Athletics New Zealand

Sprints and Relays

Instructional Manual for Coaches

Compiled by Jeff Bailey, Brent Ward and Andrew

McLennan
Updated 2005
 Contents
1. History
1. Evolution of training and technique of the event
2. Rules of competition and equipment
3. Safety procedures

2. Basic Biomechanics
1. The Biomechanical model – Biomechanics of technique
1. General Mechanics of Sprinting
2. Specific Biomechanics of Sprinting
2. Description of Technique Elements
3. Principles of Good Technique Coaching

3. Practicals for Technique

1. Teaching Stages
1. Determining Block Positions
2. Block Spacings
3. The Sprint Start – Teaching Stages
2. Technique analysis and fault correction
1. Common Errors
2. The Cause and Effect Scenario
3. Technique drills and practices
1. Important Considerations
2. Progression of Drills
3. Basic Drills
4. Other Drills
4. Video Analysis

4. Principles and Elements of conditioning

1. Stress adaptation and stress variables (volume, intensity, duration,
recovery – repetitions, sets, intervals)
1. Training Principles in Relation to Programme
Planning
2. Elements of conditioning – physiological factors, energy systems,
speed, strength, spring, endurance, flexibility, agility, skill
1. Energy systems
2. Speed
3. Flexibiility

5. Practicals for Conditioning

1. Flexibility, mobility, agility – static and dynamic stretching, PNF
2. Anaerobic alactic activities specific to event
1. Event Requirements
2. Training Principles as applied to Strength
Training
3. Strength Endurance
4. Maximum Strength
5. Explosive Strength
6. Special Strength
7. Guidelines for using Special Strength
8. Strength Training Methods

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 9. Order of Exercises
10. Progressive Development of Strength Training
11. Speed Training – Specifics
12. Periodisation of Speed Work
3. Anaerobic lactic activities specific to the event
4. Aerobic activities specific to the event
1. Components of Aerobic/Endurance Training
Methods
2. Special Training Adaptations in Developing
Endurance
3. Distribution of Components of Endurance

6. Programme Planning and Competition Considerations

1. Planning Factors
1. Youth versus Adult
2. Physical, Social and Psychological Factors
2. Goal setting and needs analysis; testing and scientific monitoring;
medical back up
1. Goal setting
3. Planning, Periodisation and Training Cycles
1. Guidelines for Planning a Years Programme
2. Terminology in Planning a Year
3. Subdivision of the Periods of the Annual Plan
4. Sessions and Units of a Sample Training
Microcyle
5. Periodisation
6. Phases of a Single Periodised Year
4. Planning workout patterns and training units
1. Training Unit Combinations
2. Programming Worksheet
5. Training diaries
6. Competition considerations – Tactics; Environmental factors (heat,
cold, humidity, altitude, travel)
1. Tactics
2. Environmental factors

7. Relays
1. The 4x100m Relay
1. Basic rules of the 4x100m relay
2. Changing Method requirements
3. Qualities of runners required for each leg
4. Notes on Relay Pass Techniques
5. Placement of Check Marks
6. Acceleration Principles
7. Skill Development
8. Relay Warm Up
2. The 4x400m Relay
1. Methods of change
2. Running the Relay
3. Running Order
3. Calculation of Goal Times for Relays

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Page 3
1. HISTORY
The ability to sprint, or run fast, is essential for a number of events in track and field. How
fast an athlete can get from one point to another can determine how successful that athlete
will be. This ability to move quickly is also important in numerous activities outside track
and field.

As has been commonly stated in the past – the winner of the 100m can loosely claim to be the
“fastest man” or “fastest woman” in the world. While this claim is not always justified, as the
athlete with the fastest speed or velocity may not win the race, the sprints are seen as “main
events” at athletic meetings. The events are over in short periods of time and are often very
close, with athletes often winning races by only 1/100 th of a second.

The sprint events are normally defined as being the 100m, 200m, 400m and the two relays;
the 4x 100m and the 4x400m. In the winter months these distances are often replaced by the
50m and 200m, often on a 200m banked track.

1.1 Evolution of training and/or technique of the event

The technique for basic sprinting can be broken up into three (or four) distinct phases:

A. Acceleration or driving phase

B. Transition phase
C. Maximum velocity phase
D. (Maintenance of speed)

Each of these phases have differing technical requirements and the athlete should understand
and appreciate what they are trying to achieve in each phase. These will be more fully
explained later.

1.2 Rules of competition and equipment

There are some basic rules that apply to sprinting in particular. The rules for the sprints
(relays are covered later) are reasonably simple in nature. They include:

1 Athletes must use a crouch start (= using blocks) for events up to and including the
400m
2 Athletes must run in their lanes in the 200m and 400m. They should also in the
100m but can run out of their lane as long as they don’t affect the performance of
any other athletes in the race. If an athlete touches the line in a 200m or 400m
they can and probably will be disqualified.
3 Only one false start per race is allowed. Any athlete making a further false start
shall be disqualified.
4 Other rules may also include the instructions that athletes have to follow from the
starter e.g. they must go to set when the starter requests and not delay the start
otherwise they may be called for a false start.

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1.3 Safety Procedures

When training or coaching a potential sprint athlete, care must firstly be given in establishing
whether the athlete is conditioned well enough to be able to deal with the high intensity
training that will take place.

Coaches should also be aware of the potential injuries that can occur to bones. Young athletes
who are asked to complete training that is particularly stressful on the body can end up with
injuries to their bones, for example, stress fractures.

It can also be a good idea to get young (in training age) athletes screened by a good
physiotherapist to identify potential problem/injury areas. This can identify areas that are
weak and need strengthening, or muscles that are too tight and need stretching.

Coaches should also be aware, when dealing with young athletes, to create a safe environment
for their athletes by using appropriate implements, distances and skills. The motto, it’s
always best to underdo than over-do a training session should be remembered. Making
sessions fun, whilst encouraging good technique, is a good way to deal with younger
inexperienced athletes. This ensures they are getting some training benefit by improving their
skill level and not getting injured.

Making sure athletes are warmed up correctly will also help to lessen the chance of injury. It
will take some time for the athlete and coach to find a warm up that is suitable for the type of
training to be done but it is important and should be treated as such.

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2. BASIC BIOMECHANICS AND ELEMENTS OF
TECHNIQUE
2.1 Biomechanical model – biomechanics of technique

2.1.1 General mechanics of sprinting

One must look at the total perspective of the type of trainable factors. To concentrate on
some areas and ignore or under-develop others will lead to injury and only partial realisation
of potential.

Sprint Performance

Stride Frequency

Stride Length

Specific Endurance

Strength - Technique - Flexibility - Co-ordination

Major research studies have consistently shown that stride length does not vary too much
between elite and non-elite sprinters. Therefore the greatest area of improvement is in stride
frequency.

A Stride Frequency

Genetics plays a role in determining stride frequency but despite this, much can be
done to increase stride frequency. This includes:

1. Skill Exericses
- To educate the muscles into the most efficient movement patterns. This
will lead to the most efficient co-ordination between neural and muscle
areas where skilled and rehearsed movements will develop the
synchronisation of greater force patterns.

2. Flexibility
- To ensure there are no inhibiting factors affecting the range of movement
around any particular joint. Active stretching predisposes an elastic
muscular state by sensitising the muscle.

3. Running Speed

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 - To increase angular velocities, using high-speed intervals. This is achieved
by the flexors decreasing joint angles thereby shortening the mechanical
levers which increases angular velocity.

4. Eccentric Strength
- Developing the eccentric contractions especially at ground contact in the
lower leg and hip extension muscles in the running phase and the
quadriceps during acceleration lead to stride frequency. Length of ground
contact time is decreased. This is achieved through the use of short
displacement or vertical jumps for the acceleration phase and the use of
longer displacement bounding or continuous hopping in place for the
running phase.

B Stride Length

Stride length can be improved by the following:

1 Skill exercises to develop the endurance aspects of movement skill enabling

the athlete to maintain an efficient technique

2 Strength to increase the strength of the extensors thereby improving the driving
phase

3 Flexibility to ensure there are no inhibiting factors in developing and

maintaining a full range of motion

4 Specific endurance activities which develop and maintain the ability to create
the greatest possible stride pattern with no loss of technique over the whole
race

5 Strength, technique, flexibility and co-ordination are also important and are
dealt with more fully later.

2.1.2 Specific Biomechanics of Sprinting

The biomechanical model should be thought of as a “holistic case”. In essence, this means
that changing one part of the athlete’s technique can have positive or negative effects on other
parts of the athlete’s technique.

The mechanics of the lower body are examined closely here with further
recommendations/suggestions as to the role of the upper body.

The main description here refers to when the athlete is sprinting at maximum velocity.
Technical requirements in the acceleration phase of sprinting are discussed further at a later
stage when examining the sprint start.

There are three distinct phases in maximum sprinting technique:

A. Recovery phase

This starts as soon as the support foot leaves the ground. Elite sprinters do not get
full extension at the hip and knee joint at contact.

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 Hip flexion starts with the retrieval of the leg; at the same time the leg is flexed at
the knee joint pulling the heel close to the buttocks and the foot is put into a toes-
up position. The tight flexion of the calf against the thigh is held as long as
possible during the hip flexion. To help get this tight flexion the cocked ankle of
the retrieval leg should pass above the opposite knee. This continues until the
knee reaches the “high knee” position. As the thigh “blocks”, the knee joint opens
up. The thigh speed and the optimum level of knee lift leads to a greater stride
length and high hips.

B. Preparation for Support phase

The hip extensors pull the thigh back rapidly from the blocked position. The foot
continues to be kept cocked. The quadriceps should not be used to extend the
lower leg forward, i.e. reach forwards. The leg opens up during the hip extension.
What is important is the development of the foot moving back as fast as possible.
In fact, the closer to or even faster than the speed with which the centre of gravity
is moving, the better. This reduces the braking effect on contact with the ground.
The quadriceps group braces the knee just prior to the ground contact to prevent
over flexion, leading to hips dropping.

C. Support phase

The faster the hip extensor action the greater the eccentric action is required from
the hamstring group. Top sprinters actually experience a continuing of hip
extension acceleration after ground contact. The foot being cocked at contact sets
up a powerful eccentric action in the calf which delivers a greater force and
shortens ground contact time – an essential factor in leg speed. The foot touches
down just in front of the centre of gravity but must be moving fast.

The lesser the distance between contact point the better but hip extensors must be
strong to overcome the braking effect. The further out the foot is extended prior to
the contact the slower the foot speed and therefore the greater the braking effect.
When the centre of gravity is above the contact point, the body is driven upward
and forward. The gluteals and quadriceps contribute to this greatly.

D. Other considerations

1. The head should be kept in line with the trunk at all times

2. The eyes should be focused at least 30m ahead

3. The face should be relaxed in the jaw and neck region

4. The trunk is almost upright with no rotation and a high chest carriage

5. The arms will affect the legs. They should be flexed at approximately 90
degrees although there is some opening and closing at the elbow while
accelerating in particular. The emphasis should be on driving the arms
backward and therefore the arms will come forward elastically.

