood
against decomposition. For instance, aluminium sulphate added to wood creates bonds between cellulose
molecules in increased temperatures, thus preventing thermal decomposition.

Some of the fire retardants changing the pyrolysis are also active against after-glowing, e.g. several
phosphorous products and boric acid. Others do not prevent after-glowing, or may even increase it, e.g.
boric salts.
 18 (47)

Table 4. Examples of substances used for changing the pyrolysis of wood.

Phosphorous compounds
H3PO4 (ortho)phosphorous acid
(NH4)2 HPO4 (di)ammonium (hydrogen) phosphate (MAP)
(NH4) H2PO4 (mono)ammonium (dihydrogen) phosphate (DAP)
Nx (P2O5 )y Hz ammonium polyphosphates (APP)
NH4 - O - (NH4 PO3 )n - NH4 poly (ammonium polyphosphate) (PAP)
NH
+ -
NH2CNH3 H2PO4 guanidine phosphate
O NH
+ -
NH2CNHCNH3 H2PO4 guanylurea phosphate
N
H2 N + -
NH3 H2 PO4
N N
melamine (mono)phosphate
NH2
O
RO-P-OR phosphonates
R

Boron compounds
H3BO3 boric acid
HBO2 metaboric acid
B2O3 boroxide
Na2B4O7 X H2O sodium tetraborate X- hydrate
Na2O 2B2O3 10H2O borax
combinations:
Na2B4O7 + H3BO3 sodium borate + boric acid
Na2O 2B2O3 10H2O + H3BO3 borax + boric acid

Combinations aiming at e.g. reduction of washout

guanylurea phosphate + boric acid (weight ratio 70:30) (Trade name: Dricon)
urea + dicyandiamide + formaldehyde + phosphoric acid (UDP)
melamine + dicyandiamide + formaldehyde + phosphoric acid (MDP)

20 % DAP + 20 % MgSO4 ⇒ insoluble MgNH4PO4

Table 5. Chemical mechanisms of fire retardants [32].

Reaction 1 (dehydration) Reaction 2 (esterification)

R2 –CH –(CH2 –OH) + H+ → R2 –CH –(CH2 –OH) + H3PO4 →

R2 –CH –(CH2 –OH2+) → R2 –CH –(CH2 –O –PO(OH)2) + H2O →
R2 –CH –(CH2+) + H2O → R2 –C = (CH2) + H3PO4 + H2O
R2 –C = (CH2) + H+ + H2O
 19 (47)

5.1.2. Protecting the surface of wood with isolating layers

The surface of a material can be protected with a layer that delays the temperature rise and reduces the
evaporation of pyrolysis gases and the access of oxygen on the surface. These effects can be
accomplished using intumescent coatings, i.e. substances that expand strongly when temperature
increases. A porous, carbon-rich layer is formed on the surface of wood. This layer is a good thermal
insulator and does not burn. Intumescent coatings are usually very effective in inhibiting combustion.
Their drawbacks, however, are costs and a tendency to cover the appearance of wood. Most of them are
also lacking mechanical properties both initially and especially after fire exposure.

The chemicals used in intumescent fire retardants can be divided to three groups on the basis of their
way of action: substances 1) forming char, 2) enhancing intumescence, and 3) enhancing dehydration
and esterification. The last-mentioned substances are usually the same as those affecting pyrolysis, that
is, phosphates and boron compounds (see Table 4 and Table 5). Substances enhancing intumescence
include dicyandiamide, melamine, guanidine and urea. In addition to their intumescence property, it is
required that these substances produce incombustible combustion products (e.g. CO2, H2O and NH3).
Substances forming char are typically carbon hydrates (e.g. sucrose or starch) or polyhydric alcohols.
The application of isolating layers is limited to indoor end uses.

5.1.3. Changing the thermal properties of wood

The thermal properties of a product, such as density, specific heat and thermal conductivity, have an
effect on the ignitability and flame spread.

The easiest way to make wood poorly burnable is to wet it. This means has two physical effects. Firstly,
water changes the effective specific heat of wood. Water has a higher specific heat than dry wood, and
heating up and evaporating water consumes heat. Secondly, water evaporating from a surface reduces
the combustibility of the mixture of air and pyrolysis gases.

Technical solutions in fire retardance of wood are based on adding components with a high thermal
inertia and diffusivity to a product. The warming-up of the product is thus delayed: the rate of
temperature increase is slower and heat is conducted away from the surface. The most commonly used
components are metal layers. Their main drawback is the large amount of metal needed for sufficient
effects. As a result, the machineability of the product is deteriorated, and its weight and price are
increased.

A Japanese research suggests that the warming-up of a wooden specimen can be slowed down even by
combining wood layers of different kinds [33]. The conclusion is based on a computational study for
wooden specimens made of springwood and summerwood with varying grain orientation. The thermal
conductivity k of summerwood (k = 1.0 W/(mK)) was assumed to be tenfold compared to springwood
(k = 0.11 W/(mK)), whereas their density and specific heat were assumed to be the same (540 kg/m3 and
1370 J/(kgK), respectively). In practice, such a high thermal conductivity requires very high moisture of
wood. The radiative heat exposure was assumed to be 5 kW/m2. Under this condition, wood does not
ignite and different thermal properties cause clear differences in the warming-up of the surface. Due to
the assumptions made on the material properties and exposure conditions, these results should be
considered very critically. Examples of computational surface temperatures are presented in Figure 3.
Even if the analysis is not relevant for the conditions at fire exposures, the same principles may be
applied.
 20 (47)

a)

b)

Figure 3. Results from a Japanese study of the thermal properties of wood on warming-up of its surface:
a) the studied composites, and b) calculated surface temperatures for composites B and C, and a fir
specimen with the surface across the layers [33].

5.1.4. Reducing combustion by diluting pyrolysis gases

The combustion gases evolved during pyrolysis may be diluted by gases released from fire retardants.
One example is a fire retardant as e g aluminium hydroxides releasing water vapour at temperatures just
below the thermal degradation temperature. Another example is a fire retardant releasing carbon dioxide
or another non-combustible gas.

5.1.5. Reducing combustion by inhibiting the chain reactions of burning

Some fire retardants are active by inhibiting reactions in the gas phase as radical scavengers. Halogenes
are the best-known example of such chemicals and used quite a lot in the plastics industry. They may
retard also the gas phase combustion of wood products, but are not active in the solid phase and not
preventing after-glowing. However, they should be avoided for wood products, mainly due to
environmental aspects.

5.2. Practical techniques for fire retardance of wood

Fire retardant treatments of wood can be divided to three classes: 1) impregnation of wood with a fire
retardant using vacuum and overpressure, 2) addition of a fire retardant as a surface treatment, and
3) addition of a fire retardant to a product during its manufacturing process. In addition, some novel
methods outside the above-mentioned classes are covered in this chapter.
 21 (47)

5.2.1. Pressure impregnation

For pressure impregnation of wood with fire retardants, pressure treatment equipment enduring both
overpressure and vacuum are needed. The size of industrial equipment is very variable, ranging from
a few to several dozen of cubic metres.

Pressure impregnation is most often used for fire retardant treatments of timber, but it can be adapted
also to wooden boards. In the fire retardant treatment of plywood, for example, pressure impregnation
has been applied in two different ways: by impregnating the veneers (especially the surface veneer)
separately before gluing or by impregnating the pressed plywood product in one piece.

The impregnation process can be divided to the following phases:

− Vacuum for removing air from the cells of wood.
− Insertion of the fire retardant to the impregnating chamber (in low pressure).
− Overpressure phase during which the fire retardant is forced into the wood.
− Removal of the fire retardant from the impregnating chamber (after removing the overpressure).
− End vacuum reducing the egress of the fire retardant from wood.

Fire retarded wood is usually desiccated after impregnation because many fire retardants are
hygroscopic and delay the drying of wood. Drying must be controlled to avoid deformation.

Wood species that are difficult to impregnate can be pre-treated to improve the penetration of the fire
retardant. Possible pre-treatments include the mechanical incision or perforation, and for some species
also pre-steaming.

The durability of a pressure impregnation treatment is mostly dependent on the properties of the fire
retardant used. Also the details of the impregnation process have an influence on the durability. On the
basis of the chemicals used, pressure impregnated fire retarded wood products can be divided to three
types. The division is based on the end-use conditions of the products, see 2.2.3.

Pressure impregnation is considered as the most reliable way of treating wood products. The challenge
for fire retardant pressure impregnation is to find suitable chemicals to use with good durability and
minimum negative influence on other wood properties. New innovations may include new chemicals or
combinations. Pressure impregnation is a general technology used also for wood modification, see
5.2.4.3.

