Chapter 4

Exploration Geochemistry

Chapter Outline 4.5.1. Pedo-geochemical 61

4.1. Definition 55 4.5.2. Consolidated Weathered Cover 61
4.1.1. Elemental Dispersion 55 4.5.2.1. Calcrete 62
4.1.2. Pathfinder Elements 56 4.5.2.2. Silcrete 62
4.1.3. Background and Threshold Value 56 4.5.2.3. Laterite 62
4.1.4. Orientation Survey 56 4.5.2.4. Gossans 62
4.1.5. Regional, District and Local Scale Geochemistry 57 4.5.3. Litho-geochemical Survey 63
4.2. Field Procedure 58 4.5.4. Drift or Till Geochemical Survey 64
4.3. Analytical Methods 58 4.5.5. Stream Sediment Survey 65
4.3.1. Visual Colorimeter 58 4.5.6. Hydro-geochemical Survey 65
4.3.2. Emission Spectrograph 58 4.5.7. Vegetation Survey 66
4.3.3. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 58 4.5.7.1. Geobotany 66
4.3.4. X-ray Fluorescence 59 4.5.7.2. Biogeochemical 67
4.3.5. Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission 4.5.8. Geo-zoological Survey 67
Spectrometry 59 4.5.9. Vapor Survey 67
4.3.6. Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis 59 4.5.10. Electro-geochemical Survey 69
4.3.7. Scanning/Transmission Electron Microscope 59 4.5.11. Radiogenic Isotope Geochemistry 70
4.3.8. Electron Microprobe and Secondary Ion Mass 4.5.12. Heavy Mineral Survey 70
Spectrometers 59 4.5.13. Polymetallic-Polynodule Survey 70
4.3.9. Choice of Analysis 60 4.6. Review 70
4.4. Data Interpretation 60 Further Reading 71
4.5. Geochemical Methods 60

4.1.1. Elemental Dispersion

Abnormality in chemical signature on surface is defined as
geochemical anomaly which may show the way to discovery of
large mineral deposits.
dAuthor.
4.1. DEFINITION
Exploration geochemistry fundamentally deals with the
enrichment or depletion of certain chemical elements in the
vicinity of mineral deposits other than barren regions.
Geochemical prospecting is performed by systematic
measurements of one or more chemical parameters, usually
in traces, of naturally occurring material in the Earth’s
crust. The samples are collected from rocks, debris, soil,
gossan, stream or lake sediments, groundwater, vapor,
vegetation and living things. The results of samples, at
times, may show abnormal chemical pattern over the
regional properties. This abnormality is defined as
geochemical anomaly which may end up with discovery of
near-surface or deep-seated hidden mineral deposits.
Traces of metallic elements are usually found in soil, rocks,
and groundwater in the proximity of an orebody. The
fundamental dispersion pattern can be due to distribution of
elements disseminated in rocks, which occurred during ore-
forming process. It can also be formed by migration and
redistribution of elements in solution during oxidation,
weathering and erosion of mineral deposit. The process
usually occurs around the surface environment. The degree
of concentration of specific elements logarithmically
diminishes away from the deposit till it reaches to the
background value of the enclosing rock. The geochemical
envelope, which is an expression of alteration and zoning
conditions surrounding metalliferrous deposit, is called
“primary dispersion halo.” The formation of primary halo is
synchronous to the mineralization. It is essentially identical
with geochemistry of unweathered rocks and minerals,
irrespective to how and where the orebody itself was
formed. The halos are either enriched or depleted in several
elements as a result of introduction or redistribution related

Mineral Exploration. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-416005-7.00004-0 55

Copyright Ó 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
56
to ore-forming phenomena. The shape and size of the halo
is exceptionally variable due to diverse mobility charac-
teristics of the elements in solution and microstructures in
the rocks.
“Secondary dispersion halo” is the dispersed remnants
of mineralization caused by surface processes of chemical
and physical weathering and redistribution of primary
patterns. The halo can be recognized in samples taken from
the soil, rocks, sediments, groundwater and volatile matters
at a distance of meters to tens of kilometers. Minerals are
often unstable in secondary environment.
Chemical weathering involves elemental breakdown of
rocks and minerals in abundance of water, oxygen and
carbon dioxide. It can move considerable distances from
the source. Multicolored gossan above the base metal
deposits at Broken Hill in Australia, Rajpura-Dariba in
Rajasthan and Malanjkhand in Madhya Pradesh are unique
examples of chemical weathering.
Physical weathering implies disintegration of rocks
and minerals with little or no chemical and mineral-
ogical changes. It may often involve long distance
transportation from the source. These minerals are
chemically resistant. They are oxides (cassiterite, rutile,
magnetite, chromite) and native form of gold, platinum,
diamond, etc. The example of physical weathering in
geochemical exploration is found in “till” and “glacial”
deposits.
4.1.2. Pathfinder Elements
“Pathfinder” or “indicator” elements are characteristic
parameter in geochemical prospecting. These are relatively
mobile elements due to physicochemical conditions of the
solutions in which they are found or in volatile state
(gaseous). They occur invariably in close geochemical
association of the primary minerals being searched. These
elements can be more easily found either because they form
a broader halo around the deposit or because they can be
detected more easily by simpler and less expensive
analytical methods. Pathfinder elements play great role in
locating concealed deposits due to these special properties.
The choice of pathfinder necessitates that the elements used
must occur in the primary association with the element
being sought, for example copper, nickel and chromium
as pathfinders for deposits containing Platinum Group
(Platinum, Palladium, Osmium, Iridium, Rhodium and
Ruthenium) of Elements (PGE) (Bushveld chromium-PGE
deposit, South Africa, Sudbury nickel-PGE deposit,
Canada and Nausahi chromium PGE deposit, India), zinc
for lead-silver-zinc deposits of Rajasthan and scheelite in
Kolar gold field, Karnataka, India. The elements can also be
derived from its parent by radioactive decay, such as the use
of radon as a pathfinder for uranium deposits. Some
common pathfinder elements are listed at Table 4.1.
Mineral Exploration
TABLE 4.1 Common Pathfinder Elements in
Geochemical Exploration
Type of deposits Pathfinder elements
Gold, silver, gold-silver-copper-cobalt- As
zinc and complex sulfide ores
Copper-zinc-lead-silver and complex Hg, Zn
sulfide deposits
Wolframite-tin deposits Mo
Porphyry copper, barium-silver Mn, Mo, Au, Te
deposits
Platinum-Palladium in mafic- Cu-Ni-Cr-Pd
ultramafic rocks
Uranium (all types) Rn, Cu, Bi, As
Sulfide deposits SO4
4.1.3. Background and Threshold Value
“Background” values are characterized by the normal range
of concentration of elements in regional perspective rather
than localized mineral occurrences. It is significant to
establish the background value of the area against which
the anomalies due to economic mineral accumulations, if
any, can be identified. Large number of samples comprised
of rock, soil, sediments, groundwater and volatile matters
are analyzed for multiple elements separately for each area
before the exploration begins. Each type of sampled
material should be treated separately. The values may vary
significantly between samples. The frequency distribution
is usually positively skewed. The arithmetic average
(mean) is evidently biased by few scattered high value. The
most frequently occurring value (mode) tends to lie within
relatively restricted range and considered to be the normal
abundance or background for that particular element of the
area (Fig. 4.1A).
“Threshold” value is defined as the probable upper or
lower limit of the background value (Fig. 4.1B) at some
statistically precise confidence level. Any sample that
exceeds this threshold is considered as possibly anomalous
and belongs to a separate population. It may vary for each
element, each rock type, different types of samples and in
each area. The negative anomalous threshold defines the
lower limit of background fluctuation. A geochemical
section of a traverse-line is given in Fig. 4.1C.
4.1.4. Orientation Survey
The success of exploration geochemistry depends on the
appropriate detection of the pathfinder elements in primary
Chapter | 4 Exploration Geochemistry 57