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2.2 Description of Technique elements

The following is a check list of technical faults that an athlete may need to work on. The use
of video analysis may be of some help.

General evaluation: rhythmical, efficient?

Area of body Observations Needs O.K Very good

work
Head 1. Is held in a vertical position
2. The face is relaxed
3. Is not rotating
4. The chin is in
5. Eyes are looking ahead

Shoulders 1. At correct height (not hunched)

2. No rotation

Arms/Hands 1. Driving in correct plane

2. Elbows are driving correctly (not the
hands)
3. Arms aren’t too open or opening and
closing
4. Hands aren’t flapping or too tight

Trunk 1. Held upright

posture
2. No rotation (or forward bend)
3. Is stable and controlled

Hips 1. Foot strikes under hips

2. High hips (“long legs”)
3. No lateral rotation

Legs 1. Aren’t splaying out

2. Lower leg isn’t swinging away from
the knee
3. Recovery leg is compact
4. Active backward swing phase
5. Internal rotation

Feet 1. Are dorsiflexed in the recovery phase

(sole of the foot isn’t horizontal at any
stage in the recovery phase)
2. Pronation (excessive) on impact
3. Opposite foot comes over the opposite
knee in the recovery phase
4. Active strike/claw
5. Are pointing straight ahead on impact
6. The athlete is landing on the forefoot
7. Rigid ankles during support phase

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2.3 Principles of Good Technique Coaching (practice principles, motivation,
feedback etc)

The human body is often regarded as having 5 natural “senses”: Hearing, Taste, Sight, Touch
and Smell. In the coaching and learning of motor skills it should be understood that there is
another critical sense known as Kinaesthetic Awareness, or more simply known as Body
Awareness. This sense is the athlete’s ability to feel the position of their various body parts in
space and in relation to one another. Coaches should be aware that not all people have highly
developed body awareness. Following a skill activity some athletes will be able to provide
accurate feedback as to what a particular body part was doing during an exercise. Others may
have little or no sense of what has occurred. Skill learning and development for these people
is often very slow or difficult.

It is essential that the coach and athlete establish clear communication when working on skill
development. Both must keep their focus on the skill element being worked on. In the initial
stages of learning, it is important that the athlete be given clear instructions and that an
appropriate model of the desired skill execution is provided through demonstration and other
means. Cue words, by which the coach signals that execution of the element being worked on
was correct, are important tools, as long as the athlete understands the meaning of the cue
word and has trust in the coach.

To develop an athlete’s awareness, the coach, after initial instruction, should use questioning
techniques to encourage the athlete to be self-analytical during and following an activity.

For example:
How high were your knees coming during that run?
What were your arms doing that time?
Give me your impressions of your last start?

With continual questioning in this manner, athletes will soon know that they are expected to
provide some feedback each time and this will lead to heightened concentration. However,
when the athlete achieves correct execution and the cue is given, the coach must give the
athlete time to internalise the feeling. It is a mistake to interfere with learning by giving
technical feedback while the athlete is attempting to internalise the kinaesthetic feeling of
correct execution.

Some athletes with well developed body awareness will be able to affect a movement pattern
or skill change almost immediately. Those who have a poorly developed sense in this regard
may often show little or no appreciable change despite continued efforts and may gain
considerable advantage from using feedback through occasional video analysis.

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3 PRACTICALS FOR TEACHING
3.1 Teaching Stages

3.1.1 Determining Block Positions

The front and rear foot positions have to be determined. Techniques to assist this include:

1. Fold arms quickly – the first one against chest is usually the side of the back
block leg as it is the one that reacts the fastest
2. Falling from feet together position – several trials needed. The foot that comes
out first is usually the foot that should go in the back block as the athlete will
feel comfortable putting this foot out first. This also shows which leg is the
favoured one to push off the front block too.

3.1.2 Block spacings

An initial “starting point” can be established by using the following:

1. Kneel behind front line – Go approximately 2 foot lengths back from line for
front block. Back Block – 3 foot lengths from the line
Or
2. Athlete kneels with front toe adjacent to rear knee. Hands should be placed
under shoulders and arms comfortably straight. Knee slightly touches
forearms.

In both cases athletes should feel the body weight is balanced between hands, rear knee and
foot.

NOTE: Refinement of block spacings is determined from “set” position!

3.1.3 The Sprint Start – Teaching Stages

The main objective of the crouch start is to overcome inertia and leave the blocks with the
greatest possible velocity.

The most effective way to do this involves:

o A multitude of mechanical skills
o The correct application of forces
o Strength/power-balance and correct weight distribution
o Correct joint angles

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B Set Position

The athlete should inhale going up to the set position. The reason for this is explained
later.

The arms and shoulders must be stationary. That is, no settling or rocking forward.
Any forward movement will take the weight off both blocks and the athlete will end
up not being able to drive out of the blocks. They will “fall” out of the blocks as the
legs will not be able to push effectively.

The head remains in line with body. The eyes should focus behind the line. So when
the hips are lifted to set, the head must follow the torso and stay in line with the body.

The thoughts in set position should be focused on moving as quickly as possible at the
sound of the next noise (the B in Bang not the g!)

Note:
Adjustments to block spacings e.g. distance, line, height of hips are now made to obtain best
positions. The use of timing lights can aid in deciding which is the most advantageous
position for the athlete in the set position.

If the hips are too high in set then the leg angles can become too open and therefore there
won’t be optimal force application on the blocks at the gun. However, as outlined above, it is
a “horses for courses” situation and what suits one athlete may not suit another.

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C The gun

1. Body position

When driving, the athlete should be at approximately 45 degrees to the ground.

There is a misconception that keeping the shoulders low will improve drive
down the track, but this tends to only encourage the athlete to drop their head
and bow their back. This will adversely effect the resulting drive into the track
and corresponding acceleration speed.

The best model to work to is the “power line”. This means, keep the head,
shoulders, hip, knee and ankle in a straight line. When the line of force does
not follow this line you end up with forward rotation leading to mechanically
undesirable movements particularly reaching out with foreleg to stop falling,
and braking or “standing up” will result.

2. Acceleration Pattern

There is a regular stride length pattern getting up to maximum velocity.

However, stride length increases at a faster rate for the 1st ten strides after which
it levels off. This is probably known or referred to as the “pure acceleration
phase”.

3. Rear Leg Action

If both feet aren’t completely pushed against the blocks in the set position then
the first action will be a sudden pushing back of the heel in order to get pressure
against the block and have something to push against. So if the heel is pushed
back to begin with then an even greater and more powerful “stretch reflex”
reaction occurs. The toe is pulled up into the shin and thus the foot is
dorsiflexed. This enables more efficient application of force and reduced ground
contact in the first stride.

There should be no cycling or looping occurring with the heel coming up

into buttocks. This is very important. Starting should be thought of as a
“pushing” action and not a “clawing” action.

The speed of the rear leg moving forward (+ speed of the arms) determines the
amount of force applied against the blocks. The hip extensors and flexors and
knee extensors all work in sequence to produce a powerful action. For example,
the gluteals and hamstrings which actually drive the hips forward. The athlete is
trying to explode the leg backwards into the track. The angle of the foreleg will
be about the same as the driving leg.

Keep ankles dorsiflexed at all times.

This will give less “sinking” as the ankle won’t collapse and the athlete gets
resultantly more “kick back” from the track. It is also a favorable position to
encourage the knee to come up.
Cue: “Knee Up - Toe Up”

Ground time will decrease progressively but air time will stay roughly the same.
Air distance (Effective Stride Length) increases.
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Page 14
D. Arm Action

1. The arms should move off the track as quickly as possible.

2. The athlete should drive the front elbow out and forward, but in a “closed”
manner. Cues “split” or “elbow out”. We don’t want to straighten the front arm
so the forearm should come across the body in the first action only.

3. The natural action of the rear arm is to straighten. This arm action matches the
opposite leg action in force and range of motion

E. Other Points

1. The breath is held for the 1st 10 metres as this encourages the execution of the
Valsalva Manoeuvre. In essence this results in increased blood pressure,
particularly in the Carotid Arteries to the brain, and also facilitates recruitment
of greater numbers of motor units, for example, holding your breath when you
try to take the top off a jam jar.
The holding of the breath also stabilises the pelvis and lower back. Intra
abdominal pressure increases and acts as a “splint” for the abdomen and spine
and allows for greater mechanical efficiency.

2. Neck/head and body in line throughout.

3.2 Technique analysis and fault correction

3.2.1 Common Errors (see summary sheet in 2.2)

1. The Head/Shoulders
- Rolling movements
- Head held back (Chin up)
- Head held down (Chin tucked in)
- Excessive tension in neck/shoulders

2. The Torso
- Excessive pelvic tilt characterised by “sway back” and low knee lift
- Hip rotation or rolling

3. The Arms
- Cross body action
- Long arms (over extension)
- Restricted range (front and back)
- Floppy wrists or excessive tension in hands

4. The Legs
- Poor knee lift/hip extension
- Over reaching of foreleg
- Foot placement; excessive width or crossover
- “Droopy Feet” = toes pointing down
- “Sitting”
- Delayed and or low heel recovery

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3.2.1 The Cause and Effect Scenario

Many of the problems encountered in poor sprint technique can be related back to deficiencies
in strength and/or flexibility. Early recognition of technique faults allows the coach to put
corrective programmes in place.

Even observing an athlete while standing, walking or jogging can highlight postural problems
or functional weaknesses. If evident at these stages they will more than likely be accentuated
when sprinting and will often lead to recurrent injury. Screening by a trained functional
physiotherapist, in consultation with the coach, can lead to these problems being identified
and fixed before an injury may occur.

Some common causes of poor technique:

1. Sway back = weak abdominals or tight Ilio-Psoas
2. Low Knee Lift = weak Hip flexors or poor hip flexibility particularly in the
hamstrings/gluteals
3. Crossing of the arms = poor shoulder flexibility or tight Pectorals or weak
Trapezius/Rhomboids
4. “Sitting when running” = poor hip extension or lack of strength in ankles,
quadriceps and hamstrings/gluteals
5. Hips dropping on ground contact = weak extensors at hip, knee and ankle
6. Droopy feet = weak shin muscles

3.3 Technique Drills and Practices

3.3.1 Important Considerations

1. The drills must be executed correctly. If not they are reinforcing bad
habits and are a waste of time

2. Once an athlete has mastered drills, it is of little use to keep doing them over
and over again and thus to try and fix the athlete’s running by the use of large
volumes of drills may prove ineffective. Here, “form running” is probably the
most specific “drill” the advanced athlete can now do.

3.3.2 Progression of drills

1. Drills are taught and carried out in an increasing order of difficulty

2. Progression to the next level of difficulty should take place only after the
athlete has mastered drills at the lower level

3. Once speed of execution is mastered, weighted jackets and sand tubes can be
used for further gains in power speed and strength endurance

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3.3.3 Basic drills

All drills must reflect, reinforce and develop the desired movement patterns of the sprint
model. As the skill level of the athlete increases, the landings can become more and more
active and elastic.

