14

The Nervous System:

The Spinal Cord and
Spinal Nerves

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by

Steven Bassett
Southeast Community College
Lincoln, Nebraska

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Introduction

• The Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of:
• The spinal cord
• Integrates and processes information
• Can function with the brain
• Can function independently of the brain
• The brain
• Integrates and processes information
• Can function with the spinal cord
• Can function independently of the spinal cord

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Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

• Features of the Spinal Cord

• 45 cm in length
• Passes through the foramen magnum
• Extends from the brain to L1
• Consists of:
• Cervical region
• Thoracic region
• Lumbar region
• Sacral region
• Coccygeal region

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Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

• Features of the Spinal Cord

• Consists of (continued):
• Cervical enlargement
• Lumbosacral enlargement
• Conus medullaris
• Cauda equina
• Filum terminale: becomes a component of the
coccygeal ligament
• Posterior and anterior median sulci

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Figure 14.1a Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

C1
C2
Cervical spinal C3
nerves C4
C5
C6
Cervical
C7
enlargement
C8
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7

Thoracic T8
spinal Posterior
nerves T9 median sulcus

T10

T11 Lumbosacral
enlargement
T12

L1 Conus
medullaris

L2

Lumbar L3 Inferior
spinal tip of
nerves spinal cord
L4
Cauda equina
L5

S1
Sacral spinal
S2
nerves
S3

S4
S5

Coccygeal Filum terminale

nerve (Co1) (in coccygeal ligament)

Superficial anatomy and orientation of the adult spinal cord. The

numbers to the left identify the spinal nerves and indicate where
the nerve roots leave the vertebral canal. The spinal cord, however,
extends from the brain only to the level of vertebrae L1–L2.
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Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

• Features of the Spinal Cord

• Transverse view
• White matter
• Gray matter
• Central canal
• Dorsal root and ventral root: merge to form a spinal
nerve
• Dorsal root is sensory: axons extend from the
soma within the dorsal root ganglion
• Ventral root is motor

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Figure 14.1d Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
Posterior median sulcus

Dorsal root

Dorsal root White matter

ganglion

Central Gray
canal matter

Spinal Ventral
nerve root Anterior median fissure
C3

T3

L1

S2

Inferior views of cross sections

through representative
segments of the spinal cord
showing the arrangement of
gray and white matter
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Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

• Features of the Spinal Nerves

• Consist of:
• Sensory nerves (afferent nerves): transmit
impulses toward the spinal cord
• Motor nerves (efferent nerves): transmit impulses
away from the spinal cord

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Figure 14.1d Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
Posterior median sulcus

Dorsal root

Dorsal root White matter

ganglion

Central Gray
canal matter

Spinal Ventral
nerve root Anterior median fissure
C3

T3

L1

S2

Inferior views of cross sections

through representative
segments of the spinal cord
showing the arrangement of
gray and white matter
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Spinal Meninges

• Features of spinal meninges:

• Specialized membranes that provide protection,
physical stability, and shock absorption
• Continuous with the cranial (cerebral) meninges
• Denticulate ligaments help anchor the spinal
cord in position
• Made of three layers
• Dura mater: tough, fibrous outermost layer
• Arachnoid mater: middle layer
• Pia mater: innermost layer

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Figure 14.2c The Spinal Cord and Spinal Meninges
Gray matter
White matter

Ventral root
Spinal nerve

Dorsal root Dorsal root

Pia mater ganglion

Arachnoid mater

Dura mater

Posterior view of the spinal cord showing the

meningeal layers, superficial landmarks, and
distribution of gray and white matter
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Figure 14.2a The Spinal Cord and Spinal Meninges
Spinal cord

Anterior median
fissure

Pia mater

Denticulate
ligaments

Arachnoid mater
(reflected)
Dura mater
(reflected)

Spinal blood
vessel

Dorsal root of
sixth cervical
nerve
Ventral root of
sixth cervical
nerve

Anterior view of spinal cord showing meninges and spinal nerves. For this
view, the dura and arachnoid membranes have been cut longitudinally and
retracted (pulled aside); notice the blood vessels that run in the
subarachnoid space, bound to the outer surface of the delicate pia mater.
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Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