and previous experience elsewhere will be a guiding factor

to plan the orientation survey. The activities are focused
around the probable targets with better knowledge of
geochemical characteristics of the area for detailed explo-
ration. The procedure should be simplified and finite.
Orientation survey is always justified for any new area. It
will optimize the sampling program and increase efficiency
of interpretation with higher confidence. In turn, it saves
considerable time and money in the long run.
“Anomaly enhancement” techniques are commonly
practiced during orientation surveys with weak
anomalies, particularly for deep-seated mineralization.
Value enhancement can be obtained by physical, chemical
and statistical means. Physical methods are enrichment of
metallic, magnetic and heavy minerals by panning,
magnetic and heavy media separation. Chemical methods
include selective leaching of iron and manganese oxides in
the host environment. Statistical means are anomalous to
background and trace elements ratio, additive and multi-
plicative halo concept discussed at Section 4.5.3. This
technique highlights insignificant values of elements of
interest in locating concealed mineral deposits.

4.1.5. Regional, District and Local Scale

Geochemistry
“Geochemical province” can be defined as a relatively large
segment of area in which the chemical composition of
FIGURE 4.1 A typical illustration of (A) Histogram of Cu values bedrock is significantly different from the surrounding. It is
showing the most frequently occurring samples, (B) geochemical profile of manifested by certain suite of rocks relatively enriched in
soil samples viewing background, threshold values and anomalous zone certain specific elements such as: Southern Australia and
and (C) geological section of a concealed copper deposit. southeastern Tanzania favorable for locating copper, chro-
mium, nickel and platinum group of elements, Aravalli
and secondary environment. In practice, a first round Mountain province for base metals, Chhattisgarh and Goa for
“orientation survey” is conducted in every new area to draw iron ore, India. Similarly, “metallogenic province” represents
detail work plan that adequately distinguish anomaly from large area characterized by an unusual abundance of partic-
background value. The important parameters to be consid- ular type of metal in the country rocks such as: copper-
ered in combination during orientation survey are: producing area of Peru, Chile, Singhbhum and Khetri (India),
lead-zinc-silver-producing area of Mt Isa (Australia) and
(a) host rock environment,
Sullivan province (Canada), Zawar, Dariba, Rampura
(b) identify criteria that influence dispersion,
Agucha (India), tin at northwestern Europe and Baster in
(c) possible local contamination if any,
India. There is no certain or unique sample interval. Tradi-
(d) effect of topography,
tionally low-density stream sediment surveys of one sample
(e) best sample medium,
per 50e200 or 5e20 km2 will be adequate for selection of
(f) optimum sample interval,
a province depending on the regional geological knowledge
(g) depth of soil sample,
and terrain. The analysis is done for 16e25 elements.
(h) size fraction,
A “mineral district” is defined by the presence of known
(i) analysis of group of elements,
characteristic mineralization such as chromium minerali-
(j) anomaly enhancement and
zation in Jajpur-Keonjhar district, India. Stream sediment
(k) analytical techniques for establishing the background
and limited soil and rock chip samples at 3e6 or even
and threshold value.
1e2 km2 grid interval are followed during prospecting
In the reconnaissance phase, regional geological knowl- stage depending on the geological heterogeneity and
edge, possible presence of economic mineral association signatures.
58
The aim of “local-scale” geochemistry is to outline the
location and broad extent of mineralization by detailed
stream sediments sample at interval of 30e300 m. Rock
and soil geochemistry can be exercised in the absence of
inadequate drainage system. Once the target is identified
more close spaced traverses at 100e300 m apart are
sampled for soil and rocks at an interval 10e50 m across.
The interpretation is further upgraded and precised by
addition of pitting and deep trenching in close grid pattern.
The target is now ready for drill testing.
The mission and extent of geochemical exploration is
generalized by progressively diminishing the size of search
area in which an economic deposit may exist. The activity
continues from grass root reconnaissance to detailed
sampling until a target is defined that can be tested by drilling.
The sequential program demands increasingly more detail
and expensive techniques with a sole objective of maximum
probability of discovery at the lowest possible time and cost.
The stages of exploration, i.e. Reconnaissance / Pro-
specting / Detail exploration / Feasibility / Mining,
have been discussed at Chapter 1 on “Mineral Exploration,”
Chapter 13 on “Mineral Economics” and Chapter 11 on
“Elements of Mining” in this book.
4.2. FIELD PROCEDURE
The field procedure covers the collection of samples. It
includes best sample material and optimum sampling
design that identifies the presence of mineralization. The
major sources of samples are from stream sediments, soils,
rocks, groundwater and volatile matter.
During field survey, 250e1000 g samples are collected
by hand or with a plastic or aluminum scoop at specified
interval from unconsolidated soil. Rock chips are collected
by chisel and hammer. It is kept in plastic bags for soil and
cloth bag for rocks with code numbers indicating project
name, location, and sample type with description. The
geological observations and sketches are recorded in field
notebook. The grain size is preferred to be fines, say (e) 80
mesh in case of soil. The sample is reduced to 50 g by
drying, screening, grinding, cone and quartering at camp
site; 5 g will be sufficient for laboratory, and about 1 g for
analysis. The remaining sample part is preserved for future
references. The quantity of sample to be collected from
surface and groundwater varies between 100 and 1000 ml
depending upon the number of elements and type of
analysis. The water is collected in an exceptionally clean
“hard” polyethylene sampling bottle as the elements are in
the variation of parts per billion.
4.3. ANALYTICAL METHODS
The methods for analyzing geochemical samples require
utmost accuracy and precision, so as to detect background
Mineral Exploration
and related anomaly levels by rapid and inexpensive tech-
niques. The analytical methods used in geochemical survey
are visual colorimetry, emission spectrograph (ES), atomic
absorption spectrometry (AAS), X-ray fluorescence (XRF),
X-ray diffraction (XRD), radon atomic emission counter
and radiometric analysis, mercury detector, inductively
coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES),
instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), scanning/
transmission electron microscope (SEM/TEM), electron
microprobe and secondary ion mass spectrometers (SIMS).
A brief description follows.
4.3.1. Visual Colorimeter
The “visual colorimeter (VC)” is a rapid and inexpensive
method to reduce the bulk of samples collected during the
field survey. It is primarily a semi-quantitative and hence
less accurate technique to determine Pb, Zn, Cu, Ni, Co,
Mo, As, and W, etc., from soil, bedrock and stream sedi-
ments. About 10 mg of sample at 80e100 mesh is
decomposed by acid digestion and the digested mass is
extracted with water or acid. The extract is masked by
suitable masking agents for interfering radicals at suitably
adjusting pH. An organic chelating agent (say, dithizone
and furidioxime, etc.) is added to the solution to develop
a colored compound with one of the expected elements.
The color intensity of the solvent layer is visually compared
with pre-calibrated solution. The lower level of detection
(LLD) is 10e50 g/t. The reliability of the results can be
accepted with practice.
4.3.2. Emission Spectrograph
The “emission spectrograph (ES)” is also a rapid and low-cost
semi-quantitative analytical technique capable of analyzing
broad spectrum of elements of widely varying composition
with tolerable accuracy. About 10e15 mg of sample at (e) 80
mesh is thoroughly mixed with equal weight of pure graphite
powder. The processed sample is completely burned between
two carbon electrodes. The arc light passes through a disper-
sion medium with simultaneous recording of isolated radia-
tion on a photographic plate. The sample plate is compared
visually with standards to determine the qualitative presence
of an expected element. The intensity of blackening of plate
emulsion is indicative of concentration of element present.
The LLD is between 100 and 150 g/t.
4.3.3. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
The “atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS)” is the most
suitable, rapid, precise and commonly used method for
quantitative determination of large number of samples for