1. “A” forms

Type Progression
March A Stationary (supported by fence/wall)
- one leg
- both legs
Stationary
- both legs
Moving
- without arms
- with arms

Skip A (more active landing) Stationary

- without arms
- with arms
Moving
- without arms
- with arms

Run A (very active landing) Progressions as for Skip A

2. “B” forms

With high knee lift and downward foreleg extension. This is a more advance drill and
follows the same progression as for the “A” form.

Type Progression
March B Stationary
- one leg
- both legs
Moving
- without arms
- with arms

Skip B As above

Run B As above

There must be no reaching forward with the foot.

There are many other drills e.g. Speed Dynamics Videos: Sprints I, II. However if the
drill is not specific to the sprint model or is not used correctly, movement patterns are
adversely affected.

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 “Speed Dynamics” Drills

1. Stepping over ankle

- One leg
- Both legs
- Combinations e.g. 2-3 each side
2. Stepping over knee
- Progressions as above

These drills will help develop recovery and support preparation phases.

3.3.4 Other drills

1. Hop Drills

Can Can style – sometimes called “Ground Ups”

‘A’ FORM
- One leg straight
- Other knee being moving up and down quickly (alternate legs)
- Always jump on both feet together, don’t just tap the foot
- No more than four in a row on each leg

2. Arm drills

If arm action is a problem then the following arm drills could be useful. These
are often best done in front of, and side on to, a mirror.

A. Standing
- Arms straight and swinging backwards and forwards together and
gradually increasing the range of movement
- Avoid hunching of the shoulders
- Keep arms travelling
- Hand loosely curled

B. Arms now at right angles and swinging through as before

- Keep shoulders relaxed and not hunched
- Elbows take a low but long path and punching high out the back
- Hands come to about mouth height at front
- As action is sped up, concentrate on initiating a fast and vigorous
movement downwards

Both A and B are performed with arms travelling in the same direction
together.

C. Arms still at right angles but in normal running action

- One leg in front with weight on that foot
- Avoid hunching as speed gradually increased with same fast initial
movement
- Add dumbbells as action improves

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3.4 Video analysis

The use of video analysis can help identify technical areas that the athlete is doing well and
areas that may need further improvement. When athletes are sprinting, the speed of
movement is often very quick and the coach can use the video to look at the movements at
slower speeds and therefore more effectively analyse what the athlete is doing.

The athlete can also use the video to get a picture in their mind of how they look when they
are sprinting. If there is a technical fault that needs improvement then the video can add to
the coach’s cues and help give the athlete a better picture of what the coach is wanting the
athlete to do. Some athletes can’t feel what their body is doing and so seeing their image on
video can be an excellent first step in aiding the athlete to modify their technique or overcome
a technical fault.

The video can be used from side on, head on and behind to look at all potential areas that
could be improved. The video could/should be used at least monthly to give the athlete
regular visual feedback.

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4 PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF CONDITIONING
4.1 Stress adaptation and stress variables (volume, intensity, duration,
recovery –repetitions, sets, intervals

4.1.1 Training principles in relation to Programme Planning

Good planning by the coach and correct execution of the programme by the athlete require an
understanding of the fundamental training principles involved.

The following principles should be strictly adhered to during planning and supervision of
training throughout the year.

A. Principle of Super-Compensation

The dynamics of adaptation to stress occurs only if there is a compromise between

loading (volume or intensity) and recovery. Loading follows the cyclic pattern of
macrocycles, microcycles, sessions and links. Therefore the coach must endeavour to
create the process of adaptation.

The concept of Super-compensation is the key to understanding adaptation – training

must be designed to take advantage of it.

A loading stimulus which exceeds the original level (o) causes fatigue (a) resulting in
a decrease in performance.
During the rest period (b) the athlete recovers (compensation) followed by a rebound
(super-compensation) to a new training capacity level (c) than the original level.

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B. Principle of Specificity

The performance of specific exercises will lead to specific training effects. Training
adaptations within the body will be unique to the activity performed by the athlete at
that specific time. Training for running involves running, training for weight lifting
involves lifting weights.
Consider the specific differences between training for running the lOOm, versus the
marathon. The specificity of exercise relates to all training components. The concept is
reinforced physiologically (i.e energy sources which are dependent).

C. Principle of Progression

The training load (volume and intensity) must be adjusted during all phases of training
in accordance with improvement in motor and athletic abilities. The training
progression follows a cyclic pattern at all levels from the structure of a training unit to
that of a macrocycle.

D. Principle of Overload

The performance capacity of the body is increased through the selective stressing
(loading) of physiological and neuro-muscular systems and adaptations to that stress.
Appropriate training overload does not create overstress or overwork. For every bout of
overload activity there must always be an equivalent (and specific) bout of recovery.
Improvement in performance capacity is through the application of progressive
overload, and recovery. Knowledge of the appropriate recovery intervals for the energy
system being trained is essential.

E. Principle of Reversibility

Any physiological aspect that is improved gradually over a long period is more easily
maintained than one that has been improved rapidly. Capacities are lost more readily
when improved rapidly over a short time span (e.g strength, flexibility, aerobic
condition).
The foundation or general preparation phase is therefore the longest in order to provide
adequate time for the development of “base” conditioning prior to the training of event
specific qualities of young or developing athletes. In older athletes the specific phases
are longer. Relatively little input is required in order to maintain the general condition
e.g one maximum contraction per week will maintain but not improve strength at a
given level for a restricted time period. If there is no specificity in the programme, or
training load and recovery are not balanced, the performance capacity will decline.

F. The Principle of Diminishing Returns

Progress is rapid and most obvious at the commencement of training of a specified

aspect and slows as the potential is approached. Progress does not proceed in a smooth
linear upward direction but in a series of rises and plateaux. The general direction
however should be upward.
Improvement of any aspect using only one method of training will gradually slow
down. Therefore it is essential to vary the methods and type of training. The body will
react to a new stimulus but only for a given period of time.

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4.2 Elements of conditioning – physiological factors, energy systems, speed,
strength, spring, endurance, flexibility, agility, skill

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4.2.1 Energy Systems

The anaerobic Lactic and Aerobic pathways are used to provide energy in the form of ATP
for muscular action.

A. Anaerobic Lactic pathway

- Produces 3 moles ATP per mole of carbohydrate
- Due to the higher intensity, lactic acid is produced in absence of oxygen
- During recovery, the lactic acid is metabolised back into glycogen via the aerobic
pathway

B. Aerobic Pathway
- Produces 36 moles of ATP per mole of carbohydrate
- CO2 and O2 are by products
- A more “efficient” system

The various categories of sprint endurance training accommodate the whole continuum of
energy systems.
Speed is a summation of many factors; each of which must be present in the correct form
and/or quantity for speed to be developed.

They can be briefly described as:

C. Energy Function - Alactic Anaerobic/Phosphagen System

The muscle cell contains CP (Phosphocreatine) which is an immediate store for ATP
Regeneration. The resynthesis and breakdown occurs continuously.
During Activity ATP+C ADP+PC+Energy
During Rest/Recovery PC+ADP ATP+C

ATP is an immediate form of energy allowing muscle contraction to take place.

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D. Rates of Replenishment of ATP

50% -30 secs, 87% - 60 secs, 98% - 3 mins

The Alactic System provides enough energy for up to 6-9 seconds of maximum effort.

E. Major Trainable Factors Contributable to Speed

One must look at the total perspective of the type of trainable factors. To concentrate
on some areas and ignore or under-develop others will lead to injury and only partial
realisation of potential.

4.2.2 Speed

Factors affecting efficient Speed Training

The following factors are important when an athlete is about to take part in a speed session:

1. Relaxed state of mental readiness - athletes having confidence in their ability, mentally
focusing on the requirements during the activity and having controlled aggression.

2. Elastic muscle state - explosive exercise executed with or without weights increases
motor unit recruitment levels in the muscle and thereby increases the levels of force
produced. Therefore the athlete should be flexible and supple in their movements.

3. Relaxed muscle state - active stretching optimises the movement range but does not
desensitise the muscle.

4. Absence of Fatigue - any fatigue carried over from previous microcycles or training
sessions will cause tenseness and incorrect motor patterns. Sessions prior to a speed
session may contribute to its effectiveness by increasing motor unit recruitment but no
fatigue should be present. With young athletes there should be 24-36 hours of rest or
low intensity exercise.

4.2.3 Flexibility

Although the term suppleness is listed as one of the 6 S’s, it is more commonly and accurately
known as flexibility. Flexibility is fundamental for any well executed movement.

Insufficient flexibility causes the following difficulties and faults:

1. Learning of motor skills is hindered

2. Rate of skill acquisition is diminished
3. Possibility of injury is increased
4. Co-ordination is restricted

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Terminology

1. Flexibility (suppleness) is the range of movement around a joint or joints.

2. Mobility can also be substituted for flexibility.

3. Elasticity is the ability of muscles to lengthen.

4. You may find that there is some use of the term flexibility as meaning the elasticity
of associated muscle groups.

A. Types of Flexibility

1. Static (Passive)

A slow stretch and then stopping and holding a position at the point of first
discomfort. This position to be held for a minimum of 5 seconds but it is
generally recommended to hold it for 20 - 30 seconds. It is important that there
is no bouncing or jerking.

2. Dynamic (Active)

Involves repeated stretched movements which are not held, Ranges from gentle
movements to bouncing or swinging movements. These exercises can lead
directly into skill development.

3. PNF (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation)

A series of isometric contractions of the muscles to be stretched (muscles in a

lengthened position to start) followed by concentric contractions of the opposite
muscle group with light pressure from a partner. All stretching movements are
done slowly. Hold each contraction for six seconds. Many static stretches can
be modified to be used as PNF stretches.

B Principles of Training as they apply to Flexibility

1. Specificity
- Exercises should be specific to the requirements of the event.
- Exercises should be joint specific. A high degree of flexibility on one joint
does not necessarily indicate a high degree of flexibility in other joints.
- Exercises need to be specific to the strengths and weaknesses of the
individual

2. Overload
- Gains in flexibility occur when the limit of the existing range of movements
are reached regularly, allowing new limits to be set.

3. Reversibility
- Improvements in flexibility will be lost if regular work is not maintained.
- An elite athlete may deteriorate after three days if some form of flexibility
is not maintained.

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C. Important Considerations

Flexibility must be seen as a vital part of the overall training programme. There must
be clear distinction between those activities done as part of a warm up and those done
specifically to develop or maintain flexibility. For real progress to be seen, 3-4
sessions/units per week need to be carried out.

Precautions
1. Sessions must be planned so not to fatigue one group of muscles around the
same joint.

2. Correct execution of exercises is important. Therefore there should be no

distraction and it is best if they are supervised.

3. Sessions should not be completed under conditions of fatigue i.e after a heavy
training session.

4. Any increase in an athlete’s range of movement should be progressive and

gradual.

5. Static stretching before training or competition increases the risk of injury as

well as decreasing muscle tension which decreases the speed of contraction
and inhibits performance.

6. All flexibility sessions should be preceded by an appropriate low intensity

aerobic warm-up.