• Gray matter
• Central canal
• Consists of somas (cell bodies) surrounding
the central canal
• White matter
• Consists of axons
• Nerves are organized into tracts or columns
• Located outside the gray matter area

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Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

• Organization of Gray Matter

• Somas are organized into groups called nuclei
• Sensory nuclei
• Motor nuclei
• Transverse view shows:
• Posterior gray horns
• Lateral gray horns
• Anterior gray horns
• Gray commissure

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Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

• Organization of gray matter

• Posterior gray horns: somatic sensory and
visceral nuclei
• Lateral gray horns: visceral motor nuclei
• Anterior gray horns: somatic motor nuclei
• Gray commissure
• Consists of axons crossing from one side to the
other

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 Figure 14.4b Sectional Organization of the Spinal Cord

Posterior median sulcus

From dorsal root
Posterior
gray horn
Posterior gray
commissure
Somatic
Sensory
Visceral nuclei

Lateral Visceral
gray horn Motor
nuclei
Anterior Somatic
gray horn
To ventral
Anterior gray root
commissure

Anterior median
fissure

The left half of this sectional view shows important anatomical landmarks; the right half indicates
the functional organization of the gray matter in the anterior, lateral, and posterior gray horns.

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Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

• Organization of white matter

• Consists of columns of nerves (fascicles)
• Columns convey either:
• Sensory tracts (ascending tracts)
• Motor tracts (descending tracts)

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Figure 14.4c Sectional Organization of the Spinal Cord

Posterior white Leg

column (funiculus) Hip
Trunk
Arm

Lateral
white
column
(funiculus) Flexors
Extensors Hand
Forearm
Arm
Shoulder
Trunk

Anterior white Anterior white

column (funiculus) commissure

The left half of this sectional view shows the major columns of white matter. The right half
indicates the anatomical organization of sensory tracts in the posterior white column for
comparison with the organization of motor nuclei in the anterior gray horn. Note that both
sensory and motor components of the spinal cord have a definite regional organization.

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Spinal Nerves

• There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves

• 8 cervical nerves
• 12 thoracic nerves
• 5 lumbar nerves
• 5 sacral nerves
• 1 coccygeal nerve

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Figure 14.1a Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

C1
C2
Cervical spinal C3
nerves C4
C5
C6
Cervical
C7
enlargement
C8
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7

Thoracic T8
spinal Posterior
nerves T9 median sulcus

T10

T11 Lumbosacral
enlargement
T12

L1 Conus
medullaris

L2

Lumbar L3 Inferior
spinal tip of
nerves spinal cord
L4
Cauda equina
L5

S1
Sacral spinal
S2
nerves
S3

S4
S5

Coccygeal Filum terminale

nerve (Co1) (in coccygeal ligament)

Superficial anatomy and orientation of the adult spinal cord. The

numbers to the left identify the spinal nerves and indicate where
the nerve roots leave the vertebral canal. The spinal cord, however,
extends from the brain only to the level of vertebrae L1–L2.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Spinal Nerves

• Spinal nerves
• Each peripheral nerve consists of:
• Epineurium: outer layer – becomes continuous
with the dura mater
• Perineurium: layer surrounding a fascicle – a
fascicle is a bundle of axons
• Endoneurium: layer surrounding a single axon

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Figure 14.5a Anatomy of a Peripheral Nerve

Blood vessels

Connective Tissue
Layers
Epineurium covering
peripheral nerve
Perineurium (around
one fascicle)

Endoneurium

Schwann cell

Myelinated
axon
A typical peripheral Fascicle
nerve and its connective
tissue wrappings
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Spinal Nerves

• Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves

• Four branches of the spinal nerves:
• White ramus
• Gray ramus
• White and gray ramus are collectively called rami
communicantes
• Dorsal ramus
• Ventral ramus

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Spinal Nerves

• Branches of the spinal nerves (details)