multielemental analysis. About 50 mg of sample is treated
with 5 ml of aqua regia and digested over hot plate. The
Chapter | 4 Exploration Geochemistry
solution is aspirated in to an air-acetylene or N2O-acetylene
flame for complete atomization of test metals. Absorbance
of a characteristic radiation of the desired metal is
measured for computation of elemental concentration.
About 30 elements can be determined form one solution,
one after another, by AAS using specific hollow cathode
lamps with background correction.
4.3.4. X-ray Fluorescence
The “X-ray fluorescence (XRF)” technique uses high-
energy X-ray photons from an X-ray generation analyzer to
excite secondary fluorescence characteristic X-ray from the
sample. The characteristic line spectra emitted by different
elements of the sample are detected in the analyzer. The
intensity of each line is proportional to the concentration of
individual elements.
4.3.5. Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic
Emission Spectrometry
The “inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spec-
trometry (ICP-AES)” works on optical emission method
excited by inductively coupled plasma. It is a promising
emission technique which has been successfully used as
a powerful tool for fast multielemental analysis since 1975.
The flame for this technique consists of incandescent
plasma of argon heated inductively by radio-frequency
energy at 4e50 MHz and 2e5 kW. The energy is trans-
ferred to a stream of argon through an induction coil,
whereby temperature up to 10,000
K is attained.
The sample solutions are forced through capillary tube,
nebulizer system and spray chamber to relatively cool
central hole of the plasma torus. The spray chamber
reduces the particle size of the aerosol to an ideal 10 mm.
The sample atomizes and ionizes. The radiation from the
plasma enters through a single slit and is then dispersed by
a concave reflection grating. The light from each exit slit is
directed to fall on the cathode of a photomultiplier tube,
one for each spectral line isolated. The light falling on the
photomultiplier gives an output which is integrated on
a capacitor; the resulting voltages are proportional to the
concentration of the elements in the sample. Multichannel
instruments are capable of measuring the intensities of
emission lines of up to 60 elements simultaneously.
4.3.6. Instrumental Neutron Activation
Analysis
The “instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA)”
technique utilizes the high-energy neutrons for irradiation of
a sample to produce gamma radiation that can be analyzed for
detection of elements. The method is suitable for detection of
59
trace elements and Rare Earth Elements (REE), namely,
Lanthanides, Scandium and Yttrium with high level of
accuracy.
4.3.7. Scanning/Transmission Electron
Microscope
The detailed knowledge of physical nature of the surfaces
of solids is of great importance in the field of geology,
chemistry, and material science. Finer surface information
at considerably higher resolution is obtained by scanning
electron microprobe. In obtaining an image of “scanning
electron microscope (SEM/TEM)” technique, the surface
of a solid sample is swept in a raster pattern with a finely
focused beam of electrons. The beam is swept across
a surface in a straight line (the X-direction), then returned
to its starting position and shifted downward (the Y-direc-
tion) by standard increment. The process is repeated until
a desired area of the surface has been scanned. During the
scanning process, a signal is received above the surface (the
Z-direction) and stored in a computer system, where it is
ultimately converted to an image.
In case of “transmission electron microscope” the
instrument is used either in biological application for ultra
high-resolution transmission electron photomicroscope
studies of thin slice of cell and tissue material or in metal-
lurgical studies, including, for example the investigation of
defect structures in alloy material. Subject to some limitation,
equivalent studies are carried out on geological samples.
However, samples must be prepared as thin foils. As well as
photomicrograph data, quantitative measurements may be
derived in two ways, first crystal structure data may be derived
from the pattern resulting from electron diffraction within the
sample. Second, compositional data may be obtained from
characteristic X-ray emissions excited by the electron beam
as it is transmitted through the foil.
4.3.8. Electron Microprobe and Secondary
Ion Mass Spectrometers
The “electron microprobe” provides a wealth of informa-
tion about the physical and chemical nature of surfaces.
With the electron microprobe method, X-ray emission is
stimulated on the surface of the sample by a narrow focused
beam of electrons, the resulting X-ray emission is detected
and analyzed with either a wavelength or energy-dispersive
spectrometer.
“Secondary ion mass spectrometers (SIMS)” has
proven useful for determining both the atomic and molec-
ular composition of solid surface. SIMS is based upon
bombarding the surface of the sample with a beam of
5e20 KeV ions such as Arþ, CSþ, Nþ þ
2 , and O2 . The ion
beam is formed in an ion gun, in which gaseous atoms or
60
molecules are ionized by an electron impact source. The
positive ions are then accelerated by applying a high Direct
Current (DC) potential. The impact of these primary ions
causes the surface layer of atoms of the sample to be tripped
off, largely as neutral atom. A small fraction, however,
forms as positive (or negative) secondary ions that are
drawn into a spectrometer for mass analysis.
4.3.9. Choice of Analysis
The choice of analytical technique for a particular element
depends upon number of factors, not all related to analytical
sensitivity. Such factors might include the stage of explo-
ration, availability of specialized facilities, capital cost of
instrumentation, speed and convenience to user for under-
taking the analysis. The primary objective is to identify the
techniques that are most widely used to determine individual
elements and free of bias. The second aim is to examine the
analytical potential of individual techniques.
VC and ES are used for determination of selected major
elements, including, SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and P2O5.
These techniques are usually advantageous during recon-
naissance survey for availability of results at shortest time
in the field. It can identify the presence of certain trace
elements for target selection.
A comparative analysis of interlaboratory standard
rock/mineral analysis indicated that XRF and AAS analysis
are the most widely used and acceptable for determination
of major elements as a group (except P2O5, H2O). Since
1984, ICP-AES has become much better established tech-
nique for the analysis of trace elements including rare earth
elements. There is a considerable overlap in the element
coverage of ICP-AES and AAS, where as the former is
versatile and the later is specific.
XRF, AAS, and ICP-AES can determine a core of
element including Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Rb, Sr, Th, V and Zn.
AAS is moderately expensive but precise and specific
FIGURE 4.2 Data interpretation of soil
and pit geochemical samples by contouring
copper values to identify best target for drill
testing.
Mineral Exploration
method for Co, Cr, Cu, Cd, Li, Ni, Rb, Sr, V and Zn at trace
level. ICP-AES are costly and fast method. SEM, TEM and
electron microprobes are excellent, efficient and accurate
method for surface- and structure-related compositional
analysis. However, the instruments are very costly and may
not be within the reach of every one.
4.4. DATA INTERPRETATION
The multielemental data from the geochemical survey can
be analyzed by standard statistical methods to express the
characteristics of each element. Analysis of frequency
distribution, median, mode and mean of the sample pop-
ulation can identify and distinguish the background,
threshold and anomalous value. Trend surface analysis and
moving average method can produce the regional distri-
bution pattern of the elements being investigated. The
isograde contour map will guide the detailed exploration
program such as drill testing around the most anomalous
zone (Fig. 4.2). Correlation coefficient matrix of multiele-
ment data will clearly show the maximum affinity between
elements. Cluster analysis deals with mutually correlated
elements. It exhibits the greatest within-group correlation
relative to the between group, taking in to account all
possible combinations of the given elements. Various
statistical methods have been discussed in Chapter 9.
4.5. GEOCHEMICAL METHODS
Geochemical prospecting can broadly be classified into the
following types depending on the stages of survey, nature of
terrain, signal associated with the mineralization, type of
analytical instrumentation available and finally time and
cost permissible for the program:
1. Pedo-geochemical (soil survey),
2. Consolidated weathered cover prospecting,
Chapter | 4 Exploration Geochemistry 61