5.2.2. Surface treatments

The main practical difference between pressure impregnation and surface treatment in fire retardant
treatments of wood is the depth of penetration of the fire retardant. In pressure impregnated pine, for
example, the whole sapwood is usually thoroughly impregnated. The penetration depths in surface
treatments are usually of the order of 1 mm or less.

Since ignition and burning are surface processes, surface treatments may prevent ignition and burning
just as well as treatments penetrating deeper into the wood. In terms of long-term durability, pressure
impregnation is usually a better option than a surface treatment. In certain applications, however, fire
retardant treatment with pressure impregnation is impractical, expensive or impossible. Examples of
such applications are ready-made or previously constructed objects (walls, doors etc.) and temporary
construction. In these cases, fire retardant treatment as a surface treatment can be an appropriate
solution.
 22 (47)

Fire retardants for surface treatments can be divided to two groups according to their operation:
intumescent and non-intumescent coatings. Intumescent coatings are usually varnishes or paints. They
form a clearly visible surface on the product. Non-intumescent coatings are substances similar to those
used in pressure impregnation. They do not form a film or distinctly change the appearance of a wooden
surface.

5.2.2.1. Intumescent varnishes and paints

Intumescent varnishes and paints are used both to improve the reaction-to-fire performance of surface
linings and increase the fire resistance of constructions, especially for steel constructions.

When exposed to high temperatures, intumescent coatings swell and form a heat resistant and insulating
cover on the surface of a product. The cover protects wood from flames and heat, and prevents the
access of oxygen on the surface.

In principle, intumescent coatings are used in the same way as ordinary varnishes and paints. To obtain
adequate fire performance, however, a relatively thick surface layer is usually needed. A typical coating
consumption is of the order of 500 g/m2, corresponding to a thickness of a few hundreds of micrometers.

Intumescent coatings, both varnishes and paints, are strongly hygroscopic. This feature makes the coated
surfaces very sensitive to humidity. A special top coat has to be used, but the coated product is still to be
used only indoors.

Increasing the fire resistance time of wooden constructions is one of the most common applications of
intumescent coatings. The advantage of this protection method compared to e.g. gypsum plasterboards is
that the grain of wood remains visible which is often desirable for architectural reasons. Intumescent
coatings in fire resistance applications have also some drawbacks, for example their sensitivity to
humidity and expensiveness compared to gypsum plasterboard. Furthermore, the cover formed as a
result of swelling is often fragile. Therefore, it can easily break and drop away, leaving the wooden
surface unprotected. However, for fire resistance purposes, the benefits and costs for coatings should be
compared to slightly thicker dimensions of the original wood product. They may be worthwhile to use if
high reaction-to-fire performance is required.

5.2.2.2. Non-intumescent coatings

Non-intumescent surface coatings have an effect on pyrolysis mainly through chemical means. Due to
their slight swelling ability, however, these substances work partly through the physical phenomena
described above.

In order to perform an efficient fire retardant surface treatment for wood, it is important to use chemicals
specifically designed for surface treatments. A surface treatment using chemicals intended for pressure
impregnation is usually not successful. In the worst case, a surface treatment with a fire retardant of
a wrong type can even increase the ignitability and heat release of a wood product.

Transparent surface treatments of wood using fire retardants are not very common. The main reason for
this is that achieving a sufficient improvement of fire properties is not straightforward using only a
surface treatment. However, efficient fire retardants for surface treatment of wood are available on the
market.
 23 (47)

5.2.3. Addition of a fire retardant during manufacturing process

The fire retardant treatment of wood products manufactured by pressing is easy to implement by adding
the fire retardant to raw materials before the pressing phase. The most common example of such
products is fire retarded particle board.

The amount of fire retardant added to raw materials is easy to control in order to achieve desired fire
properties, and the treatment is homogeneous. Thus, the fire performance of e.g. fire retarded particle
board can be made high enough for demanding applications. When the fire retardant treatment is
integrated to the manufacture of a product, it is relatively easy to tailor the properties of the fire retardant
suitable for a specific product.

The drawback of this kind of fire retardant treatments of e.g. particle board is that the properties other
than fire performance usually decline when the amount of fire retardant increases. The mechanical
strength and surface properties of wooden boards with improved fire performance can therefore be
inferior to those of non-fire retarded boards.

5.2.4. Other fire retardant treatment methods

5.2.4.1. Nanocomposite systems

Fire performance of plastics can be improved by using nanocomposites made of layered silicates and
organic polymers. The most often used silicate is the clay montmorillonite, but other clays as well as
natural and manmade micas are also used. The mechanism of fire retardancy of nanocomposites is
generally considered to be due to the structure of the char formed during combustion, which enables the
char to thermally insulate the polymer and inhibit the formation and escape of volatiles [34].

Nanocomposite fire retardant treatments might be adapted also to wood products. However, few results
have been published so far. A major problem in the application of nanocomposite technique on the fire
retardance of wood is related to the general principle of nanocomposite fire retardants. In the case of
plastics, the most efficient nanocomposite fire retardants have intercalated structure; that is, the
nanocomposite consists of either a single monomer or extended polymers sandwiched between the host
silicate layers. This results in a well ordered multi-layered structure comprising alternating silicate and
polymer layers [34]. This kind of structure can easily be created when plastics and clay are combined in
an appropriate process. In the case of wood, however, generating intercalated structure for cellulose
molecules and clay in nanometre scale is more difficult.

5.2.4.2. Boron gas treatment

Boron compounds are known as effective wood protective liquids and fire retardants. The most common
way of treatment is the pressure impregnation of timber using water-based boron compounds. An
adequate amount of boric acid against decay fungi is typically ca. 2–4 kg/m3, but for an effective fire
retardant treatment at least 30–40 kg/m3 of the active component is needed.

An alternative method to pressure impregnation is a treatment based on gaseous boron compounds. The
source compound is trimethylborate (TMB) that is in liquid state at room temperature. Due to its low
boiling point (68.7 °C) TMB is easily evaporated in an elevated temperature and low pressure. The
compound reacts with the water molecules of wood forming boric acid and methanol as a side product.
One of the benefits of this patented method is the good penetration of boron gas also to wood species
that are difficult to impregnate.
 24 (47)

The suitability of the method for fire retardant treatments has not been studied. The treatments have
aimed to obtain an adequate amount of boric acid and good penetration to wood for rot-prevention. This
goal is best achieved when the moisture content of wood is less than 10 %. With larger moisture
contents the penetration of boron gas is crucially deteriorated.

5.2.4.3. Modification of wood

Wood can be modified either chemically of physically. An example of physical modification is

compression of wood. It increases the specific weight and surface hardness of wood, but does not
usually change significantly the fire properties of wood. An exception is very high surface density that
delays the time to ignition. Thermal modification changes the chemical composition of wood to some
degree, resulting in reduction of moisture deformation, decrease of equilibrium moisture content, and
improved rot resistance. Heat treatments do not improve the fire performance of wood.

In chemical modification of wood, functional groups can be covalently bonded to the OH groups of
hemicellulose and lignin. The resulting changes of properties include reduction of moisture deformation,
decrease of equilibrium moisture content, and improved rot resistance. The drawback is the weakening
of the mechanical strength or at least the embrittlement of wood. Since the functional groups bonded to
OH groups are mainly organic, these treatments usually have no importance in fire retardance of wood.
A possible exception might be ureamelamine resin that forms bonds to the cell wall of wood. Melamine
compounds are known to have fire retarding properties.

5.2.4.3.1. A chemoenzymatic method for modifying cellulose materials

A novel method for the modification of cellulose-based materials based upon the high natural affinity of
the plant polysaccharide xyloglucan for crystalline cellulose [35] has been developed at the Laboratory
of Wood Biotechnology at KTH Biotechnology. The method is generally applicable to a wide range of
cellulose materials from regenerated cellulose to cotton fibers and chemical and mechanical wood pulps.
This implies that the scope of the method may be further broadened to include the attachment of
functional groups, including those with fire retardant properties, to wood materials such as lumber,
chips, and sawdust.

Xyloglucan forms part of the dynamic network which comprises the cell wall of a wide range of plants.
In this structure, xyloglucan coats and crosslinks cellulose microfibers through numerous hydrogen-
bonding interactions as shown in Figure 4 [36]. In essence, xyloglucan has evolved to tightly bind
cellulose (thus giving rise to a strong, yet flexible composite structure). This interaction is exploited for
cellulose modification.