• Rami communicantes (white and gray
ramus)
• Innervates smooth muscles, glands, and organs
• Motor impulses leave the spinal cord through the
ventral root to the spinal nerves
• Dorsal ramus
• Innervates skeletal muscles of the neck and back
• Ventral ramus
• Innervates skeletal muscles of the limbs

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Figure 14.6a Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves
Motor Commands

Postganglionic fibers To skeletal

to smooth muscles, muscles of back
glands, etc., of back Dorsal Visceral Somatic
Dorsal root ganglion root motor motor

Dorsal ramus

Ventral ramus

To skeletal
muscles of body
wall, limbs Ventral
root

Postganglionic fibers to
smooth muscles, glands,
etc., of body wall, limbs
Spinal nerve

Gray ramus Sympathetic ganglion

(postganglionic)
Rami
communicantes White ramus Postganglionic fibers
(preganglionic) to smooth muscles,
glands, visceral organs
Sympathetic nerve in thoracic cavity

KEY
Somatic motor Preganglionic fibers to
commands sympathetic ganglia
innervating abdomino-
Visceral motor
commands pelvic viscera

The distribution of motor neurons in the spinal cord and motor fibers within the spinal
nerve and its branches. Although the gray ramus is typically proximal to the white ramus,
this simplified diagrammatic view makes it easier to follow the relationships between
preganglionic and postganglionic fibers.
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Spinal Nerves

• Sensory impulses associated with the

spinal nerves
• Sensory impulses travel in the spinal nerve
through the dorsal root to the spinal cord

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Figure 14.6b Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves
Sensory Information

From interoceptors From exteroceptors,

of back proprioceptors of back Dorsal Somatic Visceral
root sensory sensory

Dorsal ramus
Ventral ramus

From exteroceptors,
proprioceptors of
body wall, limbs Dorsal
root
ganglion
From interoceptors
of body wall, limbs

Rami
communicantes
Ventral
KEY root
Somatic
sensations

Visceral
From interoceptors
sensations of visceral organs

A comparable view detailing the distribution of sensory neurons and sensory fibers
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Spinal Nerves

• Dermatomes
• Each pair of spinal nerves monitors specific
surface areas
• These are clinically important areas regarding
surgery

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Figure 14.7 Dermatomes
C2–C3

NV

C2–C3
C2
C3 C3
C4
T2 C4
C5
T3
T1
T2 T4
T5 C5
T3 T6
T4 T7
T5 T8
T6 T9 T2
T2 T7 T 10
T 11
T8
T 12
T9 L1 C6
T 10 L2
T 11 L4 L3 T1
C6 C7
T 12 L5
L1
SS
L2 S2 4 3
C8
C8
T1 L3 L1
C7 S5
S1 L5
L4
L2 S2

L5 L3

S1

L4

ANTERIOR POSTERIOR
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Nerve Plexuses

• There are four nerve plexuses

• Cervical plexus
• Brachial plexus
• Lumbar plexus
• Sacral plexus
• Sometimes the lumbar and sacral are combined to
form the lumbosacral plexus

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Figure 14.8 Peripheral Nerves and Nerve Plexuses

C1 Lesser occipital nerve

C2 Great auricular nerve
Cervical C3
plexus C4 Transverse cervical nerve
C5 Supraclavicular nerve
C6
Brachial C7 Phrenic nerve
plexus C8
T1
T2
T3 Axillary nerve
T4
T5
T6
T7 Musculocutaneous
T8 nerve
T9 Thoracic nerves
T10
T11
T12
L1 Radial nerve
Lumbar L2
plexus Ulnar nerve
L3
Median nerve
L4
L5
S1 Iliohypogastric
Sacral nerve
plexus S2
S3
S4 Ilioinguinal
S5 nerve
Co1 Genitofemoral
nerve
Femoral nerve
Obturator nerve

Superior
Gluteal
Inferior nerves

Pudendal nerve

Sciatic nerve

Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve

Saphenous nerve

Common fibular nerve

Tibial nerve

Medial sural cutaneous nerve

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Nerve Plexuses

• The Cervical Plexus (C1–C5)