3. Litho-geochemical (rock survey), different results. The soil profile can be classified in three
4. Drift or till geochemical survey, broad groups such as A, B and C horizons (Fig. 4.3). “A”
5. Stream sediment survey, horizon is composed of humus charged topsoil with
6. Hydro-geochemical survey, minerals. “B” zone represents accumulation of clays
7. Vegetation survey enriched with trace elements. “C” horizon consists of
(a) Geobotany, bedrock fragments in various stages of degradation and
(b) Biogeochemical, gradually changes to hard parent rock. The metal content is
8. Geo-zoological/homo-geochemical survey, generally higher in B horizon than in the A zone. The
9. Atmo-geochemical (vapor survey), anomalous behavior of C zone is similar to the parent
10. Electro-geochemical survey, bedrock. Therefore, samples from B layer enriched with
11. Radiogenic isotope geochemistry, trace elements are most preferred during soil survey.
12. Heavy mineral survey, Soil samples, from residual or transported material, play
13. Polymetallic-polynodule survey. significant role during reconnaissance survey (refer
Fig. 7.20). It can provide a quick idea about presence or
absence of target metals in the environment. Soil
4.5.1. Pedo-geochemical geochemistry as a successful exploration tool was demon-
“Pedo-geochemical survey” is also known as “soil survey.” strated in discovery and development of the Kalkaroo
Soil is the unconsolidated weathering product. It generally Cu-Au-Mo deposit, South Australia, large PGE minerali-
lies on or close to its source of formation such as residual zation at Ural Mountain, Russia. Soil sampling had
soil. It may be transported over large distances forming extensively been used for locating base metal deposits in
alluvial soil. Soil survey is widely used in geochemical Khetri, Pur-Banera, Zawar, Rajpura-Dariba, Agucha
exploration and often yields successful results. Anomalous (Rajasthan), Malanjkhand (Madhya Pradesh), Singhbhum
enrichment of elements from underlying mineralization copper-uranium belt (Jharkhand) and Sukinda chromium-
may occur due to secondary dispersion in the overlying nickel deposit (Orissa), India.
soil, weathered product and groundwater during the process
of weathering and leaching. The dispersion of elements
4.5.2. Consolidated Weathered Cover
spreads outward forming a larger exploration target than
the actual size of the orebody. Weathering of cover sequence undergoes various types of
Soils display layering of individual characteristic hori- chemical fractionation over millions of years due to
zons differing in mineralogy and trace element composi- paleoclimatic setup of the region. The consequential
tion. Therefore, sampling of different horizons will present resistant residual weathering component of rocks and

FIGURE 4.3 Diagrammatic presentation of soil

horizons, relative vertical and lateral spread of
dispersion and associated metal contents.
62 Mineral Exploration