Figure 5 outlines the general chemo-enzymatic method for tailoring fiber surface chemistry. A modified
xyloglucan oligosaccharide bearing a desired functional group (in this case, XGO-FITC) is incorporated
into high mass (Mr) xyloglucan polysaccharide (XG) through the catalytic action of the enzyme xylo-
glucan endotransglycosylase (XET) (Figure 5A). The average length of the modified xyloglucan (XG-
FITC) is conveniently controlled by adjusting the parameters of the enzyme reaction (Figure 5B), which
can be used to alter the surface density of the functional group. The yellow color of the chromophore
fluorescein (from XG-FITC) provides clear evidence of adsorption (Figure 5C). The gentle binding
conditions employed (aqueous solution, room temperature, pH < 12) preserve cellulose-cellulose chain
interactions, fiber-fiber interactions and, ultimately, material strength properties.
 25 (47)

Figure 4. Representation of the cellulose-xyloglucan network in the primary plant cell wall [36].

XGO-FITC
A.
bind
XET

XG
XG-FITC

B. C.

sample control

Figure 5. Xyloglucan-based method for cellulose modification. A. The general method, using xylo-
glucan (XG), derivatised xyloglucan oligosaccharides (XGO-FITC), and XET enzyme. XGOs are
convenient, well-defined starting materials for chemical modification. B. Size exclusion chromatogram
demonstrating the enzyme-catalyzed incorporation of XGO-FITC into XG and time-dependent decrease
in XG chain length. C. XG-FITC adsorbed on filter paper; the control sample shows that XGO-FITC is
too short to bind to cellulose, and it is therefore removed by washing with water.

The method has a broad scope and has been used to introduce a range of functional groups to cellulose
[35]. Extension to solid wood materials (e.g., lumber, chips and sawdust) could bring about novel
prospects for fire-retarded wood products. In particular, it has recently been shown that this method can
be used to anchor polymers directly to cellulose surfaces using a “grafting from”technique, which may
allow radical alteration of wood surface properties, e.g. by generating nanocomposites [37].

The extension of this method to include solid wood materials (e.g., lumber, chips and sawdust) could
bring about novel prospects to fire retarded wood products.
 26 (47)

5.3 Conclusions on fire retardants for wood

It is relatively easy to obtain an improved fire performance of wood products. Most existing fire
retardants are effective in reducing different reaction-to-fire parameters of wood such as ignitability,
heat release and flame spread. The highest European and national fire classifications for combustible
products can be reached. However, high retention levels are needed compared to ordinary preservation
treatments used to protect wood against biological decay. However, fire retardants cannot make wood
non-combustible.

Fire retardant treatments for wood can be categorised in several different ways
1. Mechanisms of action to reduce combustion
2. Types of active chemicals
3. Ways to add to wood products
4. End use applications and requirements
5. Choice of fire retardants in relation to product and process demands

Mechanisms of action to reduce combustion include

• promotion of char formation,
• conversion of volatile gases to inert gases such as water vapour and carbon dioxide,
• dilution of pyrolysis gases,
• inhibiting chain reactions of burning in the gas phase,
• protecting the surface by an insulating / intumescent layer.

Types of active chemicals include

• water soluble chemicals,
• chemicals with low solubility in water,
• chemicals that bind or otherwise adhere to wood / cellulose.
The chemicals are often based on phosphorus, nitrogen, boron and silica. Combinations may be
synergistic. Traditional examples of active chemicals are ammonium phosphates, ammonium sulphate,
borax/boric acid and melamine phosphate. New more permanent treatments are needed.

Ways to add fire retardants to wood products include

• pressure impregnation of solid wood or wood-based panels,
• incorporation during manufacture of wood-based panels,
• application, as paints or surface coatings, after installation of wood based products.

End use applications and requirements are mainly for

• short term use,
• interior use in buildings,
• exterior use in buildings.
New systems for documentation of the durability of the improved fire performance in different end uses
are underway.

Choice of fire retardants in relation to product and process demands depend on several factors. Potential
service life problems have to be eliminated. Important factors to consider are
• type of wood based substrate,
• regulatory requirement to be satisfied,
• new build or maintenance/upgrade,
• service life conditions/environment,
• installation conditions,
 27 (47)

• maintenance requirements,
• effects, if any, on appearance or other natural or inherent properties of the substrate.

Fire retardants, if correctly applied, provide added value to wood products and extend the market
potential of the world's most natural building material.

5.4. Structural properties

It has been observed in the USA that FR wood (mainly but not exclusively plywood) used as roof
sheathing has lost its mechanical strength during service conditions. Several incidents have occurred.
Extensive studies have been performed and the main phenomena seem to have been explained [13, 14].
High temperatures in roof structures have initiated a decay process in the wood caused by some types of
fire retardants. New ASTM standards to predict the behaviour have been developed [15, 16]. However,
the mechanical strength is important only for few applications of FR wood products. In most cases other
properties, e.g. durability against weathering, are far more essential.

5.5. Suggestions for further research

5.5.1. Chemical modification

Different chemicals should be utilised and chosen among those with a superior performance together
with other types of products, e.g. natural and synthetic polymers. Some completely new ideas should
also be explored. Some examples are:

• Durable phosphorus based systems in combination with resin systems,

• Silicon based chemicals,
• Furfuryl alcohol as a binder for FR chemicals.

Different low-molecular weight compounds may be selected and analysed for possible reaction with
functional groups of cellulose and possibility to form copolymers. The most promising ones should be
incorporated in depth in wood and subjected to conditions of increased temperature or catalysis to react
with the functional groups of cellulose. The chemicals should mainly be applied to solid wood by
vacuum pressure impregnation cycles. In a first phase, fire impregnated products should be
manufactured in laboratories and different retention levels and time-pressure cycles studied. Later,
successful products should be checked by pilot manufacture trials in industrial scale.

5.5.2. Physical modification

The physical modifications to be studied in the project can include, for instance, combinations of
different wood species, methods for higher surface densities, and composites.

If the top layer of a wood product consists of a specific species of wood with a relatively low heat
release, the heat release peak is smaller, offering possibilities to improve the reaction-to-fire class of the
product. Alternatively, FR treated lamellas can be included in wood products as surface layers. Using
this method, the consumption of fire retardant is reduced compared to wood products that are FR treated
as a whole.

Ignition can be delayed by introducing a high-density surface layer on a wood product. High pressure
laminate, for example, might be used for this purpose.

Composite structures offer a wide variety of different solutions for high fire performance wood products.
A thin layer of wood on the surface of a composite product can be used to give a wood-like appearance
 28 (47)

to a product consisting of other materials [38]. If a product made mainly of wood is desired, a protective
layer of non-combustible material can be introduced between a thin wooden surface and a thick solid
wood substrate.

A limited study on the effects of different melamine resin coatings on plywood have been performed at
VTT. The resin was impregnated either directly into the plywood surface or into a separate ply that was
glued on the surface of the plywood. The treatments delayed the ignition of plywood, but had a minor
effect on its heat release. However, the method might be worth further studies with e.g. different surface
layers.

5.5.3. Nanocomposites

Fire performance of plastics can be improved by using nanocomposites made of layered silicates and
organic polymers. The mechanism of fire retardancy of nanocomposites is generally considered to be
due to the structure of the char formed during combustion, which enables the char to thermally insulate
the polymer and inhibit the formation and escape of volatiles. Nanocomposite FR treatments might be
adapted also to wood products.

5.5.4. Chemoenzymatic modification

Broadening the chemoenzymatic modification method of cellulose materials described in Chapter

5.2.4.3.1 to include the attachment of functional groups to solid wood materials offers new possibilities
for fire retardant treatments of wood products.

The possible extension of the method to include solid wood materials (e.g. lumber, chips and sawdust)
can be studied in the following phases:
− selection of suitable reporter groups useful for light and/or electron microscopy analysis, such as
FITC and biotin,
− production of the corresponding modified xyloglucans (XGO-FITC, XGO-biotin),
− preliminary surface binding studies,
− development of suitable conditions for the pressure treatment of wood materials with modified
xyloglucans,
− microscopy analysis of pressure treated samples to determine the distribution of modified
xyloglucans throughout the material,
− development of strategies to incorporate fire retardant treated materials.

6. European fire classification system

Many of the member countries of the European Union (EU) have adopted the harmonized Euroclass
system of reaction to fire performance of building products. The background of the harmonization
process lies on the Commission Decision 94/611/EC implementing Article 20 of Directive 89/106/EEC
on construction products [39] in the field of fire safety. The Euroclass decision includes a classification
system for building products based on their reaction-to-fire performance. It additionally defines the test
methods according to which construction products shall be categorised. In the Euroclass system, floor
coverings and other surface linings are considered separately.

The purpose of harmonization is to facilitate the trade of building products between the member
countries of the EU by removing trade barriers due to differences in test methods and classification
systems. Previously, products had to be tested and classified according to national standards in each
country in which they were launched to the market. In the new system, the Euroclass classification of
 29 (47)

a product is acknowledged in all member countries based on its performance in the harmonized fire
tests.