D. Sample Flexibility Exercises appropriate for Sprinters

A selection of some passive and active exercises most appropriate to sprinting

have been included below. Coaches are expected to research further for
additional exercises. Active stretching is best carried out during the warm-up
and appropriate exercises have also been suggested.

Static Exercises

1. Shoulders
Right angles all the way here! Use table or chair to support. Fingers point
towards front. Drop hips down until stretch noticed.

2. Shoulders
Sit with straight legs and back. Arms straight down, hands on ground alongside
hips with fingers pointing backwards. Push hips forward - rolling onto flats of
feet. Heels and hands don’t move! Push knees fully forward then lift hips as
high as possible.

3. Pectorals
Straight arms parallel to ground; Lean between and through doors with arms
extended.

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 4. Upper Hamstrings and Gluteals
Knee Hugs. Lie on back. Ground leg straight. Pull knee into shoulder. Other
hand pulls foot across opposite leg.

5. Hamstrings (Belly)
Standing - one foot up on support. Both feet face forwards. Rest both hands
and shin on bent elevated knee. Slowly straighten the knee until stretch felt in
the belly of hamstring. Keep support leg straight.

6. Hamstrings
Stand in front of support which should be just below hip height. Place heel bone
(not achilles) on the support. Keep both legs straight. Pull toe up. Ground foot
must point forwards. Bend with straight back from hips. Repeat other leg.

7. Quadriceps
Kneeling with other leg out in front with knee at right angles. Pull kneeling foot
into buttock. For increased stretch push upper body backwards. Change Legs.

8. Groin
Kneel on floor and push hips forward. Alternate leg forward.

9. Calves (Upper)
Legs and body in straight line. Relax one leg by bending knee as other heel
pushed to ground. To increase stretch, push hips forward. Alternate legs.
Variation: Turn toes inwards/outwards.

10. Calves (Lower)

Keep soles of feet firmly on ground or toes on a wedge with heel on ground.
Slowly bend legs and lower hips to ground.
Variation: Turn toes inwards/outwards.
11. Ankle
Kneel on floor, buttocks touching keels, toes extended behind. Arms support
body weight and lift knees clear of ground. Gently press back with buttocks.

12. Gluteals
Sitting with straight back and legs extended. Place right foot on left side of left
knee. Place left elbow against outside of right knee. Press right knee to left side.
Reverse procedure for other leg.

13. TFL (Outside of upper leg)

One leg behind and across the other. Keep rear leg straight. Let front knee relax
and bend away from leg to be stretched. Rotate trunk. Use a wall for support as
necessary.

14. Adductors - Short

Sitting with feet together, heels pulled tight into buttocks. Press knees gently to
floor.

15. Adductors - Long

Crouching with one leg extended sideways stretching inner aspect of thigh.
Variation: Point toes upwards or lay foot flat on the ground.
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Active (Dynamic) Exercises

Many static stretches may be modified to active ones by repeated and rhythmical
movements gradually increasing the range of movement.

These include:
1. Shoulders Running Curls
Side Curls
Arm Rotations (Full Extended Arms)
2. Pectorals Extended Arm Pushes
3. Hamstrings Leg Swings
4. Groin Walking Lunges
Scissor Squats
5. Calves Alternate pushing heels to ground using straight or bent legs.
6. Adductors Side Lunges

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Page 29
5 Practicals for conditioning
5.1 Flexibility, mobility, agility - static and dynamic stretching, PNF
- covered fully in 4.2.5

5.2 Anaerobic alactic activities specific to event.

5.2.1 Event Requirements

100m 1. High levels of explosive strength and maximum strength

2. Strength endurance is used as a base
200m 1. Medium to high levels of explosive strength and maximum
strength
2. Medium Levels of strength endurance
400m 1. High Levels of strength endurance
2. Medium to high levels of explosive strength and maximum
strength

Strength has a crucial role in a well planned sprints conditioning programme. Through
experience, coaches should develop effective programmes that are specific to the needs of the
athlete or the event.

The Benefits of Strength Training

1. To improve performance through increased levels of:

Strength Endurance, Maximum Strength, Explosive Strength (Power), Special
Strength

2. To improve performance through skill development.

3. To reduce the risk of injury.

Types of Muscle Contraction – An Overview

A. Isometric (Static) - Muscular force levels remain high but muscle length remains the
same, e.g pushing against the wall in a calf muscle stretch.

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B. Concentric The muscle length shortens and produces enough force to overcome the
resistance, e.g the upward action in “arm curls”.

C. Eccentric - The muscle lengthens and does not produce enough force to overcome the
resistance, e.g the slow lowering action in “arm curls”.
- this type of action occurs during all landing and support phases of
athletic activity and immediately precedes a powerful concentric
contraction.

D. Isokinetic - the muscle length shortens under constant tension through its full range of
motion (the resistance alters to maintain the constant tension).

5.2.2 Training Principles - as applied to strength training.

A. Specificity
Activities must be related to:
- age
- ability
- event needs
- phase of the programme
- fitness levels

B. Overload
Gains in strength will occur through progressive adaptation and the correct
application of the following variables:
- loading levels
- volume (numbers of sets and repetition)
- time (duration of overload)
- density (ratio of work to recovery)

C. Reversibility
If specificity and overload in an athlete’s programme decline, so will the
athlete’s strength.

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5.2.3 Strength Endurance
= the ability of a muscle to maintain tension over a relatively long period of time.

Purpose: To provide the base for maximum strength.

Aims: 1. To increase general strength, as slow twitch fibres are also recruited.
2. To develop the capacity to maintain the quality of the muscle’s contractile
force.

Methods of developing Strength Endurance

A. Weights Method

Load: 50 - 75% of 1RM

Reps: 10 or more repetitions or greater than 10 sec
Recovery: 45 - 90 secs (short)

B. Exercises with Added Resistance (Not Weights or Machines)

Using distances and duration greater than those used in Explosive Strength development.

Load: Own body, weighted vest, ankle weights (1-2kg), sand tubes (3-15kg),
medicine balls, resistance of sand or water, harness and tyre towing etc (keep
load less than 10 % of body weight).
Reps: Greater than 10 secs or 10 repetitions or 20 metres.
Recovery: 45 - 90 secs (short)
e.g 5 x 30m Skip A Drill on grass, or 5 x 15 overhead throws with 3 kg
Medicine Ball.

C. Extensive Circuit Training

Here we are looking for the maximum number of reps at sub-maximal intensity achieved in a
fixed time. Shorter recoveries than Intensive Circuit Training.
Load: as for B above
Reps: as for B above

5.2.4 Maximum Strength

= maximum muscle contraction at very low to low speed. The higher the resistance the
slower the contraction.

Purpose: 1. Overcoming inertia in the start position

2. Provide a base for Explosive Strength (Power)

Aim: To increase strength by increasing neural activity rather than muscle mass.

Load: 80-100%
Reps: 1-6
Recovery: 2 - 4 mins
e.g Half Squats 2x6 @80%
2x4 @90%
3x2 @100%

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5.2.5 Explosive Strength
= the development of maximum force over shortest length of time. Good technique in
movement is essential.

Purpose: Development of quick joint movements.

Aim: To increase strength so that the training effect goes to the fast twitch fibres.

A. Weights Method
Load: 75 - 90%
Reps: Less than 10 per set or less than 10 sec
Recovery: 1 - 3 mins
e.g 4 x 8 Jump Squats @75%
3 x 6 Quarter Squats @85% timed

B. Exercises with Added Resistance (Not Weights or Machines)

Load: Own body, weighted vest, ankle weights (1-2kg), sand tubes (3-15kg),
medicine balls, resistance of sand or water.
Reps: Less than 10 secs or 10 Repetitions or less than 20 metres
Recovery: 1 - 3 mins
e.g Sprint Drills March A or Skip A 6 x lOm

C. Intensive Circuit Training

Use fewer exercises and longer recoveries between stations than with Circuit Training for
Strength Endurance. Ensure that exercises are event and athlete specific.

Load: As For B.
Reps: As For B.

5.2.6 Special Strength

In this type of strength training a muscle is pre-stretched through eccentric action which is
then followed immediately by a concentric action.

Purpose: 1. To bridge the gap between Maximum Strength and Explosive Strength.
2. To improve leg speed through decreased ground contact time.

Aims: 1. To allow a greater loading of the muscle in the eccentric phase which
increases the stored elastic energy to be used in the ensuring concentric
(shortening) contraction.
2. To result in a more powerful concentric contraction.

A. Horizontal Jumps (for distance)

1. Short Jumps (Power)

Take off at full force and maximum effort
(i) Single Response
A single take-off leaving the ground on one or both legs. (SRJ)
To be carried out at the beginning of a training session. e.g Standing Long
Jump (SLJ) or Hop

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 (ii) Multiple Response
A series of sequential jumps either on one leg or from leg to leg.
Less than 20m or less than 20 repetitions.
e.g 3 to 5 Hops or Bounds
Standing Triple Jump

2. Long Jumps (Strength Endurance)

(i) Multiple Response

Take-offs at less than full force.
More than 20m and more than 10 reps.
The number of foot contacts could be as high as 150.
To be carried out at the end of a training session.
e.g Hopping or Bounding
Combinations

B. Vertical Jumps (for distance)

1. Short Jumps (for Power)

Take-off at full force and maximum effort. With Multiple Response Jumps use
Explosive Strength conditions
i.e less than 20rn or less than 10 reps.
The height of the box for depth jumps should be between 20 - 40cm.
The number of foot contacts per session should not exceed 40.

5.2.7 Guidelines for using Special Strength

1. Restricted use of these exercises in young children from ages up to 16

is recommended since injury can occur to the spine and lower body
joints, especially with vertical jumps.

2. To aid the adaptation process, less intensive methods of special

strength can be programmed from the start of the preparation phase.

3. Adequate levels of strength endurance and maximum strength must be

achieved before starting the more intensive demands of a special
strength programme.

4. A wide range of ankle flexion and strengthening exercises must be

carried out prior to special strength exercises.

5. High levels of flexibility, especially in the lower leg are crucial and
must be maintained.

6. This type of strength training puts a high demand on the tendons,

muscles and neuro-muscular system of the hip, knee and ankle joints.

7. Consideration of the athlete’s age, ability and background is essential.

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 8. Attention should be paid to the general principals of Specificity and
Overload.

9. Grass, sandpits and gym-mats should be used as landing surfaces

wherever possible and quality training shoes are essential to reduce the
shock to the lower leg.

10. Vertical Special Strength requires 48 hours recovery between training

sessions while less intense Horizontal Special Strength requires only 24
hours.

11. Training should commence with Horizontal Jumps, simple Multiple

Response Jumps (MRJ’s) being developed before Single Response
Jumps (SRJ’s). Vertical Jumps should only be introduced after a base
of Horizontal Jumps.

12. Special Strength Training should cease 1 - 2 weeks before a major

competition.

5.2.8 Strength Training Methods

Different types of strength training can be developed by using one or more of the following
methods.