soils consolidates to form landscape geochemistry. The weathering and leaching of a sulfide body. The color is
weathered cover can broadly be classified in to four types significantly dependent on the mineralogical composition
depending on their composition, type of weathering and of the iron hydroxides and oxides phases and varies
can guide in mineral search. between reddish (hematite), yellow (jarosite), brown, black
with stains of azure blue, malachite green and peacock
4.5.2.1. Calcrete color (copper). Their texture can be brecciated, cleavaged,
banded, diamond mesh, triangular, cellular, contour,
The weathered crust in arid and semiarid region is repre-
sponge and colloform with box work of primary sulfides.
sented by mixture of sand and silt cemented by calcite,
When grains of sulfide are oxidized and residual limonite
dolomite, gypsum, halite, and ferric oxide simulated
remains in the cavities, the texture assumes a honeycomb
mainly by near-surface groundwater and vertical-lateral
pattern, called box work of various colors that exist in the
concentration of minerals like uranium, vanadium, potas-
capping. The characteristic relic textures and colors
sium, calcium, magnesium, base and noble metals.
resulting from the weathering of certain primary sulfide
Economic calcrete-type uranium deposits occur typically
minerals, like sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite, will be
in Australia, Namibia, South Africa, Botswana, China, and
specifically diagnostic. The identification can be corrobo-
recently at desert/semi-desert terrain of Jodhpur and
rated by microscopic observation and chemical analysis.
Bikaner, western Rajasthan (vast drainage area of Luni
The field observations make it easy to detect gossan in
and extinct Saraswati river basin). Calcrete-type weath-
prospecting areas with good outcropping conditions. The
ering indicates presence of carbonates nearby that may be
study of color air photos and satellite images is of much use
metalliferrous as in case of Rajpura-Dariba base metal
to focus on certain dark reddish bodies which have to be
deposit in Rajasthan, India. This is also formed near
checked in the field. The depth of gossan may extend from
ultramafic intrusions where carbonate nodules are common
few centimeters to hundreds of meter.
in soil along river banks like Subarnarekha, east of
The weathering of sphalerite above massive primary
Singhbhum copper belt, Jharkhand, indicating presence of
sulfide deposits usually depicts yellow-brown color with
Cu-Ni-Co-PGE.
coarse cellular box work and sponge structure (Fig. 4.4).
The primary mineral sphalerite (ZnS) often changes to
4.5.2.2. Silcrete willemite (Zn2SiO4). The gossans of multisulfide deposits
This is a surface crust of residual weathering where sand are often associated with typical contour box work from
and silt are cemented by silica. This is formed in the silver-rich tetrahedrite (copper-stibnite) and tennantite
semiarid region in a stable groundwater condition. Silcrete (copper-arsenic) minerals.
is commonly found in association with gossan over the The dark chocolate color with cleavages, crust, radiate
copper deposits of Khetri region, Rajasthan. structures and cubic diamond mesh cellular box work
(Fig. 4.5) in the gossan zone indicate the presence of galena
4.5.2.3. Laterite and tetrahedrite as primary mineralization of the sulfide
deposit at depth. The primary galena (PbS) often changes to
Laterite is a consolidated product of humid tropical weath-
anglesite (PbSO4), cerussite (PbCO3), pyromorphite
ering predominantly composed of goethite, hematite,
(Pb5(PO4)3Cl) and mimetite (PbS(AsO4)3Cl).
kaolin, quartz,  bauxite and other clay minerals. It is red,
The chalcopyrite often changes into native copper,
brown to chocolate colored at the top showing hollow,
melaconite (CuO), azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2) and mala-
vesicular, and botryoidal structure. It changes progressively
chite (CuCO3Cu(OH)3). The dark shades of peacock blue,
from a nodular iron oxide-rich zone at the top to structureless
green, black color (Fig. 4.6) and triangular cellular
clay-rich zone and ultimately merges with the partially
altered to unaltered bedrocks. Laterite carry enriched grade
of Fe, Al, Mn, Ni, Cu, Ti, and V. Lateritic cover can turn in to
low-grade iron, aluminum, nickel-copper and gold deposits
with the increase of metal content. Geochemical studies of
laterite have been successfully used in exploration for Ni-Cu
and gold deposits in Western Australia and Ni deposit of
Kansa at Sukinda chromite belt, Orissa, India.