The decision on the classification of the reaction to fire performance of construction products [40] was
published in February 2000. The Euroclass system requires including the test methods and
classifications of the Euroclass decision in the legislation of the member countries. The required fire
performance for various purposes of use of construction products are still decided nationally, but the
requirements are expressed in terms of harmonized standards.

6.1. Test methods

The European classes of reaction to fire performance for construction products excluding floorings are
based on four fire test methods: the non-combustibility test EN ISO 1182 [41], the gross calorific
potential test EN ISO 1716 [42], the single burning item (SBI) test EN 13823 [43], and the ignitability
test EN ISO 11925-2 [44]. The same test methods, excluding the SBI test, are used for floorings with the
addition of the radiant panel test EN ISO 9239-1 [45]. The details of specimen conditioning and
substrate selection are given in EN 13238 [46], and the harmonized procedure for the classification is
described in EN 13501-1 [47].

The first two test methods below are only applicable for non-combustible materials. Fire retardant wood
products cannot reach these criteria.

6.1.1. Non-combustibility test EN ISO 1182

The purpose of the non-combustibility test EN ISO 1182 is to identify the products that will not, or
significantly not, contribute to a fire. The test apparatus is shown in Figure 6a. A test specimen of
cylindrical shape is inserted into a vertical tube furnace with a temperature of about 750 °C.
Temperature changes due to the possible burning of the specimen are monitored with thermocouples.
The flaming time of the specimen is visually observed. After the test, the mass loss of the specimen is
determined.

The quantities used in the European classification are the temperature rise of the furnace (∆T), the mass
loss of the specimen (∆m), and the time of sustained flaming of the specimen (tf).

6.1.2. Gross calorific potential test EN ISO 1716

The gross calorific potential test EN ISO 1716 determines the potential maximum total heat release of
a product when burned completely. The test apparatus is shown in Figure 6b. A powdery test specimen
is ignited in pressurized oxygen atmosphere inside a closed steel cylinder (calorimetric bomb)
surrounded by water jacket. The temperature rise of water during burning is measured. The gross
calorific potential is calculated on the basis of the temperature rise, specimen mass, and correction
factors related to the specific test arrangement used.

The classification parameter of the method is the gross calorific potential (PCS) measured in MJ/kg or
MJ/m2 depending on the features of the product and its components.

6.1.3. Single Burning Item test EN 13823

The SBI test is a relatively new fire test method developed specially for the Euroclass system. The test is
based on a fire scenario of a single burning item, e.g. a wastebasket, located in a corner between two
walls covered with the lining material to be tested. The SBI test is used for construction products
excluding floorings.
 30 (47)

The SBI test was developed by a group of European fire laboratories on the basis of the specifications
defined by a group of European fire regulators. The development work included the design of
a prototype, the installation of test facilities, the determination of the accuracy of the method, and the
production of data needed to finalise the classification system [48].

SBI test specimens are installed on a specimen holder with two vertical wings made of non-combustible
board. The specimen holder wings of sizes 1,0 m × 1,5 m and 0,5 m × 1,5 m form a right-angled corner
configuration. The thermal exposure on the surface of the specimen is produced by a right-angled
triangle-shaped propane gas burner placed at the bottom corner formed by the specimen wings. The heat
output of the burner is 30 kW resulting in a maximum heat exposure of about 40 kW/m2 on an area of
approximately 300 cm2. The burner simulates a single burning item. Combustion gases generated during
a test are collected by a hood and drawn to an exhaust duct equipped with sensors to measure the
temperature, light attenuation, O2 and CO2 mole fractions and flow-induced pressure difference in the
duct. The test apparatus is shown schematically in Figure 6c, and a photograph of a test in Figure 6d.

The performance of the specimen is evaluated for an exposure period of 20 minutes. During the test, the
heat release rate (HRR) is measured by using oxygen consumption calorimetry. The smoke production
rate (SPR) is measured in the exhaust duct based on the attenuation of light. Falling of flaming droplets
or particles is visually observed during the first 600 seconds of the heat exposure on the specimen. In
addition, lateral flame spread is observed to determine whether the flame front reaches the outer edge of
the larger specimen wing at any height between 500 and 1000 mm during the test.

The classification parameters of the SBI test are fire growth rate index (FIGRA), lateral flame spread
(LFS), and total heat release (THR600s). Additional classification parameters are defined for smoke
production as smoke growth rate index (SMOGRA) and total smoke production (TSP600s), and for
flaming droplets and particles according to their occurrence during the first 600 seconds of the test.

The FIGRA and SMOGRA indices are calculated as follows:

 HRRav (t )  (4)
FIGRA = 1000 ⋅ max  
 t 
 SPRav (t )  (5)
SMOGRA = 10000 ⋅ max  
 t 

where HRRav is the heat release rate averaged over 30 seconds (in kW), SPRav is the smoke production
rate averaged over 60 seconds (in m2/s), and t is the time elapsed after the beginning of the test (in s), i.e.
the ignition of the burner. The units of FIGRA and SMOGRA are W/s and m2/s2, respectively. Constant
coefficients are added to the definition of the parameters to obtain convenient ranges of numbers.
Different heat release related threshold values for the FIGRA calculation are used in different classes to
obtain FIGRA0,2MJ and FIGRA0,4MJ values. Also SMOGRA calculation includes certain smoke production
related threshold values, common to all smoke production classes.

The THR600s and TSP600s values are calculated over the first 600 seconds of the test as follows:

1 600 s (6)
THR600 s = ⋅ ∑ HRR(t ) ⋅ ∆t
1000 0 s
 31 (47)

600 s (7)
TSP600 s = ∑ SPR (t ) ⋅ ∆t
0s

where HRR(t) and SPR(t) are the heat release rate and smoke production rate as functions of time (in kW
and m2/s, respectively), and ∆t is the data acquisition interval of the measurement (in s). The units of
THR600s and TSP600s are MJ and m2, respectively.

6.1.4. Ignitability test EN ISO 11925-2

In the ignitability test EN ISO 11925-2, the specimen is subjected to direct impingement of a small
flame. The test specimen of size 250 mm × 90 mm is attached vertically on a U-shaped specimen holder.
A propane gas flame with a height of 20 mm is brought into contact with the specimen at an angle of
45°. The application point is either 40 mm above the bottom edge of the surface centreline (surface
exposure) or at the centre of the width of the bottom edge (edge exposure). Filter paper is placed beneath
the specimen holder to monitor the falling of flaming debris. The test apparatus is shown in Figure 6e.

Two different flame application times and test durations are used depending on the class of the product.
For class E, the flame application time is 15 seconds, and the test is terminated 20 seconds after the
removal of the flame. With a flame application time of 30 seconds for classes B, C and D, the maximum
duration of the test is 60 seconds after the removal of the flame. The test is terminated earlier if no
ignition is observed after the removal of the flame source, or the specimen ceases to burn (or glow), or
the flame tip reaches the upper edge of the specimen.

The classification criteria are based on observations whether the flame spread (Fs) reaches 150 mm
within a given time and whether the filter paper below the specimen ignites due to flaming debris. In
addition, the occurrence and duration of flaming and glowing are observed.

6.1.5. Radiant panel test EN ISO 9239-1

In the radiant panel test EN ISO 9239-1, a test specimen of size 1050 mm × 230 mm is placed
horizontally below a gas-fired radiant panel inclined at 30°. The specimen is exposed to a defined field
of total heat flux, 11 kW/m2 at the hotter end close to the radiant panel, and decreasing to 1 kW/m2 at the
other end farther away from the radiant panel. A pilot flame front from a line burner is applied to the
hotter end in order to ignite the specimen. The test apparatus is presented in Figure 6f.

The progress of the flame front along the length of the specimen is recorded in terms of the time it takes
to travel to various distances. The smoke development during the test is measured on the basis of light
obscuration by smoke in the exhaust duct. The duration of the test is 30 minutes.

The classification criterion is the critical heat flux (CHF) defined as the radiant flux at which the flame
extinguishes or the radiant flux after a test period of 30 minutes, whichever is lower. In other words,
CHF is the flux corresponding to the furthest extent of spread of flame.
 32 (47)

a) b)

c) d)

EXHAUST GASES

RHR
CO2, CO
FLOW RATE (mass & volume)
SMOKE PRODUCTION
TEMPERATURE RISE ∆T

ENCLOSURE

NON-
SPECIMEN COMBUSTIBLE
BOARD

PROPANE
BURNER

e) f)

Figure 6. The test apparatuses for the European classification: a) test for non-combustibility and b) test
for gross calorific potential, c) SBI test, a schematic drawing, d) SBI test, photograph, e) test for
ignitability of building products subjected to direct impingement of flame and f) test for floorings.
 33 (47)

6.2. Classes and criteria

In the Euroclass system, building products are divided to seven classes on the basis of their reaction-to-
fire properties. The performance description and the fire scenario for each class are presented in Table 6
according to the main principles used in the development of the Euroclass system (not given in the final
decision).