1. Body Weight
- as a resistance (push ups, sit ups).

2. Devices
- using a resistance to mimic specific athletic movements (cables, accelerator,
harness)

3. Weighted objects
- while simulating specific skills (weight vest, sandbags, ankle weights,
medicine balls)

4. Falling body weight

- used as a resistance (special strength - hops, bounding, depth jumps)

5. Weight as a resistance
- (Olympic ,weights, machines)

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5.2.9 Order of Exercises

The order of exercises is crucial to the success of a strength training programme.

A programme can be divided up into 3 areas:

1. Primary lifts
- These are lifts involving all the body or the large muscle groups of the pelvis and legs,
2 - 3 exercises e.g Power cleans, Snatch, Squats, Leg Press.
Note - these exercises are the main focus of the session

2. Secondary lifts
- these are exercises including the upper body, and torso and possibly some other areas.
It is very important to alternate flexion and extension exercises e.g Bench press then
Biceps curls or vice versa. Also smaller but important muscles of the torso or more
specific muscle groups e.g gluteals.

3. Tertiary lifts
- these are supporting exercises used to maintain or strengthen smaller muscles and are
very important for injury prevention. These exercises usually involve high numbers
and are done at a rapid pace. e.g knee extension seated or standing calf raise.

5.2.10 Progressive Development of Strength Training

13 - 15 years: learn the exercises

low impact circuits
develop ankle strength

15 - 17 years: increase the loads gradually

develop circuits
introduction of more specific special strength

18 + years: full and graduated development of strength

increasing volumes and intensities of special strength

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5.2.11 Speed Training - Specifics

A. Training For Speed

Distances: usually from 20m - 40m, sometimes up to 60m.
Volumes: Numbers of Reps/Set 3-4
Sets/Session 2 - 4

The major emphasis of speed training is during the specific and competition phases. At this
point volumes may vary between 200 - 450m per session.

B. Recoveries

Training Distance Recoveries/Rep

20m 2 mins
30-40m 2-3mins
50-60m 3-4mins

The recovery periods must allow maximum replenishment of ATP stores.

C. Intensity

Must be greater than 95 % for maximum stimulation of the Central Nervous System and full
utilisation of energy stores. The Fast Twitch or White muscle fibre is predominantly
anaerobic therefore high intensities must be employed to work the muscles at their highest
level.

D Methods of Speed Training

Sprint training becomes stereotyped if the stimulus is continually applied in the same way.
This leads to a speed barrier or plateau. Therefore sprint training must be applied in different
ways. This method is called Contrast Training of which the parts used in order are:
1. Resistance
- running against the wind or weight vest or belt (no more than 5% of
body weight).
- running up hill but a very gentle incline, if the hill is too steep it will
interfere too much with the sprint technique.
- resistance with rubberised cord or tyre, or parachute.
- sprinting on sand.
2. Assistance
- caution must be used here, no more than a speed increase of 0.2 secs
should result as this interferes too much with the sprint technique.
Athletes should also have reached a good level of sprinting technique.
- downhill running on a very gradual slope or down a sharp slope then on
to a flat area.
- being pulled along by a rubberised cord.
- wind assistance.
- relays, the additional stimulus is very effective in lifting sprint speeds.

3. “Real Deal”
- sprinting under real conditions with minimal assistance relying only on
internal factors for speed.

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E. Training Means
1. Block starts

2. Gradual build-ups to maximum speed.

3. Short sprints over 20 - 40m and sometimes up to 60m.

4. Fast accelerations,

5. “Ins and Outs” - alternation of 10-15m Maximum and Minimal Deceleration

stages.
e.g 15m (in=100%) ÷ 15m (out=95%) + 15m (in=100%)

Note: Increasing and decreasing running velocities provide a better stimulus

for improvement than all-out sprints.

6. Running off or around the bend should be used as soon as straight line
technique has been mastered.

F. Examples of Speed Workouts (separate sessions)

1. 2 x (4 x 30m) Single Distance

2. 2 x (30 + 40 + 50) Step-ups
3. 2 x (50 + 40 + 30) Step-downs
4. 2 x (30 + 50 + 40) Pyramids
5. 5 x 60m Gradual Acceleration to top speed
6. 4 x (20m Tyre towing + 40m sprint)
7. 4 x (30m Uphill, 40m downhill, 30m sprint or flat)
8. 2 x (30 + 40 + 50 + 20) Block start pyramid
9. 4 x (10 Bound 30m sprint)

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 5.2.12 Periodisation of Speed Work

It must be stated that there should be some form of speed work in all phases but only in later
specific and competition phases should there be a lot of maximal or close to maximal speed
work. If a great deal of speed work is introduced too soon the body has not developed the
correct technical and function levels and can interfere with strength and power improvement
exercises.
The following is a recommendation as to what type of speed work should be carried out in
each phase of the training cycle.

A. Main Cond./General Prep.

- Gradual accelerations up to and close to maximal speed.
- Gradual accelerations to maximal speed then slow.
- Accelerations to maximal speed then hold for gradually
extended distances.

B. Specific Prep.
- Accelerations to maximal speed then alternate (close to maximal then
maximal etc).
- More use of contrast training.
- Greater distances covered in reps.
- Greater volumes of maximal work.

C. Competition
- Increased volumes of super maximal training (i.e assisted runs).

5.3 Anaerobic lactic activities specific to the event

Circuits, Intervals, Repetitions, Fartlek, Hills etc.

A. Special Endurance (I) work
- 150m - 300m distances
- 95 - 100% intensity
- 1 - 5 runs per session
- works on a combination of Alactic and Lactic Systems this style
of run is very specific to the technical and energy demands of
longer sprinting
- 300m - l000m volume in session. Recovery 10’ - 20’
e.g 1. 250+180+150
2. 150 + 250 + 180
3. 2x150,2x220

B. Special Endurance (II) work

- 300m - 600m
- 95 - 100% intensity
- 600 - l000m total volume in session
- complete or near complete recovery
- some light recovery work between runs may help rapid
metabolisation of lactic acid
- develops a combination of Alactic and Lactic System
e.g 1. 500 + 400 + 300
2. 300 + 400 + 300

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 C. Speed Endurance work
- 60m - 150m
- 95 - 100% intensity
- 300 - 1200m total volume in session
- reps 2 - 5/set, 3 - 5’ recovery/rep
- max number of sets 2 - 3, 8 - 10’ recovery/set
- develops efficient use of Alactic Energy Pool
- important in educating the body to more correct motor patterns
over longer distances
e.g 1. 2 x (100 + 80 + 60) with 4’- 5’/12’ recoveries
2. 3 x 3 x 150 @ 95% with 5’/lO’ recoveries
3. 2 x 3 x (120 - 150) (95- 100%) with 4/10’

5.4 Aerobic activities specific to the event

The term “Endurance” is an anomalous one but in the context of this resource manual it
means the maintenance of the sprinting speed rhythm.
The primary energy system in all sprinting events is the Alactic Anaerobic System. While this
system is largely expanded after ten seconds of effort it is still providing ATP and has a
sharing role while the Lactic Anaerobic System is coming into play.
Correct training develops effective utilisation of the Alactic System thereby developing the
onset of the fatiguing effect of Lactic Acid when this system is needed to provide energy for
sustained high intensity effort.
The value of training the Lactic Acid system is to prepare the body to tolerate high levels of
Lactic Acid in the 400m event. The lower intensity training is of a more general nature and is
used as a preparation for training in higher intensity mode, and also to improve the body’s
ability to metabolise the Lactic Acid through utilisation of the Aerobic System.

5.4.1 Components of Aerobic/Endurance Training Methods

A. Continuous Tempo
- Low intensity runs at 40 - 60%
- Improves recovery from anaerobic style sessions
- Lowers athlete’s fatigue levels
- Increases the quality and amount of blood
- Develops aerobic capacity
e.g 25 - 30 minutes of steady state running or 30 - 40 mins of fartlek.

B. Extensive Tempo
- Runs at 60 - 80% intensity
- Relaxed and smooth repetition runs
- Stresses the aerobic pathway to a point where it is insufficient to meet
the energy demands of the athlete
- Assists in the removal of Lactic Acid
- Distance/Rep 100 - 600m
- Number of reps/set 5 – 20. Number of sets 2-3
- Recovery between reps 2 - 3mins (Incomplete Recovery)
- Develops aerobic power
e.g 1. 2 x 5 x 200m @80% 1.5’/6’
2. 100 + 150 + 200 + 250 + 300 + 250 + 200 @ 80%

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 C. Intensive Tempo (this could almost come under anaerobic lactic work covered
earlier)
- Shared aerobic and anaerobic systems
- Runs 80 - 90% + intensity
- Distance/Run - 100 to 600m
- Sets are l-3
- Develops athlete’s tolerance of high lactic levels
- Runs are at a pace that is anaerobic but recovery is long enough for the
aerobic system to metabolise significant amounts of Lactic Acid
- Recoveries and intensities may be varied to create different loads
e.g 1. 2 x (4 x 200) @ 85%, 3710’
2. 3 x (2 x 300) @85%, 2’/8’
3. 2 x (200 + 100 + 200 + 100) Walk 200m/10’ at 90% + 90% +
90% + 95%

5.4.2 Special Training Adaptations in Developing Endurance

The use of different training environments e.g Hills or relay-style sessions can be developed
to provide extremely effective conditioning sessions. Also tough combination of activities
develop the attitude and competitiveness to succeed that all athletes need.

e.g 1. Sand Hills

- 5 x 20m (Steep hill)
- Max distance covered up hill in 5 - 10 - 15 - 10 - 5 seconds
- Max distance covered in 20 - 25 - 30 - 25 seconds
- Continuous tempo over sand dunes for 15’ – fartlek session
2. Relays
- e.g 6 legs varying in distance from 50 - 250m
- set different intensities for each leg - the shorter the leg the faster the
intensity

3. Water running
- with flotation vest
- use variables such as time, pace much in the same way as with track
workouts.
Note: Pool work outs should not just be seen as rehabilitation but as
conditioning sessions in their own right (if that is the aim)
- skills, hopping and bounding work outs are also very effective
- different depths of water

5.4.3 Distribution of Components of Endurance

In the quest for improved performances, a wide body of opinion agrees that higher intensity
endurance work-outs must start earlier in the preparation period. Movement skill and high
intensity work-outs are long-term goals and take much hard work to reach fruition. Only time
and effort spent on specific types of endurance will get the physiological returns. Volume
levels that are too high will handicap rather than develop the body’s ability to reach high
intensity required. Loads that are too low in intensity will not cause the correct level of
adaptation.