4.5.2.4. Gossans
“Gossans are signboards that point to what lies beneath the FIGURE 4.4 The yellow-brown color, cellular box work and sponge
surface” e Bateman (1950) [4]. Gossans are highly ferru- structure of unique gossans formation above Rajpura-Dariba zinc-
ginous rock which is the product of the oxidation by lead-copper-silver deposit indicate presence of sphalerite underneath.
Chapter | 4 Exploration Geochemistry
FIGURE 4.5 The dark chocolate color, crust radiate structure and dia-
mond mesh cellular box work of unique gossans formation above Rajpura-
Dariba deposit indicate presence of galena and tetrahedrite underneath.
structure is easily recognizable to expect primary copper
sulfide at depth.
Massive sulfide deposits contain usually large quantities
of iron sulfides and carbonates (pyrite, pyrrhotite, marca-
site, siderite and ankerite) which oxidize and produce an
exceptional acidic environment above groundwater table.
The acidic environment induces formation of characteristic
gossan. Disseminated sulfides with less amounts of pyrite
will produce a less acidic environment and gossan with
a different geochemical signature.
Geochemical studies of gossan have been successfully
used in exploration of Ni-Cu at Malanjkhand Copper
deposit, Madhya Pradesh, India. It shows complete alter-
ation and enrichment profile (Fig. 4.7) to form a typical
textbook gossan. The thin oxidized cap is represented by
limonite with stains of malachite, azurite, and native
copper. This is followed by zone of secondary sulfide
FIGURE 4.6 The dark shades of multicolor peacock blue, green, brown
and black, tiny box work of unique gossans formation above Rajpura-
Dariba deposit indicate presence of primary chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite and
tennantite ore deposit.
63
enrichment in central and southern part of orebody with
predominance of covellite, bornite, chalcocite and chalco-
pyrite. This is the most copper-enriched horizon of the
deposit. The secondary enrichment grades into the primary
orebody with gradational decrease in secondary minerals
with predominance of chalcopyrite and pyrite.
Most significant examples can be cited from unique
textbook type images as: World-class gossans formation at
Rajpura-Dariba Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag deposit India, Zn-Pb-Ag
deposit at Broken Hill (Australia), Ashanti Cu-Au deposit,
Ghana, Zn mineralization in Togo (western Africa), Rouez
gold deposit (France), Hassai Cu-Zn-Au deposit (Sudan),
and Al Hazar Cu-Au deposit (Saudi Arabia), (refer Figs 4.8
and 4.9) and Khetri (refer Fig. 4.10).
All the facies of the gossan have to be sampled as they
may correspond to different type of hosting mineralization.
The weight of sample is about few kilograms scooped from
the surface depending upon the homogeneity and chips
collected in grid pattern for consolidated mass. Multi-
elemental analysis in the reconnaissance stage is recom-
mended. True gossan can be difficult to distinguish from
ironstone and other iron oxide accumulation such as
laterite.
4.5.3. Litho-geochemical Survey
“Litho-geochemical surveys” (rock survey) are useful
during regional work to recognize favorable geochemical
province and favorable host rocks. Most of the epigenetic
and syngenetic mineral deposits show primary dispersion
around the mineralization by presence of abnormal high
value of target elements. Litho-geochemistry aims at
identifying that primary dispersion, other diagnostic
geochemical features and trace element association which
are different from barren rocks. Some granite possesses
above-average contents of Mn, Mo, Au, and Te, indicating
the potential of hosting porphyry copper deposits as in case
of Malanjkhand, Madhya Pradesh. Other granite may
contain high uranium. Rocks associated with tin deposits in
Tasman geo-syncline content 3e10 times Sn value than
barren rocks. Most of the SEDEX-type lead-zinc-silver
deposits show primary pyrite halo.
The survey is based on analysis of unweathered whole-
rock samples or individual minerals. The sampling is
carried out on a uniform grid across a geological terrain that
includes several rock types from fresh outcrops, wall rocks
and drill cores. Rock chip sample consists of five to six
small broken fragments which individually or collectively
represent a sample. Sample weighing around 1 kg will be
adequate for uniform fine- to medium-grained rocks. The
weight increases with larger grain size. Primary halos in
rocks play a great role in discovering deep-seated hidden
deposits particularly having favorable structure. This is
possible due to advanced analytical methods for correct
64
FIGURE 4.7 A generalized profile of gossan formation over massive copper sulfide deposits conceptualized after Malanjkhand copper deposit, India.
FIGURE 4.8 Unique World-class gossans hill above the massive silver-
rich zinc-lead-copper deposit at Rajpura-Dariba. In 1977, the site dedi-
cated to the Nation as “National Geological Monument” by Government of
India.
assaying of very low vale and knowledge of multielemental
statistical techniques.
The key guiding factors in litho-geochemical survey are:
1. Maximal concentration area with target elements
around 10 times higher than background values.
2. Additive halo procedure by adding all the anomalous
content of group of indicator elements.
3. Multiplicative halo concept by the ratio between
product of all economic elements and product of
impurity elements.
Mineral Exploration
FIGURE 4.9 Part of the unique gossans collapsed in the eastern part of
the hill during active underground mining operation leaving fresh exposure
(Photo: Author, January 2010).
4. Vertical zoning of metal distribution.
5. Linear productivity is the product of width of anomaly
with % content of the element.
6. Anomaly ratio is the ratio of anomalous to the back-
ground value.
4.5.4. Drift or Till Geochemical Survey
Drift prospecting is a broad term for sediments created,
transported and deposited under the influence of moving ice
Chapter | 4 Exploration Geochemistry
FIGURE 4.10 Gossans are very common features as surface exploration
guide at Khetri copper belt, India. The dimension is small compared to
Rajpura-Dariba belt.
of glaciers particularly in steep mountain terrain. The
various sizes of rock fragments travel longer distances to
form the drift sequences. The size and shape of the
mineralized boulders along with stream sediments would
reveal the extent of transportation and to trace back the
source of the parent deposit a few kilometers away at higher
elevation. The deposits are classified as glaciofluvial
gravels and sands, silts and clays, and till or moraine. Till is
a favored sample medium for locating mineral deposits in
glaciated terrain. The basal till sequence is studied for the
presence of mineralized clasts, heavy minerals and relative
abundance of major, minor and trace elements to assess the
potentiality. The sample density, depth and method should
be selected according to the needs of the exploration
program. Concentration of oxidized ore minerals and their
product of decomposition can be detected from the fine
fractions in surface till sampling. Portable reverse circula-
tion drills are used for collection of till samples at depth and
to determine the vertical and lateral variation in till
geochemistry. The survey also traces the detrital dispersal
of the bedrock mineralization to the primary source. The
activity components of till survey are collection of basal till
sample, determination of ice flow history and data
interpretation.
Till geochemical exploration is extensively conducted
in Canada (Thompson Ni-Cu-PGE and Bell copper
deposit), North America (Eagle Bay Cu-Mo-Au-Ag
deposit) and Glenlyon and Carmacks Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag-Au
deposits of Yukon-Tanana terrain and Finland. Gorubathan
massive multimetal deposit of Himalaya at Darjeeling
district, India, was discovered by the presence of float
mineralized boulders in the downstream. The parent body
was located few kilometers uphills.
4.5.5. Stream Sediment Survey
Stream sediment sampling is most widely used in all
reconnaissance and detailed survey of drainage basins.
Many minerals, particularly the sulfide minerals, are
65
unstable in weathering environment and will break down as
a result of oxidation and other chemical reactions. The
process will motivate secondary dispersion of both ore and
indicator elements. The elements will move in solid and
solution form to relative further distances within the
drainage basin. The mobility of the different elements will