Table 6 includes some examples of typical building products used in walls and ceilings in each
Euroclass. It is noted that certain materials containing only a very small amount of organic compounds
are deemed to satisfy the requirements of class A1 without testing. Examples of such materials are
concrete, steel, stone and ceramics [49].

The decision on the classification of the reaction to fire performance of construction products [40] was
made in February 2000. The test methods and classification criteria are presented in Table 7 for
construction products excluding floorings and in Table 8 for floorings.

The highest possible European class for fire retardant wood products is class B.

Table 6. Indicative performance descriptions and fire scenarios for Euroclasses.

Class Performance Fire scenario and heat Examples of products

description attack
A1 No Fully At least Products of natural stone, concrete, bricks,
contribution developed 60 kW/m2 ceramic, glass, steel and many metallic products
to fire fire in
a room
A2 “ “ “ Products similar to those of class A1, including
small amounts of organic compounds
B Very limited Single 40 kW/m2 Gypsum boards with different (thin) surface
contribution burning on a limited linings
to fire item in a area Fire retardant wood products
room
C Limited Phenolic foam, gypsum boards with different
contribution “ “ surface linings (thicker than in class B)
to fire
D Acceptable Wood products with thickness ≥ about 10 mm
contribution “ “ and density ≥ about 400 kg/m3 (depending on
to fire end use)
E Small flame Flame Low density fibreboard, plastic based insulation
“ attack height of products
20 mm
F No Products not tested (no requirements)
performance − −
requirements
 34 (47)

Table 7. Classes of reaction to fire performance for construction products excluding floorings [40]. The
abbreviations of classification parameters are explained in the text.
Class Test method(s) Classification criteria Additional classification

A1 EN ISO 1182 (1); ∆T ≤ 30°C; and

and ∆m ≤ 50%; and -
tf = 0 (i.e. no sustained flaming)
EN ISO 1716 PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ.kg-1 (1); and
PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ.kg-1 (2) (2a); and
PCS ≤ 1.4 MJ.m-2 (3); and
PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ.kg-1 (4)
A2 EN ISO 1182 (1); ∆T ≤ 50°C; and
or ∆m ≤ 50%; and
tf ≤ 20s
EN ISO 1716; PCS ≤ 3.0 MJ.kg-1 (1); and
PCS ≤ 4.0 MJ.m-2 (2); and
and PCS ≤ 4.0 MJ.m-2 (3); and
PCS ≤ 3.0 MJ.kg-1 (4)
EN 13823 (SBI) FIGRA ≤ 120 W.s-1; and Smoke production(5); and
LFS < edge of specimen; and Flaming droplets/ particles (6)
THR600s ≤ 7.5 MJ
B EN 13823 (SBI); FIGRA ≤ 120 W.s-1; and Smoke production(5); and
and LFS < edge of specimen; and Flaming droplets/ particles (6)
THR600s ≤ 7.5 MJ
EN ISO 11925-2(8): Fs ≤ 150mm within 60s
Exposure = 30s
C EN 13823 (SBI); FIGRA ≤ 250 W.s-1; and Smoke production(5); and
and LFS < edge of specimen; and Flaming droplets/ particles (6)
THR600s ≤ 15 MJ
EN ISO 11925-2(8): Fs ≤ 150mm within 60s
Exposure = 30s
D EN 13823 (SBI); FIGRA ≤ 750 W.s-1 Smoke production(5); and
and Flaming droplets/ particles (6)
EN ISO 11925-2(8): Fs ≤ 150mm within 60s
Exposure = 30s
E EN ISO 11925-2(8): Fs ≤ 150mm within 20s Flaming droplets/ particles (7)
Exposure = 15s
F No performance determined
(1) For homogeneous products and substantial components of non-homogeneous products.
(2) For any external non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products.
(2a) Alternatively, any external non-substantial component having a PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ/m2, provided that the product satisfies
the following criteria of EN xxxx(SBI) : FIGRA ≤ 20 W.s-1; and LFS < edge of specimen; and THR600s ≤ 4.0 MJ;
and s1; and d0.
(3) For any internal non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products.
(4) For the product as a whole.
(5) s1 = SMOGRA ≤ 30m2.s-2 and TSP600s ≤ 50m2 ; s2 = SMOGRA ≤ 180m2.s-2 and TSP600s ≤ 200m2;
s3 = not s1 or s2.
6
( ) d0 = No flaming droplets/ particles in ENxxxx (SBI) within 600s; d1 = No flaming droplets/ particles persisting
longer than 10s in ENxxxx (SBI) within 600s; d2 = not d0 or d1; Ignition of the paper in EN ISO 11925-2 results in
a d2 classification.
(7) Pass = no ignition of the paper (no classification); Fail = ignition of the paper (d2 classification).
(8) Under conditions of surface flame attack and, if appropriate to the end–use application of the product, edge flame
attack.
 35 (47)

Table 8. Classes of reaction to fire performance for floorings [40]. The abbreviations of classification
parameters are explained in the text.
Class Test method(s) Classification criteria Additional classification

A1FL EN ISO 1182 (1); ∆T ≤ 30°C; and

and ∆m ≤ 50%; and -
tf = 0 (i.e. no sustained flaming)
EN ISO 1716 PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ.kg-1 (1); and
PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ.kg-1 (2); and
PCS ≤ 1.4 MJ.m-2 (3); and
PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ.kg-1 (4)
A2FL EN ISO 1182 (1); ∆T ≤ 50°C; and
or ∆m ≤ 50%; and
tf ≤ 20s
EN ISO 1716; PCS ≤ 3.0 MJ.kg-1 (1); and
PCS ≤ 4.0 MJ.m-2 (2); and
and PCS ≤ 4.0 MJ.m-2 (3); and
PCS ≤ 3.0 MJ.kg-1 (4)
EN ISO 9239-1 (5) Critical flux (6) ≥ 8.0 kW.m-2 Smoke production (7)
BFL EN ISO 9239-1 (5) Critical flux (6) ≥ 8.0 kW.m-2 Smoke production (7)
and
EN ISO 11925-2(8): Fs ≤ 150mm within 20s
Exposure = 15s
CFL EN ISO 9239-1 (5) Critical flux (6) ≥ 4.5 kW.m-2 Smoke production (7)
and
EN ISO 11925-2(8): Fs ≤ 150mm within 20s
Exposure = 15s
DFL EN ISO 9239-1 (5) Critical flux (6) ≥ 3.0 kW.m-2 Smoke production (7)
and
EN ISO 11925-2(8): Fs ≤ 150mm within 20s
Exposure = 15s
EFL EN ISO 11925-2(8): Fs ≤ 150mm within 20s -
Exposure = 15s
FFL No performance determined
(1 )For homogeneous products and substantial components of non-homogeneous products.
(2) For any external non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products.
(3) For any internal non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products.
(4) For the product as a whole.
(5) Test duration = 30 minutes.
(6) Critical flux is defined as the radiant flux at which the flame extinguishes or the radiant flux after a test
period of 30 minutes, whichever is the lower (i.e. the flux corresponding with the furthest extent of spread of
flame).
(7) s1 = Smoke ≤ 750%.min; s2 = not s1.
(8) Under conditions of surface flame attack and, if appropriate to the end–use application of the product,
edge flame attack.
 36 (47)

7. Predicting SBI test results on the basis of cone calorimeter data

The most important Euroclass test method for products with a non-negligible contribution to fire is the
Single Burning Item (SBI) test [43]. Correlation between the results of the SBI test and the cone
calorimeter is an issue of great interest. The cone calorimeter [20] is a well-established and
acknowledged test method, and it requires only a small amount of specimen material. Even though the
official classification of products in Europe is made on the basis of the SBI test results, the cone
calorimeter can be a useful tool for product development and quality control. Several modelling
approaches on the prediction of heat release and classification in the SBI test have been published [50,
51, 52, 53]. Many models predict well the performance of untreated wood products in the SBI tests, but
fire retardant treated wood has proven problematic in several cases. An application of a model,
developed especially for fire retardant treated wood products, is presented below.