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Endurance Component Distribution

Phase
General Main Specific Competition
Event 100m Continuous Speed Speed Speed
Tempo Endurance Endurance Endurance
Extensive Intensive Extensive Extensive
Tempo Tempo Tempo Tempo
(recovery (Recovery
only) only)
200m Continuous Speed Speed Speed
Tempo Endurance Endurance Endurance
Extensive Intensive Special Special
Tempo Tempo 85- Endurance I Endurance I
Intensive 90% short Intensive Extensive
Tempo recovery Tempo 90%+ Tempo
Extensive Extensive (recovery
Tempo Tempo short only)
Continuous recovery
tempo (little) (recovery
only)
400m Continuous Intensive Speed Speed
Tempo Tempo 80- Endurance Endurance
Extensive 90% Special Special
Tempo Extensive Endurance I, Endurance I
Intensive Tempo II Special
Tempo Continuous Intensive Endurance II
Tempo Tempo – Extensive
Speed 90%+ (short Tempo
Endurance recovery) (recovery
Extensive only)
tempo
(recovery
only)

Note
1. Extensive and Intensive Tempo is seen as being of a general nature
2. Special Endurance I, II and Speed Endurance is used in the development of specific
endurance qualities. Young athletes should only be exposed to small volumes of
specific endurance. More mature athletes need to have much higher volumes of
specific endurance, indeed this is the whole focus of endurance development. Less
time is needed to develop a conditioning base.
3. Extensive and Intensive Tempo is only used as a precursor to higher intensities
4. The following continuum should be followed:

Endurance
General Specific

Young athletes Older athletes

Page 42
Page 43
6. Programme planning and competition considerations
6.1 Planning Factors

The following factors should be taken into account when coaching, or beginning coaching, an
athlete.

6.1.1 Youth versus Adult

It is not how old the athlete is in chronological terms, it is how old they are in terms of
training years that counts. Therefore, when dealing with a youth (or inexperienced adult)
athlete, the volume of training should be quite low to begin with and increased gradually so
that the organism can adapt to the training load and make progress from the training stimulus.
If the training load is too much then injury may occur.
The preparation period will be longer for the immature athlete and the intensity will need to
be gradually increased, whereas the intensity can be lifted quite quickly with a more advanced
athlete.

6.1.2 Physical, Social, Psychological factors

Each individual athlete brings with them a personal set of factors that a coach must take into
account before setting out the training programme.

A. Physical factors
The individual growth stage, sex, and health level of the athlete must be assessed first and if
necessary any modifications to training objectives made. It is often wise to get the athlete
“screened” by a local sports medicine doctor or reliable physiotherapist. This will give the
coach the right base for deciding on the appropriate training needs.

B. Social and Psychological factors

An athlete is not just a piece of physical machinery. Age, sex, family situation, educational
needs, job situation, social demands, facilities available, personal aspirations in sport and
personality will all affect the appropriateness of the training programmes that the coach
devises.

6.2 Goal setting and needs analysis; testing and scientific monitoring; medical
back up.

Effective planning is the area which brings all facets of training into a coherent and workable
conditioning system. There are many variables and it takes a long term involvement and
commitment for the coach and athlete to develop and co-ordinate those variables into an
effective programme.

Before an attempt is made to produce a programme there are several

factors that must be considered or be present.
- Knowledge of the athlete’s lifestyle e.g work, nutrition, parents
- Establish the athlete’s achievement needs and desires
- Coach’s expectations must link in with those achievement needs
- Athlete’s expectations must be tempered with reality
- Athlete must know what it costs - time and effort

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- Athlete must focus on the process of training, not the end point; there must be better
execution of the process and development of the different parts of the process.
- There must be relentless pursuit of goals by the athlete and coach
- The coach must know the athlete’s capacity and potential by knowledge of data from
training and completion.
- Availability and type of facilities

6.2.1 Goal Setting

Once the above factors have been taken into account, goals must be set. This is of paramount
importance in the training plan. If the athlete doesn’t have a goal then they don’t really know
where they are going. The coach can help in this regard. The goals must be negotiated by the
athlete and coach and achieved through well organised and careful planning. These goals
must be realistic but will challenge the athlete to achieve higher performance.

The goals are not all immediate in nature. Some will take the whole training period to achieve
(long term goals) and some will be achieved along the way (short term goals). The short term
goals should be seen as steps along the way to achieve the long term goal. Coaches should
build in regular testing sessions so that the athletes are getting regular feedback. This helps
the athlete measure their progress (usually against their short term goal).

A. The Long Term Goal

A single competition peak within the long term cycle should be above all realistic in terms of
the athletes capacity and potential and the time available.

B. The Short Term Goal

These are necessary to ensure that phase by phase improvements are made in the performance
capacities and that they are appropriate to the phase and kept in balance. Tests and other
performance indicators are important in the evaluation of the success of the prior phase and
the setting of new goals for the next phase if it is justified.

6.3 Planning Periodisation and Training Cycles

6.3.1 Guidelines for Planning a Years Programme

No phase of strength training should last longer than 6 weeks - where there is a 12 week
General Preparation Phase for a young athlete, it should be divided into 2 sub-phases.

It is further suggested that with elite athletes, the body should be re-adapted every 2 weeks by
modifying the same exercises or using different exercises that use the same muscle groups
(e.g changing the width of the grip in bench press).

Specificity, especially in the later stages of the General Preparation Phase throughout Specific
and Competition Phases, is crucial, Remember that strength training is only one aspect of the
total programme, sessions should only last 0.5 to 1 hour after a warm-up.

The following basic cycles show how strength loading may change for macrocycles and
microcycles:

Page 45
The training plan must above all be:
- Simple
- Varied
- Stimulating
- Innovative
- Flexible

6.3.2 Terminology in Planning a Year

The annual plan is divided into broad periods labelled as “Preparation”, “Competition” and
“Transition (or Recovery)”. The “Preparation” period may be subdivided into two phases
with the emphasis on General Training and Specific Training respectively. Divison of the
training year into such periods will enable the coach to deal with more manageable “chunks”
of programmes at a time. This helps ensure precise “peaking” at the appropriate time.

6.3.3 Subdivison of the Periods of the Annual Plan

A. Phases
- Three to seven broad periods of the year that have special emphasis
- Each phase is part of a continuum and should not be constructed in isolation from
other phases.
Page 46
B. Macrocycles
- Subdivisions of phases into periods of 4-5 weeks or microcyles
- The series of microcyles within each macrocycle are constructed so that loadings
are increased (or decreased) in a step-wise progression
- Loading (volume or intensity) can be built up over time by successive macrocycles
- The final microcycle in each macrocycle is usually a week of reclined load to
enable the body to recover and adapt.

D. Microcycles
- Vary in length from 3-14 days depending on age and experience of the athlete but
are usually seven days long.
- The object is to sequence training elements on a daily basis for the duration of the
microcycle.
- Major aim is to create supercompensation over the whole period of the
microcycle.
- Whilst macrocycles can be constructed for the whole or much of the annual plan
at one time, it is advisable to prepare in detail only those microcycles which
relate to one macrocycle at a time.
- Training loads within each microcycle should be varied so that intensities and
volumes are alternated between high/low in tandem from day to day.

E. Sessions
- Are the active workouts (usually 1 or 2) carried out each day.
- The object is to sequence the required activities (units) in a single training
session.
- Regeneration/recovery activities (eg massage) should be recorded as sessions.

F. Units
- Training components (e.g warm up, speed, speed endurance) of each training
session and are generally written as a,b,c etc on the training schedule.
- Sequence of training units is important for maximum training effect e.g units of
skill or speed should always precede units of endurance.

Generally any written schedule for the athlete will indicate all the work required to be carried
out for one macrocycle at a time.

Page 47
6.3.4 Sessions and Units of a Sample Training Microcyle (early Main
Preparation example)

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Session Weights Weights Upper Warm Cont. Warm
1 body up Up
weights
Mixed Regeneration
tempo
Ext/Int
Flexibilty
Session Warm Up Warm Warm Warm Warm
2 Up Up Up Up
Drills for Extensive Strength Intensive Drills
speed/power tempo End. tempo Strength
Bounds End.
Massage

6.3.5 Periodisation
Periodisation is the term used to describe the annual cycle of training.
- there should be no more than two cycles (double periodisation) per year
- each cycle should include preparation, competition and recovery periods

In Europe and North America where there are indoor and outdoor seasons each year, it is used
by athletes to achieve a performance peak during the winter and again during the outdoor
season. The lack of a proper indoor season in New Zealand creates the following options for
our athletes:

1. Single periodised year with the one major goal e.g. NZ Nationals

2. Double periodisation involving a ‘mock’ first competition with a series of indoor and
outdoor meets during the winter, followed by a proper competition period during the
summer.

3. Double periodisation using the NZ summer and the Northern hemisphere summer.
The following is an example of a double periodised year:

Page 48
 April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March
Competition
Testing * * * * * *
Weeks 2 7 12 10 5 5 8 2
Phases Tran General Main Preparation Specific Preparation Comp I Specific Comp II Tran
Preparation Prep Peak

Major Sp Sp Sp Sp Sp
Compnents C.T EXT EXT INT INT SPE SPE X SPEC CT
SPEC SPE SPEC
SPEC SPEC
STE STE MAX MAX EXP EXP MAX EXP
SK SK SK SK
FX FX FX SS SS SS SS
SS X

Minor STE STE MAX

Components STE MAX EXP
Sp FX FX FX FX
SK SK
SK SK
SS SS SS INT
CT CT CT CT CT CT
Sp = Speed CT = Continuous Tempo SPE = Speed Endurance STE = Strength Endurance
FX = Flexibility EXT = Extensive Tempo SPEC = Special End I MAX = Max Strength
SK = Skill INT = Intensive Tempo (400m and 400mH need EXP = Explosive Strength
Special End II work) SS = Special Strength

Page 49
 6.3.6 Phases of a Single Periodised Year

The simplest annual training plan contains only one of each of the main training
phases. As each phase is much longer than in a double periodised year, development
can progress at a slower rate where training is carried out during the whole 12 months
or can commence at a later stage in the year, e.g where other sporting activities have
priority during the winter months.

Typically the single periodised year in the New Zealand situation (where the New
Zealand Championships are seen as the major competition of the year) can be divided
into six clear units and are as follows:

Note: As the athlete gets older the general preparation becomes shorter and the
specific phase longer.

Phase Length Months of the year typically

General/Main Preparation 16-18 weeks April – July
Specific Preparation I 8-10 weeks August – September
First Competition 6-7 weeks October – November
Specific Preparation II 4-6 weeks November – December
Second Competition 6-7 weeks January – March
Transition 3-6 weeks March - April

A. General Preparation
Purpose: This phase lays the foundation for all components involved in high
quality/intensity training during later phases and ultimately competition.

Emphasis on:
1. Preparation of the body to be able to safely adapt to training loads
2. Build up areas of weakness (technique or conditioning) thereby decreasing the risk of
injury.
3. Creating all round general fitness through progressively increasing volumes in the
relevant component.
4. Strength endurance usually instituted during the transition phases and continues into
the general conditioning phase (however the majority of the phase is used for the
development of maximum strength).
5. Developing the body’s ability to adjust to increasing loadings.