vary significantly and eventually detrital fine-grained
particles of rocks, minerals, clay, solutions, organic and
inorganic colloids enriched in ore and indicator elements
will be deposited downstream.
The samples represent the best possible composite of
weathered and primary rocks of the upstream catchments
area. It is comprised of unconsolidated material in a state of
mechanical transportation by streams, springs and creeks.
Sample density of 1 in 200 km2 to close space following the
course of the stream depends on the stages of exploration
and results obtained.
The optimum size fraction varies in different environment
and generally () 80-mesh size is recommended. The
samples are generally collected in dry season from natural
sediment traps along stream courses below confluences or in
three-point set around the confluence (Fig. 4.11). The choice
of samples from first-, second- and third-order stream will
depend on the terrain, climate and nature of weathering of the
region. Two sets of samples are collected at each location. The
first set is panned for heavy mineral concentration and
the second one is the wet-sieved () 200-mesh (75 micron)
or () 80-mesh fraction of stream sediments. The second set
is allowed to settle for 10 min., decanted and transferred in
high-quality plastic bag without any contamination, decanted
again and air-dried.
The discovery of large porphyry copper deposit of
Bougainvillea, Papua New Guinea, gold deposits in British
Columbia, lateritic nickel deposit of Sukinda belt, Orissa,
and diamond-bearing kimberlite deposit at Wajrakarur,
Andhra Pradesh, India, by heavy mineral concentration are
few examples of stream sediment survey.
4.5.6. Hydro-geochemical Survey
There are two types of water sources, i.e. groundwater and
surface water, having distinctly different chemical and
physical properties. Groundwater occurs in dug wells,
springs, and boreholes. It has a better potential in explo-
ration geochemistry particularly if it is acidic (low pH) to
dissolve and transport metal elements like Cu, Pb, Zn, Mo,
Sn, S, U, Ni, and Co than surface water caused by chemical
weathering and oxidation followed by leaching. Sample
collection will be better if it is shallow enough for easy
approach. Surface water from streams, river and oceans has
less dissolving power and fine-grained sediments adsorb
much of the metal carried by the water. The samples from
stream water and sediments are collected simultaneously
for analysis.
66
FIGURE 4.11 A schematic diagram showing (A) stream sediment sampling along the course of water channel and three-point sample collection around
the confluence and (B) detailed pit or soil samples for drill testing (top inset).
Water samples are easy to collect. About a liter of water
is collected and stored in a special quality container. Solu-
bility of metals reduces with increase of pH from 4 to 7.
Therefore, the pH is recorded at the time of sample
collection. The suspended solids are filtered before analysis.
The elemental value changes with time and season. It is
desirable to analyze the sample before 48 h of collection.
Sample cannot be preserved for future check studies.
Hot springs are probable location for B, Li and Hg
mineralization. Geochemical methods are also applied for
search of mineral deposits under the sea such as manganese
and phosphate nodules on the ocean floor. Water sample is
becoming benchmark information on natural dispersion of
toxic elements and for identifying pollution.
4.5.7. Vegetation Survey
Vegetation survey can broadly be grouped in two types such
as geobotany and biogeochemistry. Vegetation survey will
receive prominence as an exploration guide in future as
Mineral Exploration
much of the world’s mineral resources are hidden beneath
the vegetation.
4.5.7.1. Geobotany
A plant will response to its geologic environment in which
it grows and may show characteristic variations with
respect to form, size, color, rate of growth and toxic effects.
Geobotany uses these environmental variations. It involves
visual survey of vegetation by recognition of a specific
plant population and presence and absence of certain plant
varieties associated with particular elements. “Alamine
violet” thrives only on zinc-rich soils in the zinc district of
Central and Western Europe. Viola calaminaria spp. acts as
an indicator plant for base metal prospecting. Prolific
growth of Impatiens balsamina and Nyctanthes arbortristis
(Seuli) in the rainy seasons, exactly over the outcrops of
lead-zinc deposits at Zawar (Fig. 4.12 and Fig. 4.13) and
Leucas aspera in the ancient mine dump of Rajpura
lead-zinc-silver deposit are location-specific indicator
Chapter | 4 Exploration Geochemistry
FIGURE 4.12 “Impatiens balsamina” or “Garden Balsam” or “Rose
Balsam” (Balsaminaceae family) often grow over the outcrops of zinc-lead
deposits and act as a natural geobotanical guide for mineral exploration as
evidenced at, Zawar belt, India.
plants. Some time normal growth of certain plant variety
suffered from malformed or oddly colored caused by
excess presence of certain deleterious toxic trace elements
on or near the mineralization. Dwarfing of plants and total
absence of Sal (Shorea robusta) over the Kansa nickel
deposit, Orissa, is significant. In contrast, it is abundant in
rest of the valley. Bryophyte moss has been a good indicator
of U mineralization in the Siwalik sandstone of Himachal
Pradesh, India.
4.5.7.2. Biogeochemical
Biogeochemistry involves the collection and chemical
analysis of whole plants, selected parts and humus. During
chemical weathering, mobilized elements dissolved and
FIGURE 4.13 Growth of “Nyctanthes arbortristis” or “Night Jasmine”
or “Seuli” (Oleaceae family) often play as geobotanical guide for explo-
ration of sulfide deposits, Zawar belt, India.
67
enrich in soils. As the plants and trees grow, these dissolved
elements, including metals, from the soil are extracted by
the roots of the trees which act as a sampling agent. The
elements migrate to various parts of the tree such as roots,
trunk, stem and finally to the leaves. When the leaves fall to
the ground they enrich humus in the metal and the cycle
becomes complete (Fig. 4.14). Anomalies indicating buried
mineralization can be detected by judicial selection of
appropriate parts of the plants (such as roots, bark, twigs,
needles, leaves) and subject to analysis.
Widely distributed plants of the same species, age and
same parts should be sampled from point to point and
compared for definition of anomaly. Samples should be
washed thoroughly, cleaned and dried before analysis. The
quantity should be large enough to generate adequate ash
for trace element analysis. Artemisia (Sagebrush) accu-
mulates high Cu in British Columbia and Pb, Zn, and Ba in
Kazakhstan. Curatella americana L. is known to be
potentially reliable indicator tree for epithermal gold-
quartz veins in Costa Rica.
4.5.8. Geo-zoological Survey
Human and animals of certain territory suffer from specific
diseases due to excess intake or deficiency of certain
elements enriched in the surrounding rocks and soils. The
common transfer routes are through drinking water, milk,
and vegetables; cattle feed grass from the local area. People
suffering from arsenosis, arthritis, fluorosis, sclerosis, and
goiter indicate presence of anomalous trace elements of As,
Cd, F, Hg and I deficiency, respectively in the surrounding
area. The copper, zinc and lead contents of the trout livers
have been used as pathfinder elements for mineralization.
4.5.9. Vapor Survey
“Vapor surveys” (atmo-geochemical) helps in the location
of buried deposits through detection of halos of mercury,
helium, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydro-
carbon, radon, methane and other gases and volatile
elements, often at a considerable distance from the source
of mineralization. Vapors can be detected from air and soils
and in groundwater. Volatile elements are released through
oxidation of ore deposits. Common types of anomalies are
as follows.
Mercury vapor anomalies can be determined over
structurally controlled mineralization in arid terrain. Hg
anomalies are associated with concealed deep-seated high-
temperature geothermal system, lead-zinc-bearing sulfide
assemblages, and over hydrocarbon gas and oil fields. Hg
gas from the soil can be sampled (Fig. 4.15) by precipita-
tion of Hg as an amalgam on extra pure noble metal foils
(Ag) in couple of hours and analyzed.
68 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 4.14 Schematic illustration showing