• Consists of cutaneous and muscular
branches
• Cutaneous branch innervates:
• Head
• Neck
• Chest

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Nerve Plexus

• The Cervical Plexus

• Consists of cutaneous and muscular
branches
• Muscular branch innervates:
• Omohyoid, sternohyoid, geniohyoid, thyrohyoid
• Sternothyroid
• Scalenes
• Sternocleidomastoid
• Levator scapulae
• Trapezius
• Diaphragm (controlled by the phrenic nerve of the
cervical plexus)
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Figure 14.9 The Cervical Plexus

Accessory
nerve (N XI)
Cranial
Hypoglossal
nerves
nerve (N XII)
Great auricular nerve
Lesser occipital
nerve

C1
C2

Nerve roots of C3 Geniohyoid muscle

cervical plexus Transverse
C4
cervical nerve
C5 Thyrohyoid muscle
Ansa cervicalis

Omohyoid muscle
Supraclavicular Phrenic nerve
nerves
Clavicle Sternohyoid muscle

Sternothyroid muscle

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Nerve Plexus

• The Brachial Plexus (C4–T1)

• The immediate nerves emerging from C5 to T1
are the:
• Superior trunk
• Middle trunk
• Inferior trunk
• These trunks all merge to form the lateral cord

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Figure 14.10b The Brachial Plexus
Dorsal scapular nerve C4
Suprascapular nerve C5
Superior trunk C6
BRACHIAL Middle trunk C7
PLEXUS Inferior trunk C8
T1

Musculocutaneous
nerve

Median nerve

Ulnar nerve
Radial
nerve
Lateral antebrachial
cutaneous nerve

Deep radial nerve

Superficial branch
of radial nerve Ulnar nerve
Median nerve
Anterior interosseous nerve
Radial nerve
Deep branch of ulnar nerve
Ulnar nerve
Superficial branch of ulnar nerve
Palmar digital nerves
Median nerve

Anterior
Anterior view of the brachial plexus and upper limb Distribution of
showing the peripheral distribution of major nerves cutaneous nerves
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Nerve Plexus

• The cords of the brachial plexus

• Lateral cord: merging of the trunks
• Medial cord: an extension of the inferior trunk
• Posterior cord: an extension of the middle
trunk

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 Figure 14.10a The Brachial Plexus

KEY Dorsal scapular

Roots (ventral rami) nerve
Trunks Nerve to C5
subclavius muscle
Divisions

Cords SUPERIOR TRUNK

Peripheral nerves C6
Suprascapular nerve

MIDDLE
Lateral cord TRUNK C7 BRACHIAL
PLEXUS
Posterior cord
Lateral pectoral nerve C8

Medial pectoral nerve

Subscapular nerves
T1
Axillary nerve
INFERIOR
Medial cord
TRUNK
Musculocutaneous First
nerve rib Long thoracic
Medial antebrachial nerve
cutaneous nerve Thoracodorsal
nerve
Median nerve
Ulnar nerve

Posterior brachial The trunks and cords of the brachial

Radial nerve
cutaneous nerve plexus

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Nerve Plexus

• The cords of the brachial plexus (details)

• Lateral cord: extends to form the
musculocutaneous nerve
• The lateral cord and medial cord extend to
form the median nerve
• Medial cord extends to form the ulnar nerve
• Posterior cord: branches to form the radial
nerve and axillary nerve

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 Figure 14.10a The Brachial Plexus

KEY Dorsal scapular

Roots (ventral rami) nerve
Trunks Nerve to C5
subclavius muscle
Divisions

Cords SUPERIOR TRUNK

Peripheral nerves C6
Suprascapular nerve

MIDDLE
Lateral cord TRUNK C7 BRACHIAL
PLEXUS
Posterior cord
Lateral pectoral nerve C8