Components Code
Extensive Tempo EXT
Intensive Tempo INT
Strength Endurance STE
Continuous Tempo CONT T
Skill SK
Speed SP
Speed Endurance SPE
Flexibility FX
Maximum Strength MST
Special Strength S/S
 100/200
Macrocycle 1 2 3 4
Major SK SK SK SK
Components EXT EXT SP SP
STE STE INT INT
FX FX MST MST
S/S S/S S/S
Minor SP SP FX FX
Components CONT T MST STE EXT
EXT SPE

200/400
Macrocycle 1 2 3 4
Major SK SK SK SK
Components CONT T CONT T INT INT
EXT EXT EXT EXT
STE STE MST MST
FX FX SP
S/S
Minor SP SP SP FX
Components S/S S/S FX STE
STE CONT T
CONT T
S/S

B. Specific Preparation (I, II)

Purpose: Commencement of event specific training through the use of special intensity
race rehearsal.

Emphasis on:
1. Refinement and stabilising of technique (event specific drills) and warm up procedures
2. Training and developing the correct energy systems of speed, speed endurance and
tempo by maintaining or increasing volume slightly while increasing intensity.
3. Continuation of maximum strength and introduction and development of special
strength
4. Phasing in of explosive strength

C. Specific Preparation (II) or Consolidation

Further improvement in the competition performance can be made by reintroducing specific

preparation following the first competition phase. Final adjustments are made to the training
levels, race rehearsals, peaking procedures and competition warm ups.

Components Code
Intensive Tempo INT
Strength Endurance STE
Continuous Tempo CONT T
Skill SK
Speed SP

Page 51
 Speed Endurance SPE
Flexibility FX
Maximum Strength MST
Special Strength S/S
Special Endurance I SPEC I
Special Endurance II SPEC II
Explosive Strength EXST

100/200
Macrocycle 1 2 3
Major INT EXST SPEC I
Components MST SP EXST
SP S/S SPST
SK SK SK
S/S SPE SPE
SPE SP
Minor FX FX FX
Components EXT MST EXT
EXST EXT MST
INT

200/400
Macrocycle 1 2 3
Major INT SK SK
Components MST EXT SP
SK STE INT
SP FX MST
S/S S/S S/S
Minor FX FX FX
Components EXT SK INT
EXST EXT EXT
STE SPEC II SK

Note: Special Preparation I = Macrocyles 1, 2, 3

Special Preparation II = Macrocyles 2, 3

For younger athletes the volumes of Special Endurance I and II are low.

D. Competition (I, II)

Purpose: The competition period may be subdivided into two phases.

1. First Competition
- The athlete must stabilise his/her best form
- The number of competitions needed to do this must be established
- Too many competitions without sufficient background will lead to
deterioration in performance
2. Second Competition
- Once form is reached and stabilised, short further improvement can be made
through a second competition phase (6-8 weeks)
- The major competitions take place during this phase

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 - Peaking occurs
- This phase cannot last too long as prolonged competitive stress will result in
some loss of neuromuscular coordination and therefore loss of form.

Components Code
Skill SK
Speed SP
Speed Endurance SPE
Flexibility FX
Maximum Strength MST
Extensive Tempo EXT
Special Endurance I SPEC I
Special Endurance II SPEC II
Explosive Strength EXST
Special Strength S/S

100/200
Macrocycle 1 2
Major SP SP
Components EXST SPE
SPE SK
SK SPEC I
SPEC I
Minor MST MST
Components FX EXST
S/S FX
S/S

200/400
Macrocycle 1 2
Major SP SP
Components SPE SPE
SPEC I SPEC I
SPEC II SPEC II
Minor SK SK
Components MST MST
EXST EXST
FX FX
EXT EXT

Page 53
6.4 Planning workout patterns and training units

6.4.1 Training Unit Combinations

The young developing athlete is usually working on a programme that is general

in nature. In the microcycles used the training units are multi-directional which
means there can be emphasis on speed, strength, and endurance. In the
microcycles of older experienced athletes, who have been through a general
style developmental programme, the training is of a more specific nature. In this
style, macrocycles tend to be single directional, i.e an emphasis on one or two
styles of training. That is not to say other styles of training are not employed but
there is definitely not the same emphasis. The different training units tend to be
rotated through in cycles of training.

The Level II course is designed to cater for developing athletes, therefore

possible combinations given below suit that style.

Training Unit Order – 3 Day Cycle

Day One Two Three

Training Strength Intensive Track Extensive Track
Work-out Work-out

e.g. A young athlete of 14 years could have the above three training days spaced out over a
whole week

Rationale

Days one and two are more intensive and work on the Central Nervous System (CNS) and
Day three is less intensive but puts the emphasis on biochemical function in the muscle cell
and allows the CNS to recover. Older athletes could have two lots of three day cycles and
then one rest and or regeneration day.

Specific Phase Example

CYCLE ONE CYCLE TWO

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7
Strength Speed Tempo Strength Speed Tempo Rest

Competition Phase II Example

Recovery Preparation Cycle 1 Preparation Cycle 2 Recovery

Cycle Cycle
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7
Recovery Strength Speed Speed Warm-up Comp. Rest
Tempo Endurance or rest

Page 54
6.4.2 Programming Worksheet

Complete the microcycles showing the combinations of training units you would use for each
of the given phases.

Note: Volumes and intensities need not be given. State the age, gender and
experience of the athlete

Age/Experience:

Gender:

General Phase:

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7

Specific Phase:

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7

Competition Phase 1

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7

Competition Phase 2

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7

Page 55
6.5 Training diaries

Most athletes have had the situation when they have had a magnificent performance but
have not known how or why it has happened. If the athlete is training to a programme
then there are usually aspects of the training that have led up to the athlete being in the
right condition to get to such a surprising result. However, if the training build-up is
basically the same as previous build ups, then the coach has to look more closely at what
has actually been happening along the way.

At the other end of the scale, when the athlete becomes injured or has a period of poor
training and performance, yet previously had achieved good results on a specific
programme, what does the coach do? One of the most important tools in the coach’s
repertoire is the athlete’s diary.

To ensure that the right information is available, it is necessary for the athlete to have a
diary that can be seen by the coach. This can keep the coach up to date on the day to day
responses to training and it can also keep the athlete more aware of how they are
responding to the training and other influencing factors. These details can also warn the
athlete (and coach) of potential problems before they happen. Prudent discussion and
changes to the programme may then prevent the problem becoming an issue.

No matter what the performance level of the athlete is, it is important that a basic diary
exists, even if only to be referred to next season to help build the next training
programme.

What daily information should the athlete note?

1. The daily programmed session.
2. The actual session carried out.
3. PM post workout weight.
4. Evening fluid intake.
5. Time to bed.
6. Hours slept.
7. AM pulse rate.
8. Menstrual details (if applicable).

Any significant changes in some of the above, especially 7. could indicate oncoming
illness or physical breakdown and so training loads should be adjusted accordingly.
The following is an example of the type of sheet or notes that the athlete should be
keeping in their training diaries.

Page 56
 Daily workout

Day ______________________ Date __________________ Time ________________

Morning Pulse _______________________ Morning Weight ________________________

Workout venue ____________________________ Surface __________________________

Weather ___________________________________________________________________

Fatigue index (before training) 1 2 3 4 5 (after training) 1 2 3 4 5

Main aim of workout

Workout Details
(Times, tasks etc)

Remarks, Observations, Comments

Page 57
6.6 Competition considerations - tactics; environmental factors (heat, cold,
humidity, altitude, travel)

6.6.1 Tactics

Tactics don’t really come into play in the sprints unless there is more than one round of
competition. If this is the case then the athlete and coach should sit down well before
the event and discuss what tactics the athlete will adopt during the race. For example, in
a 100m race, running the first 50m at 100%, assessing where the rest of the field is, and
if the athlete is well ahead, just relaxing and doing enough to qualify. The athlete
should try and take it easy so that they don’t use up to much energy for the following
round(s).

In some cases the athlete may have to run at 100% for the whole race just to get through
to the next round. Here the athlete should forget about everyone else in the race and just
run as fast as they possibly can.

Some athletes try and think of specific cues during the race to help their running form
etc, but often this can just lead the athlete to tense up. They may be better off just trying
to relax and not thinking of anything at all - just run as fast as they possibly can!

6.6.2 Environmental factors

The environment can play a big part in how the athlete competes.

A. Heat/Humidity

Sprinters tend to run faster when the weather is warmer. Temperatures up to 30 degrees
will probably aid the athlete in their performance. As long as the athlete keeps well
hydrated and stays in the shade when possible (e.g during the warm up) then the
warmer temperatures should be of benefit. If the athlete has to travel away to a warmer
environment then it may take up to 14 days before the body has adapted to the warmer
temperatures.
Weighing before and after training sessions will help establish fluid needs in a warmer
environment. Heat loss through the skin in a humid environment will be less than
normal so the athlete must be aware of over heating and therefore the importance of
keeping well hydrated.

B. Cold

Athlete’s performances will generally be adversely effected in a colder environment.

This is probably due to increased tissue viscosity and reduced muscle contractile
velocity. Athletes need to take more time to warm up in a cold environment and need to
wear plenty of clothing to keep themselves warm, especially from the wind as this is the
most dangerous way an athlete can very quickly lose body heat.
The body doesn’t seem to acclimatise to the cold like it does the heat, so attempts must
be made to keep warm all the time, especially during competition. This means wearing
hats, gloves etc and keeping active.

Page 58
 C. Altitude

Sprint athletes tend to perform better at altitude as the air is “thinner”. Acclimatisation
is needed, often up to 7 days. There is some debate as to the positive effects of training
at altitude and then competing at sea level. This seems plausible for endurance events
but for the sprints the effect seems less noticeable.

D. Travel

Athletes should try and set their body clocks to that of their destination as soon as they
possibly can into their flight. Hydration is important when flying as is sleeping at the
correct times so that the body clock is set into that of the time at the destination.
Therefore when the athlete arrives at their destination they can immediately fit into the
time zone and start training. Training should be gentle at first as the body clock is still
getting used to the new time zone. Flexibility, and a relaxed approach is also important
as there may be delays of flights, misplaced luggage etc along the way.

Page 59
7. Relays
These include the 4xlOOm and the 4x400m. Relays are two of the most spectacular events on
the athletics programme. They are certainly exciting ways of ending a meeting. Sprinting
performances are quite often better in relays than individual sprint races.

7.1 The 4 x 100m relay

7.1.1 Basic rules of the 4 x 100m relay

1. Change zones are 20m long with a 10m acceleration zone prior to it.

2. The actual change must take place within the change zone, where the runners are is
irrelevant, i.e one can be inside the zone and the other outside the zone.