7.1. Description of the basic model

The starting point of the calculation is the basic flame spread equation [54]
dx p (t ) x f (t ) − x p (t )
= (8)
dt tig
where xp is the position of the pyrolysis front, xf is the flame height, and tig is a characteristic ignition
[ ]
time. xf is obtained from the flame spread correlation x f (t ) = k f Q& (t ) , where Q& (t ) = Q& 0 (t ) + Q& mat (t ) is
n

the combined heat release rate from the burner and the material, and kf and n are constants, specific to a
test method. The heat release rate of the material is
τ =t
x f (τ ) − x p (τ )
Q& mat (t ) = x p 0 wq& ′′(t ) + w ∫ q& ′′(t − τ ) dτ (9)
τ =0
tig
where w and xp0 are the width and initial height of the pyrolysis area, and q& ′′(t ) and tig are the heat
release rate curve and the ignition time from the cone calorimeter test, respectively. The ignition is
assumed to take place at the moment when the heat release rate per unit area reaches 50 kW/m2. In the
integration, the moment of ignition of the specimen corresponds to τ = 0. The ignition delay of the
specimen is taken into account as a time shift after the numerical calculation has been completed.
To apply the model to predicting SBI test results, the input parameters xp0, w, kf and n have been
determined and optimised by examining the features of the SBI test arrangement and based on model
tuning. In addition, input data from cone calorimeter tests at the exposure level of 50 kW/m2 are scaled
to lower levels selected on the basis of practical experience and model tuning. A detailed description of
the basic model is presented in Ref. 51. The model was optimised using particle board as a tuning
material. Therefore, its basic version works well for wood-based products without any fire retardant
treatment.

As a result of calculations according to Eqs. (8) and (9), predicted heat release rate (HRR) curves of SBI
tests are obtained. The predicted HRR curves agree well with experimental SBI data especially for the
first peak of the curve. The early phases of the test are of major importance in the determination of the
FIGRA index and the classification of the product. Only a HRR curve from a single cone calorimeter
test at 50 kW/m2 is needed as input data for the model.

The basic model works reasonably well for products with minor or moderate lateral flame spread in the
SBI test. For these materials, the one-dimensionality of the model can be compensated with the selection
of the input parameters. In the data set studied, the classification on the basis of the FIGRA index was
predicted correctly for 89 % of the products [55].
 37 (47)

7.2. Application of the Model to FR Wood Products

During the development of the basic model, it was noted that the selection of input parameters is not
optimal for certain groups of materials, for example fire retarded (FR) wood products. The resulting
prediction inaccuracies can be reduced by optimising the input parameters separately for these products
groups.

The modelling study of FR wood products included about 20 different products: impregnated or brush-
applied FR wood materials, and special FR treated plywoods. In this product set, different heat release
behaviour patterns in cone calorimeter tests were identified. The main patterns are introduced in Figure
7. Strongly FR impregnated materials release heat at a low level showing no sustained flaming (7a) or
ignition after a long heat exposure time (7b). A third typical behaviour for this kind of products is slowly
increasing heat release at a relatively low level (7c). Milder impregnations and brush-applied FR
treatments typically result in even heat release at a moderate level (7d), or a heat release behaviour
typical of also non-FR wood products showing two maxima with an intermediate plateau (7e). Some
products exhibit a sharp peak in the very beginning, followed by even heat release level (7f) or the "non-
FR wood behaviour".

Considering the one-dimensional thermal flame spread model presented above, the cases shown in Figs.
7a and 7b, and sometimes 7c, can be included to the basic model as special cases. If the heat release rate
of the product does not reach 50 kW/m2 (the ignition criterion) within 570 seconds from the beginning
of the heat exposure, the class prediction is B.

For products showing a heat release pattern of Figs. 7c, 7d, 7e or 7f, an optimisation of model input
parameters was performed. It was found that the best prediction for HRR is obtained using w = 0.20 m
as the pyrolysis width. Other input parameters were the same as in the basic model, that is, xp0 = 0.26 m,
kf = 0.048, and n = 0.77. Furthermore, the ignition time, time scale and HRR values from cone
calorimeter tests at the exposure level of 50 kW/m2 were scaled to lower levels describing the exposure
conditions in SBI tests. The choice of exposure levels for scaling was a part of the optimization process
of the model.

Assuming thermally thin behaviour, the ignition time is inversely is inversely proportional to the net
heat flux [19]. Thus, tig was scaled from heat exposure level of 50 kW/m2 to 30 kW/m2 as follows:
50 − q& cr′′ (10)
t ig , 30 = t ig , 50 ⋅
30 − q& cr′′
where q& ′cr′ is the critical heat flux, i.e., the minimum heat flux for ignition of a material. The typical
critical heat flux of wood products, 12 kW/m2, was used in the calculations due to the lack of detailed
ignitability data for the majority of the products studied. It is noted that for FR wood products, tig used in
the flame spread and heat release calculations is scaled to 30 kW/m2, but for the ignition delay time shift,
tig at 50 kW/m2 is used.
 38 (47)

a) b)
140 140

120 120

100 100

HRR (kW/m 2)
HRR (kW/m 2)

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200 0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200

T ime (s) T ime (s)

c) d)
100 100

90 90
80 80
70 70
HRR (kW/m 2)

HRR (kW/m 2)
60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30
20 20

10 10

0 0
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200 0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200

Time (s) T ime (s)

e) f)

250 250

200 200
HRR (kW/m 2)

HRR (kW/m )
2

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200 0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200
T ime (s) Time (s)

Figure 7. Different HRR patterns of FR wood products in cone calorimeter tests at 50 kW/m2: a) low
HRR throughout the test, no ignition, b) low HRR in the beginning of the test, ignition after a long heat
exposure, c) slowly increasing HRR at a relatively low (or moderate) level, d) even HRR at a moderate
level after the ignition, e) two HRR maxima with an intermediate plateau, typical also of non-FR wood
products, and f) a sharp HRR peak in the beginning followed by even HRR.
 39 (47)

An analytical model for the charring rate of wood [21] was used as the basis of scaling the HRR curve to
the exposure level of 25 kW/m2. The relationship between charring rate β (in mm/min) and an external
heat flux q& e′′ (in kW/m2) is roughly

β ∝ 0.2 q& e′′ + 5 (11)

HRR is directly proportional to the charring rate. Thus, HRR at 25 kW/m2 is approximately 2/3 of the
value measured at 50 kW/m2. Assuming that the whole specimen burns eventually and the total amount
of heat produced is constant, the burning time (i.e. the time scale of the test) should be multiplied by 3/2,
respectively.

Since the calculation procedure presumes that HRR used as the model input reaches 50 kW/m2, the
original unscaled HRR measured at 50 kW/m2 must reach 75 kW/m2 to be applicable in the calculations.
If HRR measured at 50 kW/m2 is less than 75 kW/m2 throughout the test, class B is predicted without
calculations.

The procedure of using the one-dimensional thermal flame spread model for the prediction of
Euroclasses of FR wood products is presented in Table 9.

Table 9. Phases of predicting SBI product classification for FR wood products.

1. Perform a cone calorimeter test at the heat exposure level of 50 kW/m2.
• determine the maximum heat release rate HRRmax (the first peak for a multi-peak curve)
• if HRRmax < 75 kW/m2 → class B predicted
• determination of the ignition time tig,50 as the moment when the heat release rate per unit area
reaches 50 kW/m2
• if tig,50 > 570 s → class B predicted
2. Calculate the predicted HRR curve of the SBI test according to Eqs. (8) and (9) using the
following input parameter values and data scalings:
• xp0 = 0.26 m
• w = 0.20 m
• kf = 0.048
• n = 0.77
• ignition time scaled to 30 kW/m2 (Eq. (10)), use q& cr′′ = 12 kW/m2 or a value known for the
product studied
• time scale scaled to 25 kW/m2: multiplication by 3/2
• HRR values scaled to 25 kW/m2: multiplication by 2/3
3. Shift the resulting SBI HRR curve with tig,50 taking into account the ignition delay.
4. Calculate FIGRA indices (and THR600s) and determine the predicted "SBI class".

Examples of HRR curves measured in SBI tests and predicted using the model for FR wood products are
presented in Figure 8. The example products are a board with a brush-applied FR treatment and a special
FR treated plywood. The predicted and measured FIGRA0,2MJ and FIGRA0,4MJ values for FR wood
products are compared in Figure 9. As seen from these figures, the calculated HRR curves and FIGRA
values are in good agreement with the experimental results.
 40 (47)

a) b)
30 30
Measured Measured
25 Calculated 25 Calculated
Heat release rate (kW)

Heat release rate (kW)

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200 0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200
T ime (s) T ime (s)

Figure 8. Comparison of measured and calculated HRR curves in SBI test: a) a board with a brush-
applied FR treatment and b) a special FR treated plywood.

a) 400
A2/B C D b) 400
A2/B C D

350 350
(W/s)

(W/s)
D D
300 300
0,2MJ

250 0,4MJ 250

Predicted FIGRA

Predicted FIGRA

200 C 200 C

150 150

100 100

50 A2/B 50 A2/B

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Experimental FIGRA0,2MJ (W/s) Experimental FIGRA0,4M J (W/s)

Figure 9. Comparison of experimental and calculated FIGRA values: a) FIGRA0,2MJ and b) FIGRA0,4MJ.
The letters refer to the Euroclasses and the class limits are shown with dashed lines.