Medial pectoral nerve

Subscapular nerves
T1
Axillary nerve
INFERIOR
Medial cord
TRUNK
Musculocutaneous First
nerve rib Long thoracic
Medial antebrachial nerve
cutaneous nerve Thoracodorsal
nerve
Median nerve
Ulnar nerve

Posterior brachial The trunks and cords of the brachial

Radial nerve
cutaneous nerve plexus

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Figure 14.10b The Brachial Plexus
Dorsal scapular nerve C4
Suprascapular nerve C5
Superior trunk C6
BRACHIAL Middle trunk C7
PLEXUS Inferior trunk C8
T1

Musculocutaneous
nerve

Median nerve

Ulnar nerve
Radial
nerve
Lateral antebrachial
cutaneous nerve

Deep radial nerve

Superficial branch
of radial nerve Ulnar nerve
Median nerve
Anterior interosseous nerve
Radial nerve
Deep branch of ulnar nerve
Ulnar nerve
Superficial branch of ulnar nerve
Palmar digital nerves
Median nerve

Anterior
Anterior view of the brachial plexus and upper limb Distribution of
showing the peripheral distribution of major nerves cutaneous nerves
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Figure 14.10c The Brachial Plexus
Musculocutaneous
nerve
Axillary nerve

Branches of
axillary nerve

Radial nerve

Ulnar nerve
Median nerve
Posterior antebrachial
cutaneous nerve

Deep branch of
radial nerve

Superficial branch
Radial
of radial nerve
nerve

Ulnar Dorsal digital nerves

nerve

Median
nerve
Posterior
Distribution of
cutaneous nerves

Posterior view of the brachial plexus and

the innervation of the upper limb
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Figure 14.11 The Cervical and Brachial Plexuses

Right common
Cervical carotid artery
Clavicle, cut plexus
and removed
Brachial plexus
Deltoid muscle (C5–T1)

Musculocutaneous Sternocleido-
nerve mastoid muscle,
sternal head
Right axillary artery
over axillary nerve
Sternocleido-
Median nerve
mastoid muscle,
Radial nerve clavicular head

Biceps brachii,
long and short heads Right subclavian
artery
Ulnar nerve

Coracobrachialis Retractor holding

muscle pectoralis major
muscle (cut and
Skin reflected)
Right brachial
artery

Median
nerve
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Table 14.2 The Brachial Plexus

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Nerve Plexus

• The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses (T12–S4)

• Also called the lumbosacral plexus
• Lumbar plexus nerves
• Genitofemoral nerve
• Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve
• Femoral nerve
• Sacral plexus nerves
• Sciatic nerve (branches to form the common
fibular nerve and the tibial nerve)
• Pudendal nerve

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Figure 14.12a The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, Part I

T12

T12 subcostal nerve

L1

Iliohypogastric nerve L2 LUMBAR

PLEXUS
Ilioinguinal nerve
L3
Genitofemoral nerve
Lateral femoral
cutaneous nerve
L4
Branches of
Femoral branch
genitofemoral
nerve Genital branch
L5
Femoral nerve
Obturator nerve Lumbosacral
trunk
The lumbar plexus, anterior view
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Figure 14.12b The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, Part I

L5

Lumbosacral trunk

S1
SACRAL
Superior gluteal nerve PLEXUS
S2
Inferior gluteal nerve
S3

S4
Sciatic nerve S5

Posterior femoral Co1

cutaneous nerve
Pudendal nerve

The sacral plexus, anterior view

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Figure 14.12c The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, Part I
Subcostal nerve

Iliohypogastric nerve

Ilioinguinal nerve
Genitofemoral nerve
Lateral femoral
cutaneous nerve
Femoral nerve

Superior gluteal nerve

Inferior gluteal nerve

Pudendal nerve
Posterior femoral
cutaneous nerve (cut) Obturator nerve

Sciatic nerve

Saphenous
nerve

Sural
Saphenous nerve nerve
Fibular
nerve

Common fibular
nerve

Superficial fibular Tibial

nerve nerve
Saphenous
Deep fibular Sural nerve
nerve nerve

Saphenous Sural
nerve nerve

The lumbar and sacral Tibial Fibular

nerve nerve
plexuses, anterior view
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Table 14.3 The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses

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Figure 14.12d The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, Part I

Superior gluteal nerve

Inferior gluteal nerve

Posterior femoral
Pudendal
cutaneous nerve
nerve

Sciatic nerve

Saphenous
nerve

Sural
nerve
Fibular
Tibial nerve
nerve Common fibular
nerve

Medial sural
cutaneous nerve

Lateral sural
Tibial cutaneous nerve
nerve
Saphenous
Sural nerve
nerve
Sural nerve

Saphenous Sural
nerve nerve Medial plantar
nerve
Lateral plantar
Tibial Fibular The sacral plexus,
nerve
nerve nerve
posterior view
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Figure 14.13c The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, Part II (Part 1 of 2)

Gluteus maximus
(cut) Gluteus medius
(cut)
Inferior gluteal Gluteus minimus
nerve
Pudendal nerve Superior gluteal
nerve
Perineal branch
Hemorrhoidal Piriformis
branch

Posterior femoral
cutaneous nerve

Perineal branches
Sciatic
nerve

Descending
cutaneous
branch

Semitendinosus Biceps femoris

(cut)

A diagrammatic posterior view of the

right hip and lower limb detailing the
distribution of peripheral nerves
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Figure 14.13c The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, Part II (Part 2 of 2)
Tibial nerve
Common fibular
Popliteal artery
nerve
and vein

Medial sural
cutaneous Lateral sural
nerve cutaneous
nerve
Gastrocnemius

Small saphenous
vein

Sural nerve

Calcaneal tendon

Tibial nerve
(medial calcaneal
branch)

A diagrammatic posterior view of the

right hip and lower limb detailing the
distribution of peripheral nerves
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Figure 14.13a The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, Part II

Gluteus maximus

Superior gluteal nerve

Inferior gluteal nerve

Gluteus medius
Gluteus minimus
Tibial branch
Internal
pudendal Common fibular Components of
artery branch sciatic nerve
Greater trochanter of femur
Pudendal
nerve Posterior femoral
cutaneous nerve
Nerve to
gemellus
and
obturator
internus Gluteus
maximus

A dissection of the right gluteal region

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Figure 14.13b The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses, Part II

Biceps femoris
Tibial nerve
Sartorius
Gracilis Lateral sural
cutaneous nerve
Semimembranosus
Common fibular
Popliteal artery nerve

Semitendinosus Plantaris

Nerve to Nerve to lateral head

medial head of gastrocnemius
of gastrocnemius
Gastrocnemius,
Gastrocnemius, lateral head
medial head

Medial sural
cutaneous nerve

A dissection of the popliteal fossa

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Nerve Plexus

• Summary of the spinal nerves

• Cervical spinal nerves emerge from C1–C8
• Thoracic spinal nerves emerge from T1–T12
• Lumbar spinal nerves emerge from L1–L5
• Sacral spinal nerves emerge from S1–S5
• Coccygeal spinal nerves emerge from Co1

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Nerve Plexus

• Summary of the nerve plexuses

• Cervical plexus nerves emerge from C1–C5
• Brachial plexus nerves emerge from C5–T1
• There is not a thoracic plexus
• Lumbar plexus nerves emerge from T12–L4
• Sacral plexus nerves emerge from L4–S4
• There is not a coccygeal plexus

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Figure 14.3 Posterior View of Vertebral Column and Spinal Nerves
Occipital bone

Spinal cord
emerging from
foramen magnum

Cervical
plexus
(C1–C5) Cervical
spinal
nerves
(C1–C8 )

Brachial
plexus
(C5–T1)

Thoracic
spinal
nerves
(T1–T12)

Lumbar
plexus
Lumbar
(T12–L4)
spinal
nerves
(L1–L5)

Sciatic
Sacral nerve
plexus
(L4–S4)

Sacral spinal
Coccygeal nerves (Co1) nerves (S1–S5)
emerging from
sacral foramina