3. The baton must be carried throughout the race, if the baton is dropped the runner who
dropped it must retrieve it.

4. Check marks or tape material should be used for changes. Solid objects such as blocks
or shoes should not be used.

5. After the exchange a runner must stay in his/her assigned lane until the track is clear.

6. There should be no interference with other runners.

7.1.2 Changing method requirements

1. Baton hands - right hand to left hand to right hand to left hand.

2. First and third runners - stand and run on inside of lane.

3. Second and Fourth runners - stand and run on outside of lane.

4. There must be no loss of speed of runners during the change.

5. Approximate length of each leg an athlete may have to run:

First runner - 100 – l10m
Second runner - 120 - 130m
Third runner - 120 - 130m
Fourth runner - 120m

6. The trunk carriage of both runners at the hand over should be as close as possible to
the desirable sprint posture.

7. The distance between the runners at the hand over should be approximately two
comfortable arm spans.

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7.1.3 Qualities of runners required for each leg

First leg - Good starter, can run bends well, can pass well, usually an athlete
with a high leg cadence
Second leg - Can receive and pass well, good speed endurance, should be able to
run well despite being without close contact with other relay teqams
due to the staggers
Third leg - Similar to second leg but a good bend runner, can pass and receive
well
Fourth leg - Can receive baton well, responds well to pressure, can stay relaxed
but run determinedly especially if chasing

Some athletes have favourite legs, or can only run with the baton in one particular hand. It is
important that runners get used to running all legs and using their non-preferred hand.
However, it is very apparent some athletes are better physically and temperamentally in
certain legs. A relay coach must spend time with a relay team to really understand each relay
runners strengths and weaknesses.

7.1.4 Notes on Relay Pass Techniques

A. Push Pass
On receiving, the athlete’s head, neck, shoulders are relaxed with no rotational movement. On
hearing the command the receiving athlete extends his/her arm immediately backwards to a
position angled slightly down from the horizontal. The palm is an extension of the arm, the
fingers are relaxed and together; the thumb is at right angles to the index finger. The arm must
be held steadily until the pass has been safely achieved. Some athletes have difficulty
achieving the arm position and holding it steady. Flexibility exercises and arm swinging
activities will help achieve this.

Possible mistakes in using the Push Pass

1 The receiver’s arm extends sideways instead of backwards.

2. The wrist of the receiver is bent instead of being an extension of the arm.

3. The fingers are curled instead of straight.

4. The receiver’s arm is unsteady.

5. The runners come too close together.

6. The incoming runner sweeps the baton downwards instead of pushing it forward.

7. The command is too early causing the receiver to hold the arm for too long with
resulting loss of speed and an unsteady arm.

8. The command is too late so the runners become too close.

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Passing
The incoming runner is responsible for selecting the moment at which the pass should occur.
The instant before the correct passing distance is reached the command (one syllable arranged
word or sound) is made. The exchange is made as the incoming runner moves into the change
distance; by pushing forward the hand horizontally and with the wrist action snapping the
baton onto the receiver’s palm.

Note:
This is the pass that is internationally recommended for 4 x 100m relays and is strongly
advocated by the National Sprints and Relays Advisory Group. It is important the same relay
pass technique is used by club, provincial and national teams. The upwardly facing palm is a
larger target area at a height closer to eye level than the upsweep pass. Also, the distance
between runners in the push pass is greater allowing for less chance of entanglement and
greater freedom of movement.

C. Upward Pass

The receiver extends the arm backward with the thumb and fingers at right angles and
pointing generally downward. The passer swings the arm upward into the “V” formed by the
index finger and thumb. The danger of this technique is that with each successive pass the
grip becomes shorter. The target area is smaller and in attempting to adjust the grip while
running the athlete may drop the baton.

D. Downward Pass

This is usually the preferred method for younger or more inexperienced athletes. These
athletes should be encouraged to use either the push pass or the upward pass as these methods
are a much safer and more efficient way of passing the baton from one runner to the next.

7.1.5 Placement of Check Marks

The objective is to make the pass withfri the change zone at maximum possible speed. There
should be two check marks:

1. Where the receiver stands

2. His/her acceleration mark; depending on the runner’s age, speed and
experience.

For young or inexperienced athletes the change should take place approximately in the middle
of the change zone. Experienced athletes should be changing approximately 5 - 8m before the
end of the change zone. Young athletes may need to stand closer to the change zone with two
check marks being used. Only one check mark may be used with experienced athletes i.e the
acceleration mark.

Acceleration should be consistent, smooth and controlled. Sophisticated equipment can be

used to calculate the check mark placement but in New Zealand trial and error must suffice.
Generally athletes should use 22 - 23 pigeon steps, i.e foot lengths. With experience and at top
speed, 27 - 29 steps are often used. Care must be taken when stepping out the distances.
Check marks should be broad strips of tape for ease of sight in the acceleration position. If it
is wet, drawing pins may be needed to pin the tape to the track surface.

Page 62
7.1.6 Acceleration Principles

1. The standing start is commonly used as it allows a more controlled acceleration, but the
check mark distance is greater than if the “three point crouch start” is used. That is, one
arm off the ground.

2. Runners two and four stand on the outside of the lane with the check mark on the
inside, while runner three stands on the inside of the lane with the check mark on the
outside.

3. Torso, arms and feet should be facing forwards with the head looking over the inside
shoulder at the check mark and the feet of the incoming runner.

4. Runners two and four should have their left foot and right arm forwards and runner
three the reverse, in the standing start. This allows the inside arm to be pointing back
and improve the view of the check mark situation.

5. Once the acceleration is started from the outgoing runner (from the reaction of the
incoming runner hitting the check mark), runners two and four must stay on the outside
of the lane and runner three the inside of the lane as to not cramp the incoming runner.

6. Acceleration must be controlled with full focus on attaining maximum speed. Concern
on whether the pass will be made should not be present if there has been consistency of
effort in training and confidence has been built in the change.

7.1.7 Skill Development

The passing of the baton at speed is an extremely skilled act. The pass must be carried out at
faster and faster speeds as skill levels improve. Skill development can be improved by the use
of the following drills:
1. Passing
- Standing
- Tap passes
- Walking
- Jogging
- Striding
- Tempo
Tap passing is when all the ingredients are present but instead of the passing taking place the
receivers hand is tapped then the baton is withdrawn. Instead of groups of four passing it is
much more beneficial and efficient to work in pairs.
- Acceleration
- At faster and faster rates of acceleration of 80-100%. Runner at
back says “go”, the two runners accelerate at same pace, the
passer calls and the full change is made. As skill increases the
running speed increases.
2. Acceleration
- “Jog in”, the incoming runner jogs in and the outgoing runner practises his/her
acceleration timing and technique.
- “Cops and Robbers”, the incoming runner is the cop and outgoing runner is the
robber. No baton is used. The incoming runner attempts to tag the outgoing
runner before he/she gets out of the change zone. No baton is used as it may

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 have an inhibitory effect on the speeds of the athletes. Adjustments are made
until the correct check marks are calculated.

3. Changes
- Once a desired level of skill has been reached in A and B above, full changes
may take place with continued adjustment of the check mark until a
consistency is reached. No changes should be made at anything less than full
pace as it disrupts the dynamics of the timing. Run-ins and run-outs may vary,
depending on time available, from 25m to 60m. The latter will replicate the
race situation quite closely. If using a 30m run-in distance subtract one foot
less than used for competition. Factors such as athletes tiredness and wind will
also effect check mark placement.

7.1.8 Relay Warm Up

It is important that the relay squad synchronises warm ups so that all athletes start and finish
together. The volume and intensity will vary depending on athlete’s fatigue levels or whether
it is a training or competition situation. Most parts of the warm up can be done together and
parallel a sprinter’s warm up. Depending on time availability, volumes may change but
essentially all elements should be present.

This includes:

1. Jog tap passes.

2. Flexibility! dynamic stretching, drills if necessary.

3. Tap passes; strides x 2 - 3 over 80 – 100m

4. Acceleration passes 3 - 4 over 30m.

5 Placement of check marks.

6. Full changes 2 - 4 form 30 - 40m run in.

7. 5 – 10 mins rest time before the race if applicable.

7.2 The 4x400m relay

It is crucial that there be no loss of speed at the changes though to a less sophisticated level
than outlined for the 4 x 100m change. The changes are usually visual but in a tightly
contested race there will be a lot of physical contact.

7.2.1 Methods of Change

1. Palm of the hand is extended backwards and baton is placed in the palm and is
transferred to the right hand.

2. Visual sweep - the same as for the 4 x 100m.

3. Ice cream pass - the arm is extended towards the incoming runner who places the top
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 half of the baton vertically between the thumb and index finger of the outgoing runner.
This runner grips the baton and transfers it to the other hand. This is the preferred
method as the transferral of the baton from left to right hand is less hazardous.

7.2.2 Running the relay

1. The first runner runs in his/her assigned lane for all of the first lap.

2. The second runner must take the baton in the assigned lane between the two blue lines.
This runner remains in the lane until after the break line at the beginning of the back
straight (the rest of the race after the 2nd runner breaks across the pole line is run in
the pole lane).

3. The next runner may line up forward of the dashed blue line in the order of the runners
at the 200m mark. They cannot change this order once it is set.

4. The third and fourth runners are the same. There is a considerable amount of jostling
at the start of the 3rd and 4th legs. Considerable practice and judgement must be
directed at the safe and efficient transferral of the baton here.

5. The outgoing runner is mainly responsible for judging the space between the runners -
approximately 2 arm lengths.

6. The outgoing runner should face the inside of the track and watch the incoming runner.

7.2.3 Running Order

There are several factors that affect the order in the 4 x 400m relay. They include:

A. The individual running strengths of the team.

B. The number of 400m specialists.
C. The physical condition of the members after previous competitions.

1. First Runner
- Must be fast enough to ensure no loss of contact with other competitors.
- Needs to have good pace judgement and be very competitive.
- Sets the pattern for the rest of the race.

2. Second Runner
- Must be able to run his/her own race with confidence and at least hold the
position.

3. Third Runner
- This should not necessarily be the slowest member as it is important not to lose
any ground. In fact, every effort must be made to improve the team position,
thereby not leaving too much work for the last runner to do.

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4. Fourth Runner
- Generally the most competitive member but not necessarily the best 400m
runner. Must be prepared to attack and chase or hold the position if in front.

Athletes should learn the requirements of each leg. Representative teams tend to have runners
who are all last leg runners for their club.

Drills
- the best introduction for athletes 15 - 16 years old to this event is by running relays such
as 4x200m or 4x300m. This introduces visual changes, the jostling problems at the
changes and an appreciation of the tactics of such an event.

Other drills include:

1. Individual changes free from contact where the focus is on pace judgement
through the change.

2. Changes with 3 - 4 pairs passing batons; set up jostling problems.

3. Tempo changes - runners run in from distances up to 200m and change to the
outgoing athletes who can also run up to 200m. This can be used as a substitute
for 400m training.

7.3 Calculation of Goal Times for Relays

A. 4 x 100m relay
- Firstly add up recent best 100m performances e.g 11.6, 11.7, 11.9, 11.6 = 46.8
seconds

- Now, subtract 2.5 seconds - if practice skill is low

2.8 seconds - if practice skill is good
3.0 seconds - if practice skill is excellent
This gives possible ranges of 44.3 seconds
44.0 seconds
43.8 seconds
B. 4x400m relay
- Firstly add up recent best 400m performances e.g 52.5, 52.9. 52.9, 53.5 = 3 mins
31.8 seconds

- With a little jostling and a running start for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th runners, the
differential is worth 1.5 - 3.0 seconds. This gives possible ranges of 3 mins 30.3
seconds - 3 mins 28.8 seconds

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