It is emphasized that the predictive procedure developed is a non-physical model intended for
engineering applications. Thus, it includes several approximations and simplifications. However, the
model provides a practical tool for product development and quality control, since its use requires only
a small amount of material and data from one small-scale test.

7.3. Simulation of fire development

A progressive and illustrative tool for simulating fire development is the Fire Dynamics Simulator
(FDS) program [56, 57]. It can be used for simulating systems of varying complexity, ranging from
a simple small-scale test for a single material to whole buildings including different materials and
structures. When predicting the fire performance of wood products in real-scale fires, the method works
basically in two steps. Firstly, a cone calorimeter test is modelled using FDS and material parameters for
the model are tuned so that the calculated heat release rate (HRR) curve agrees with the measured HRR.
Secondly, the real fire scenario is calculated by using the material parameter values obtained in the first
step.

An example of FDS simulation for 10 mm thick spruce linings in the ISO 9705 Room/Corner test is
shown in Figure 10 [58]. The calculated HRR curve agrees well with the measured HRR curve, which
confirms that the extrapolation from a small-scale test to a full-scale scenario works well.
 41 (47)

5000
Measurement

HRR sample (kW)

4000
FDS
test halted,
3000 water
suppression

2000

1000

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
time (s)

Figure 10. FDS simulation for 10 mm thick spruce linings: comparison of experimental HRR data from
ISO 9705 test with HRR curve calculated using FDS [58].

The same simulation method can be applied also to FR wood. 22-mm thick FR treated spruce timber
was tested in the ISO 9705 room with a modified setup: instead of full coverage of the rear and side
walls and the ceiling, only partial linings with a surface area of ca. 14 m2 were installed as shown in
Figure 11. The measured and calculated HRR data are presented in Figure 12 [59]. The comparison of
the experimental and computational results clearly demonstrates that the methodology of using FDS
simulation based on cone calorimeter HRR data can be used also for FR wood.

2
ca. 14 m TT s

HF meter
Figure 11. The modified Room/Corner test with 22-mm thick FR treated spruce timber linings [59].
 42 (47)

200
data
150 FDS

HRR (kW)
100

50

0
0 60 120 180 240 300
tim e (s)
Figure 12. FDS simulation for 22-mm thick FR treated spruce timber: comparison of experimental HRR
data from a modified ISO 9705 test with HRR curve calculated using FDS [59].

8. Summary

Even though wood is a naturally combustible material, wood products can be used safely in construction
either by improving their fire performance or by properly choosing the end use conditions. Methods for
improving the fire performance of wood products include chemical, biochemical and physical
modification, as well as structural means. Several wood based products can meet even very stringent
requirements, thus extending the usability of wood as a building material.

The current trend in fire safety regulations is the progress towards performance-based fire codes.
Performance-based fire design increases the freedom of architects, designers and constructors to choose
materials and structures, as far as the solutions meet the fire safety objectives defined. In this situation,
high fire performance wood products have equal opportunities with other construction products. As the
performance-based fire safety design becomes more common, the importance of computational fire
simulations increases. Modern tools for estimating the fire performance of wood based products are
available, ranging from simple predictive procedures for product development to sophisticated
probabilistic fire simulations.

The flame retardant techniques for wood aim at delaying the ignition of wood and reducing the heat
released during combustion. This can be pursued, for example, by changing the pathway of pyrolysis,
protecting the surface by isolating layers, slowing down ignition and burning by changing the thermal
properties of the product, or reducing the combustion by diluting pyrolysis gases or by inhibiting the
chain reactions of burning. Many practical fire retardant systems combine different mechanisms.

The main methods for fire retardant treatment of wood products include the impregnation of wood with
a fire retardant, and the addition of a fire retardant as surface treatment or during the manufacturing
process. Some novel methods, based on for example the modification of wood, are under development.

An important issue in the development of wood products with improved fire performance is the long-
term durability of fire retardant treatments. A Nordic system with service class requirements for
different internal and external end uses is under development. The new system will guide in the selection
of suitable fire retardant treated wood products.
 43 (47)

In Europe, the harmonized Euroclass system of reaction to fire performance is used for building
products. Natural wood products with a sufficient thickness and density are typically classified into
Euroclass D. Wood products with improved fire performance can meet the requirements of Euroclass B,
widely extending the potential applications of wood in construction.

References

1. Östman, B. & Rydholm, D. National fire regulations in relation to the use of wood in European and
some other countries. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Wood Technology Research, 2002. 57 p.
(Trätek Report P 0212044.)

2. Östman, B., Voss, A., Hughes, A., Hovde, P. J. & Grexa, O. Durability of fire retardant treated wood
at humid and exterior conditions. Review of literature. Fire and Materials, 2001. Vol. 25, No. 3, pp.
95-104.

3. Kristoffersen, B., Steen Hansen, A., Hakkarainen, T., Östman, B., Johansson, P., Pauner, M.,
Grexa, O. & Hovde, P. J. Using the Cone Calorimeter for screening and control testing of fire
retarded wood products. Report Nordtest project 1526-01. Trondheim: Norwegian Fire Research
Laboratory, 2003. 63 p. + app. 18 p. (NBL A03119.)

4. Evans, F. et al. Requirements for approval of fire retardant treated wood products to be used at moist
conditions. Nordic Wood project P99096, 2001. (In Norwegian.)

5. Östman, B. & Tsantaridis, L. Fire rated facade panels –Durability at climatic conditions. Stockholm:
Swedish Institute for Wood Technology Research, 2000. 16 p. (Trätek Report L 0011039.) (In
Swedish.)

6. Östman, B. & Rydholm, D. National fire regulations in relation to the use of wood in European and
some other countries. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Wood Technology Research, 2002. 57 p.
(Trätek Report P 0212044.)

7. Östman, B. & Tsantaridis, L. Durability and new service classes for FRT wood in different end uses.
In: Flame Retardants 2004. London, UK, 27-28 January 2004. London: Interscience
Communications, 2004. Pp. 139-150. ISBN 0-9541216-2-7

8. Nordtest method NT FIRE 053. Accelerated weathering of fire-retardant treated wood for fire
testing. Nordtest, 2004.

9. Nordtest method NT BUILD 504. Hygroscopic properties of fire-retardant treated wood and wood-
based products. Espoo: Nordtest, 2003. 3 p.

10. Östman, B. et al. Service classes for fire retardant wood. Ongoing Nordtest project no. 04150, 2005.

11. Evans, F., Mikkola, E. & Östman, B. Corrosion from fire retardant treated wood –Round robin and a
new test method. Nordtest project no. 1579-02, 2003. (In Norwegian.)

12. Östman, B. A.-L. Fire retardant wood-fiber insulating board. Journal of Fire Sciences, 1984. Vol. 2,
No. 6, pp. 454-467.
 44 (47)

13. LeVan, S. L. & Winandy, J. E. Effects of fire-retardant treatments on wood strength: A review.
Wood and Fiber Science, 1990. Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 113-131.

14. Winandy, J. E. Thermal degradation of fire-retardant-treated wood: Predicting residual service life.
Forest Products Journal, 2001. Vol. 51, No. 2, pp. 47-54.

15. ASTM D 5664-02. Standard method for evaluating the effects of fire-retardant treatments and
elevated temperatures on strength properties of fire-retardant treated lumber. American Society for
Testing and Materials, 2002. 6 p.

16. ASTM D 5516-03. Standard method for evaluating the mechanical properties of fire-retardant
treated softwood plywood exposed to elevated temperatures. American Society for Testing and
Materials, 2003. 7 p.

17. FireRetard.com. 2003. Case Studies [web page]. [quoted 23.6.2004]. Available:
http://www.fireretard.com/casestudies.html .

18. Mikkola, E. Ignition of wood. Espoo: Technical Research Centre of Finland, 1989. 48 p. (VTT
Research Notes 1057.) ISBN 951-38-3589-8 (In Finnish.)

19. Mikkola, E. & Wichman, I. S. On the thermal ignition of combustible materials. Fire and Materials,
1989. Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 87-96.