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Reflexes

• Reflex
• An immediate involuntary response
• Reflex arc
• The neural “wiring” of a single reflex
• Begins at a sensory receptor and ends at a
peripheral receptor

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Reflexes

• Reflexes are classified according to:

• Their development
• Innate or acquired
• The site where information is processed
• Spinal or cranial (cerebral)
• The nature of the resulting motor response
• Somatic, visceral, or autonomic
• The complexity of the neural circuit
• Monosynaptic or polysynaptic

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Reflexes

• Pathway of a reflex arc

• 1. Activation of a sensory receptor
• 2. Relay of information to the CNS
• 3. Information processing
• 4. Activation of a motor neuron
• 5. Response by the effector

ANIMATION Components of a Reflex Arc

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Figure 14.14 A Reflex Arc

Arrival of stimulus and Activation of a Dorsal Sensation

activation of receptor sensory neuron root relayed to
the brain by
collateral

REFLEX
ARC
Receptor
Stimulus

Effector Ventral Information processing

root in CNS

Response by effector Activation of a KEY

motor neuron Sensory neuron
(stimulated)
Excitatory
interneuron
Motor neuron
(stimulated)

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Figure 14.15 The Classification of Reflexes

Reflexes

can be classified by

development response complexity of circuit processing site

Innate Reflexes Somatic Reflexes Monosynaptic Spinal Reflexes

• Genetically • Control skeletal muscle contractions • One synapse • Processing in

determined • Include superficial and stretch reflexes the spinal cord

Acquired Reflexes Visceral (Autonomic) Reflexes Polysynaptic Cranial Reflexes

• Learned • Control actions of smooth and • Multiple synapses • Processing in

cardiac muscles, glands (two to several hundred) the brain

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Reflexes

• Spinal reflexes can be:

• Monosynaptic
• Involves a single segment of the spinal cord
• Polysynaptic
• Integrates motor output from several spinal
segments

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Figure 14.16 Neural Organization and Simple Reflexes

Sensory
CENTRAL
receptor NERVOUS
Ganglion
SYSTEM
Sensory
neuron

CENTRAL
Ganglion NERVOUS Interneurons
Sensory SYSTEM
neuron
Motor Circuit 2
neuron

Circuit 1 Motor
neurons

Sensory
receptor
(muscle
spindle) Skeletal muscle 1

Skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle 2

A monosynaptic reflex circuit involves a peripheral A polysynaptic reflex circuit involves a sensory neuron,
sensory neuron and a central motor neuron. In this interneurons, and motor neurons. In this example, the
example, stimulation of the receptor will lead to a stimulation of the receptor leads to the coordinated
reflexive contraction in a skeletal muscle. contractions of two different skeletal muscles.

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Reflexes

• Stretch reflex
• 1. Stimulus stretches a muscle
• 2. Activates a sensory neuron
• 3. Information is processed in the spinal cord
• 4. Motor neurons are activated
• 5. Muscle (effector) contracts

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Figure 14.17a Stretch Reflexes

Stimulus. Stretching of muscle Activation of a

stimulates muscle spindles sensory neuron

Information processing
at motor neuron

Response. Contraction Activation of

of muscle motor neuron KEY
Sensory neuron
(stimulated)
Steps 1–5 are common to all stretch reflexes.
Motor neuron
(stimulated)

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Figure 14.17b Stretch Reflexes

Receptor
(muscle
spindle)
Spinal cord
Stretch
REFLEX
ARC
Stimulus

Effector
KEY
Sensory neuron
(stimulated)
Contraction
Motor neuron
(stimulated)

The patellar reflex is controlled by muscle spindles in the quadriceps group. The
Response stimulus is a reflex hammer striking the muscle tendon, stretching the spindle
fibers. This results in a sudden increase in the activity of the sensory neurons,
which synapse on spinal motor neurons. The response occurs upon the activation
of motor units in the quadriceps group, which produces an immediate increase in
muscle tone and a reflexive kick.

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