Three

FINITE ELEMENT METHODS

 Discretization
▪ This is the first step in the finite element procedure,
where the body is divided into elements in such a way
that the unknown field variable is adequately
represented through the body
▪ Considerable savings in time and effort, in both model
development and analysis, can be achieved by careful
discretization
 Geometrical approximations
▪ If the geometry and loads of a problem can be
completely described in one plane, then the problem
can be modelled as two-dimensional
▪ Bodies that are long and whose geometry and loading
do no vary significantly in the longitudinal direction
can be modelled by using a plane strain representation
 …Geometrical approximations
▪ Similarly, bodies that have negligible dimensions in
one direction, and are loaded in the plane of the body
can be assumed to be in a plane stress condition
 …Geometrical approximations

▪ Heat transfer through a composite wall (studied earlier)

was modelled by simple one-dimensional elements.
This simplification was possible because it is known
that heat flow through the wall is one dimensional
▪ What about a fin? Can it be simplified in this way?
 Symmetry
▪ There are four common types of symmetry
encountered in engineering problems: axial, planar,
cyclic and repetitive
 Axial symmetry
▪ Axial symmetry is encountered so frequently,
axisymmetric elements are included in finite element
packages
▪ They take account of the constant variable distribution
in the circumferential direction
▪ This makes the problem very similar to plane stress
and plane strain problems, since the distributions and
loadings are confined to only two directions (radial and
axial)
▪ Axisymmetric elements will be developed for both
stress and thermal problems later in the course
 Planar symmetry
▪ Planar symmetry is well illustrated by the case of a flat
plate with a hole in it
▪ It is only necessary to consider one quarter of the
problem, provided the correct constraint conditions are
applied to the model
▪ For this problem, the vertical displacement must equal
zero along the horizontal line of symmetry, and vice
versa
 Cyclic symmetry
▪ Present in spline fittings and propellers, for example
▪ The problem is similar to planar symmetry problems,
except that they are described in a cylindrical rather
than a rectangular coordinate system
▪ The constraint conditions need to be applied in the
appropriate direction, i.e. the displacements are zero in
the circumferential direction
 Repetitive symmetry
▪ Problems exhibiting repetitive symmetry are the least
common, and are similar to those structures modelled
assuming a plane strain system
▪ For repetitive symmetry problems the common
boundaries of the repeated segment are constrained in a
perpendicular direction
Basic elements types
Basic elements (stress)
Basic elements (thermal)
Element choice
…Element choice
 Size and number of elements
▪ Size and number of elements in a finite element model
are clearly inversely related; as the number of elements
increases, the size of each element must decrease, and
the accuracy of the model generally increases (see
1-D FE element: linear
figure) temperature variation

Thermal analysis of
a cooling fin: exact
analytical solution
shows that the
temperature varies
in a quadratic
manner
 …Size and number of elements
▪ As number of elements increases, the FE solution
gradually approaches the true temperature distribution
(or displacement distribution)
▪ Sample results of these and other models can be
combined into a graph. As the number of elements
approaches infinity, so the model’s prediction will
approach the exact solution
 …Size and number of elements

▪ The advantages of using two elements rather than one

are clear; and four elements produce a quite accurate
prediction
▪ It is doubtful, however, whether it is worth using eight
elements
▪ What about more than 8?
▪ Computing time and effort should be considered
▪ In practice, usually the exact solution is not known of
course, hence convergence studies
 Biased meshing
▪ For efficient solution, a high mesh density should be
used where there is an expected rapid change in the
unknown variable
▪ In this case, elements should be bunched towards the
hotter end of the rod
 …Biased meshing
▪ In one-dimensional it is easy, but in two- and three-
dimensional problems, arranging suitable variations in
mesh density usually takes careful consideration and
planning
▪ All nodes must be connected in adjacent elements
Element shape and distortion
…Element shape and distortion
Location of nodes
 Solution by Gaussian Elimination
▪ Recall the global (system)
equations:

▪ The global stiffness matrix has

several zero off-diagonal terms
▪ In fact, the matrix is banded
▪ This is always a feature of finite element models, i.e. a
band of non-zero terms surrounds the diagonal values
(which will always be non-zero), and the remaining
locations in the matrix are filled with zeros
 …Solution by Gaussian Elimination
▪ Notice the bandwidth of the matrix
▪ The smaller the bandwidth, then
the easier and faster the matrix can
be solved by an elimination
method
▪ The bandwidth depends directly
on the order that the nodes are
numbered

▪ What is the bandwidth of this

matrix?
 Bandwidth
▪ Consider the plane stress model of a short beam
▪ The degrees of freedom associated with nodes 1 and 10
will be related since they occur in the same element

▪ Since the model is two-dimensional, each node will

have two degrees of freedom; the first two columns
and rows of the stiffness matrix will correspond to
node 1, and the nineteenth and twentieth rows and
columns to node 10. 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 20
 …Bandwidth
▪ Consider the same plane stress model
▪ The degrees of freedom associated with nodes 1 and 6
will be related since they occur in the same element

▪ Since the model is two-dimensional, each node will

have two degrees of freedom; the first two columns
and rows of the stiffness matrix will correspond to
node 1, and the eleventh and twelfth rows and columns
to node 6. 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 12
 …Bandwidth
▪ Do calculation for any other element, say element 10

▪ In general
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝐷 + 1 𝑓
▪ (What about the one dimensional thermal problem?)
▪ Thus, the order of the node numbering is vital when
Gaussian elimination is used; the nodes should be
labeled across the shortest dimension to achieve
smallest nodal difference in any one element
 Solution by the wavefront method
▪ The wavefront method actually never constructs the
whole stiffness matrix
▪ Instead it eliminates the degrees of freedom as soon as
it can when it works through the model
▪ The elements are analyzed one at a time, and their
individual stiffness matrices are assembled into a
temporary matrix as the solution proceeds
▪ When the last occurrence of a node is noted, its
degrees of freedom are eliminated in the calculation
 …Solution by the wavefront method
▪ Consider the model:

▪ The stiffness matrix of element (1) is calculated and

placed into the temporary matrix
▪ Since node 1 only occurs in the first element it will not
be referenced by any other element and it can be
removed from the matrix
▪ This means that the DOFs associated with node 1 are
written as functions of the degrees of freedom of nodes
2, 9 and 10
 …Solution by the wavefront method

▪ Therefore the stiffness matrix will only contain

information on these three nodes
▪ Element (2) is considered next; its stiffness matrix is
calculated and added into the temporary matrix
▪ Node 9 is not used by any other element and can be
removed; hence at this point, only information on
nodes 2, 10, 17 and 18 is held in the matrix
 …Solution by the wavefront method

▪ This process continues through all the elements until

only node 32 is left, and its DOFs are solved
▪ Then a backward substitution occurs and all the other
DOFs are evaluated, in the same way as the back
substitution in Gaussian elimination
 …Solution by the wavefront method
▪ The method is called a wavefront technique because
the nodes held in the matrix move like a wave through
the model

▪ If the elements had been labelled down the length of

the beam, then at any one time there would have been
more nodes in the wavefront and consequently more
nodes in the temporary matrix, and the solution would
have been considerably slower
 Conclusion
▪ Smaller programs will probably use Gaussian
elimination to solve the system equations, in which the
nodes should be labelled across the shortest dimension
of the model; the element numbering in these analyses
is immaterial
▪ For large commercial packages the wavefront method
will be used, and the element numbering is vital – they
should be labelled across the shortest dimension; but
the labelling of nodes is of no importance
 Chapter summary
▪ Basic steps in finite element modelling were discussed
▪ Despite the sophistication of model generating
facilities available in commercial software, the
engineer must still make the important decisions
▪ Important decisions include the type and number of
elements
▪ Careful planning of the model is vital
▪ It is bad practice to use a three-dimensional model
where a two-dimensional or axisymmetric model
would be adequate
▪ Also unnecessarily complex elements should not be
used unless the problem really demands it