20. ISO 5660-1. Reaction-to-fire tests –Heat release, smoke production and mass loss rate –Part 1: Heat
release rate (cone calorimeter method). Geneva: International Organization for Standardization,
2002. 39 p.

21. Mikkola, E. Charring of wood. Espoo: Technical Research Centre of Finland, 1990. 35 p. (VTT
Research Reports 689.) ISBN 951-38-3711-4.

22. EN 1995-1-2. Eurocode 5 –Design of timber structures –Part 1-2: General –Structural fire design.
European Committee for Standardization (CEN), 2004. 69 p.

23. König, J. Notional versus one-dimensional charring rates of timber. World Conference on Timber
Engineering. Lahti, Finland, 14-17 June 2004.

24. Nussbaum, R. M. The effect of low concentration fire retardant impregnations on wood charring rate
and char yield. Journal of Fire Sciences. Vol. 6, pp. 290-207.

25. Östman, B. A.-L. & Tsantaridis, L. D. Heat release and classification of fire retardant wood
products. Fire and Materials, 1995. Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 253-258.

26. LeVan, S. L. Chemistry of fire retardancy. In: Rowell, R. M. (ed.). The chemistry of solid wood.
Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1984. (Advances in Chemistry Series 207.) Pp. 531-
574.

27. Sarvaranta, L. Fire retardant wood, polymer and textile materials. Espoo: Technical Research Centre
of Finland, 1996. 38 p. (VTT Research Notes 1730.) ISBN 951-38-4885-X
 45 (47)

28. Svensson, G. & Östman, B. Leach resistant and non-toxic flame retardants for wood –Review 1983.
Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Wood Technology Research, 1984. 64 p. (Wood Technology
Report no. 48.) (In Swedish.)

29. White, R. H. & Dietenberger, M. A. Flame-retardant treatments. In: Wood Handbook –Wood as an
Engineering Material. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products
Laboratory, 1999. (General Technical Report FPL-GTR-113.) Pp. 17-12 –17-13.

30. Nussbaum, R. & Östman, B. Fire retardants for timber structures –Literature survey 1986.
Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Wood Technology Research, 1987. 48 p. (Trätek Report I
8703022.) (In Swedish.)

31. Svensson, G. Humidity-resistant flame retardants for wood. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Wood
Technology Research, 1989. 44 p. (Trätek Report I 8904016.) (In Swedish.)

32. Sellman, L.-G., Östman, B. & Back, E. Physical and thermal data for some inorganic fire retardant
chemicals. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Wood Research, 1974. 132 p. (Meddelande, Serie B nr
284, FS B:33.) (In Swedish.)

33. Ohtani, H., Koseki, H. & Hirano, T. Heat transfer mechanisms in materials on fire retardation. In:
Yuxiang, O. & Minxiu, Z. (eds.). International Symposium on Flame Retardants Proceedings.
Beijing, China, 1-5 November, 1989. Beijing: International Academic Publishers. Pp. 256-261.

34. Porter, D., Metcalfe, E. & Thomas, M. J. K. Nanocomposite fire retardants –A review. Fire and
Materials, 2000. Vol. 24, pp. 45-52.

35. Brumer, H., Zhou, Q., Baumann, M. J., Carlsson, K. & Teeri, T. T. Activation of crystalline
cellulose surfaces through the chemoenzymatic modification of xyloglucan. Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 2004. Vol. 126, pp. 5715-5721.

36. Rose, J. K. C. & Bennett, A. B. Cooperative disassembly of the cellulose-xyloglucan network of

plant cell walls: parallels between cell expansion and fruit ripening. Trends in Plant Science, 1999.
Vol. 4, No. 5, pp. 176-183.

37. Zhou, Q., Greffe, L., Baumann, M. J., Malmström, E., Teeri, T. T., Brumer, H. The use of
xyloglucan as a molecular anchor for the elaboration of polymers from cellulose surfaces: a general
route for the design of biocomposites. Macromolecules, 2005, in press.

38. Östman, B. Fire classification of building panels with a wooden surface. Stockholm: Swedish
Institute for Wood Technology Research, 1989. (Trätek Report I 8904072.) (In Swedish.)

39. Commission Decision of 9 September 1994 implementing Article 20 of Directive 89/106/EEC on

construction products (94/611/EC). Official Journal of the European Communities No L 241.
16.9.1994. Pp. 25-29.

40. Commission Decision of 8 February 2000 implementing Council Directive 89/106/EEC as regards
the classification of the reaction to fire performance of construction products. Official Journal of the
European Communities No L 50. 23.2.2000. Pp. 14-18.

41. EN ISO 1182:2002. Reaction to fire tests for building products –Non-combustibility test. Brussels:
European Committee for Standardization, February 2002. 35 p.
 46 (47)

42. EN ISO 1716:2002. Reaction to fire tests for building products –Determination of the heat of
combustion. Brussels: European Committee for Standardization, February 2002. 29 p.

43. EN 13823:2002. Reaction to fire tests for building products –Building products excluding floorings
exposed to the thermal attack by a single burning item. Brussels: European Committee for
Standardization, February 2002. 95 p.

44. EN ISO 11925-2:2002. Reaction to fire tests –Ignitability of building products subjected to direct
impingement of flame –Part 2: Single-flame source test. Brussels: European Committee for
Standardization, February 2002. 28 p.

45. EN ISO 9239-1:2002. Reaction to fire tests for floorings –Part 1: Determination of the burning
behaviour using a radiant heat source. Brussels: European Committee for Standardization, January
2002. 27 p.

46. EN 13238:2001. Reaction to fire tests for building products –Conditioning procedures and general
rules for selection of substrates. Brussels: European Committee for Standardization, May 2001. 9 p.

47. EN 13501-1:2002. Fire classification of construction products and building elements –Part 1:
Classification using test data from reaction to fire tests. Brussels: European Committee for
Standardization, February 2002. 41 p.

48. Van Mierlo, R. J. M. Development of the SBI test method (Volume 1). Delft, The Netherlands: TNO
Building and Construction Research, July 1998. 11 p. + app. 43 p. (TNO-report 98-CVB-R1067.)

49. Commission Decision of 4 October 1996 establishing the list of products belonging to Classes A 'No
contribution to fire' provided for in Decision 94/611/EC implementing Article 20 of Council
Directive 89/106/EEC on construction products (96/603/EC). Official Journal of the European
Communities No L 267. 19.10.1996. Pp. 23-26.

50. Messerschmidt, B., Van Hees, P. & Wickström, U. Prediction of SBI (Single Burning Item) test
results by means of cone calorimeter test results. In: Conference Proceedings of Interflam ’99, 8th
International Fire Science & Engineering Conference. Edinburgh, UK, 29 June –1 July 1999.
Interscience Communications Ltd: London, 1999. Pp. 11-22.

51. Hakkarainen, T. & Kokkala, M. A. Application of a one-dimensional thermal flame spread model on
predicting the rate of heat release in the SBI test. Fire and Materials, 2001. Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 61-70.

52. Hakkarainen, T. Rate of heat release and ignitability indices in predicting SBI test results. Journal of
Fire Sciences, 2001. Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 284-305.

53. Hansen, A. S. Prediction of heat release in the single burning item test. Fire and Materials, 2002.
Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 87-97.

54. Saito, K., Quintiere, J. G. & Williams, F. A. Upward turbulent flame spread. Fire Safety Science –
Proceedings of the 1 st International Symposium. Hemisphere: New York, 1985. Pp. 75-86.

55. Hakkarainen, T. Correlation studies of SBI and cone calorimeter test results. Interflam 2001 –
Proceedings of the 9th International Conference (Vol. 1). Edinburgh, UK, 17–19 September 2001.
London: Interscience Communications, 2001. Pp. 519–530.
 47 (47)

56. McGrattan, K. B. (ed.) Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 4) –Technical Reference Guide.
Gaithersburg, MA, USA: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2004. 85 p. (NIST Special
Publication 1018.)

57. McGrattan, K. B. & Forney, G. P. Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 4) –User’s Guide.
Gaithersburg, MA, USA: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2004. 90 p. (NIST Special
Publication 1019.)

58. Hietaniemi, J., Hostikka, S. & Vaari, J. FDS simulation of fire spread –Comparison of model results
with experimental data. Espoo, Finland: VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, 2004. 45 p. +
app. 6 p. (VTT Working Papers 4.) ISBN 951-38-6556-8. Available:
http://www.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/workingpapers/2004/W4.pdf.

59. Hietaniemi, J., Hakkarainen, T. & Mikkola, E. Modern tools for estimating fire performance of wood
based products. COST Action E29: International Symposium on Advanced Timber and Timber-
Composite Elements for Buildings. Florence, Italy, 27–29 October 2004.