growth of plants by extraction of metallic elements
from soil and migration from root acting as
a sampling agent to the leaves.

FIGURE 4.15 Vapor sampling instrument

(Credit: AK Talapatra, 2006) [70].
Chapter | 4 Exploration Geochemistry
“He” anomalies are produced by radioactive decay and
found over oil reservoirs, hot spring, porphyry copper and
uranium deposits. Samples from shallow depth of soil are
collected and analyzed by mass spectrometry.
Nitrogen anomalies are based on the reason that N2
concentrations increase toward the center of hydrocarbon-
bearing basins. Methane (CH4), nitrogen, other natural
gases and asphalt (a sticky black and highly viscous liquid
or semi-liquid) are present in most crude petroleum basins
and coal deposits. The bubbles of natural gases, crude oil
and hot asphalt from the underlying oil and gas field escape
with high pressure to the Earth’s surface through fissures.
The gas causes bubbles that make the asphalt appear to boil.
The release of gas and asphalt to the surface acts as an
excellent guide to locate and develop hydrocarbon (oil and
gas) basin and coalfields. These features (Figs 4.16 and
4.17) can be seen today at Rancho La Brea Lake Pits in
front of the Page Museum in the heart of the Los Angeles
City. The site represents one of the world’s most famous
fossil locations, trapped approximately between 110,000
and 10,000 years from now, above the renowned petro-
leum-producing basin of twentieth century at Los Angeles
County. Asphalt and methane appear under surrounding
buildings and require special operations for removal to
prevent weakening building foundations.
SO2, CO2 and CS2 are commonly found in soil over
copper deposits and their wall rocks.
4.5.10. Electro-geochemical Survey
Electro-geochemical survey, also known as CHIM
(CHastichnoe Izvlechennye Metallov) survey in China,
became well accepted during 1970s for landscape
geochemical prospecting around arid to semi-arid region
FIGURE 4.16 Oozing of hot methane and nitrogen gas bubbles from
Rancho La Brea Tar Pits, Los Angeles County, one of the world’s most
famous fossil locations. The pits are on the top of crude oil basin
discovered in 1900 followed by exploration and production from 1907.
69
FIGURE 4.17 Oozing of hot crude oil and shiny black asphalt to the
surface (foreground) over the abandoned petroleum basin in front of Page
Museum, Rancho La Brea, in the heart of Los Angeles County. The
background is the lass green grass park for public recreation around the
Museum (Author, Srishti and Srishta, reconnaissance tour, July 2010).
with deeply weathered terrain. The vertical dispersion of
metal ions from the deep-seated orebody to the surface by
electrochemically mass transport through rock capillaries
can be identified either in the soil or by vapor sampling.
However, the ionic concentrations are too feeble to be
detected by traditional geochemical methods. The electro-
geochemical technique is capable of collecting larger
volumes of mobilized metal ions on electrodes placed in the
soil and applying small currents for a sustained period. The
survey line set up over the expected hidden orebody is
comprised of a series of specially coated carbon electrode
pairs. The electrodes are placed at about 20 cm depth, about
60 cm apart and covered by soil. The electrodes are con-
nected with 9 V DC battery and left for about 48e72 h. The
electrode units are unearthed; the absorbent coatings scaled
out and digested in concentrated nitric acid for elemental
analysis by ICPMS. Soil samples are also collected from
each electrode pit and analyzed by ICPMS for comparison.
The survey scan lines are shifted on either side along the
strike direction of expected mineralization at interval
anywhere between 20 and 500 m depending on stages of
application.
This technique is often recommended to validate targets
indicated by geophysical conductivity, prominence of Hg
concentration, nonpedogenic calcrete anomalies and
shallow soil sampling before venturing for costly diamond
drilling. It has successfully been tested for probing strike
and depth extension for the concealed part of Challenger
gold deposit in Australia and other deposits in United
States, Canada and China. This method, together with
Hg-soil geochemistry, is effective for selection of pro-
specting targets during reconnaissance for concealed ore
beneath thick weathered overburden. The method has the
70
advantage of being simple and rapid technique with high
efficiency and reproducibility at relatively low costs.
4.5.11. Radiogenic Isotope Geochemistry
The study of radiogenic isotopes geochemistry plays
a significant role in modern-day scientific research for
determination of chronology of rock-forming events.
Isotope geochemistry is an attribute of the relative and
absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes
in the Earth. Variations in the abundance of these isotopes
can be measured by “isotope ratio mass spectrometer.” The
information can reveal the age of the rocks and minerals or
the source of air and water. The study of isotope is divided
into (a) stable isotope and (b) radiogenic isotope
geochemistry. The most stable isotopes are comprised of
carbon (stable 12C, 13C and radioactive 14C), nitrogen
(stable 14N and 15N), oxygen (stable 16O, 17O and 18O) and
sulfur (stable 32S, 33S, 34S and 36S).
The radiogenic isotope is comprised of lead-lead
isotope geochemistry. Lead has four stable isotopes e
204
Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb, 208Pb and one common radioactive
isotope 202Pb with a half-life of ~53,000 years. Lead is
created in the Earth via decay of primarily uranium and
thorium. The most important ratio pertains to daughter Pb
isotope (206Pb and 207Pb) derived from the decay of
radiogenic parent uranium (238U and 235U) and thorium
isotopes (232Th). The other radiogenic ratios are among
(Sm-Nd), Rb-Sr and K-Ar system. Samarium-neodymium
isotope system can be utilized to provide a date or isotope
signature or fingerprint of geological and archaeological
finds (pots, ceramics). 147Sm decays to produce 143Nd with
a half-life of 1.06  1011 years.
4.5.12. Heavy Mineral Survey
Heavy minerals like ilmenite, sillimanite, garnet, zircon,
rutile, monazite, magnetite, titanium, chromite, cassiterite,
diamond, gold and platinum have a tendency to form
onshore beach and offshore placer deposits. Prominent
deposits occurring along coastline of countries like India
(Fig. 4.18), Indonesia, Malaysia, and Australia bordering
Indian Ocean are the largest marine resources of the world.
The beaches in the east and west coast of India are enriched
with on and offshore heavy minerals placer deposits and are
exploited economically. The sampling is conducted by
collecting regular interval vertical column of layered placer
deposits. The isograde and isopach contours are drawn for
computation of reserves.
4.5.13. Polymetallic-Polynodule Survey
Polymetallic-polynodules, popularly known as manganese
nodules, are rock concretions on the sea bottom formed by
concentric layers of iron, manganese and other high value
Mineral Exploration
metals around a tiny core. The size of a fully developed
nodule vary from fraction of millimeter to as large as 20 cm
with an average size between 5 and 10 cm. Nodules are
formed by precipitation of metals from sea water over
several million years. Polymetallic nodules occur in most
oceans of the world with greatest abundance at vast abyssal
floor at depth between 4000 and 6000 m. The areas of
economic interest have been identified at north central
Pacific Ocean, the Peru basin in the southeast Pacific and
the center of the north Indian Ocean. The most promising
deposits with respect to resource and metal content occur
between Hawaii Island and Central America in equatorial
Pacific Ocean.
The sample collection from prospective area of sea
bottom is discussed at Chapter 7 and Fig. 7.31. The
worldwide resource has been estimated at 5,00,000 million
tonnes. The nodules are of greatest economic interest metal
contents varying between nickel (1.25 and 1.50%), copper
(1.00 and 1.40%), cobalt (0.20 and 0.25%), manganese
(~30%), iron (~6%), silicon (~5%), aluminum (~3%) and
with lesser amounts of Ca, Na, Mg, K, Ti and Ba.
Since 1970, research and development works initiated
to identify the best ocean bed nodule deposits, establishing
mining and process route by prospective mining consortia
comprised of Federal and Private Companies from UK,
United States, Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy,
Japan, France, Soviet Union, India and China. As a result,
multiton of nodules from the abyssal plains (~5500 m
depth) of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean were
collected. Significant quantities of Ni, Cu, and Co extracted
from this ore using both pyro and hydro methods. However,
the activities could not be commercialized due to excess
availability of onshore nickel metal, anticipated ecological
imbalance and finally conservation of the natural resources
for the future. The research continues.
4.6. REVIEW
Geochemistry plays vital role in mineral exploration long
before conceptualization and continues much beyond the
closure of mine operation. Baseline geochemical maps, at
national and international levels, are generated by multi-
elemental study of soil and rocks at interval on a scale of
tens to thousands of kilometers covering the Earth’s
surface. The samples are analyzed for total range of trace
element (Ag, As, Au, Bi, Ca, Co, Cr, Cu, F, Fe, Hg, K, Mn,
Mo, Na, Ni, Pb, Pd, Pt, Rn, Sb, Si, Te, Zn, etc.). The
baseline maps, showing the regional spatial variation in
chemical composition, are aimed at mineral exploration
and broad-based environmental issues. An entire range of
geochemical techniques have been focused with decision-
making criteria based on site conditions, judgment and
previous experience during reconnaissance to closure of
operations.
Chapter | 4 Exploration Geochemistry
FIGURE 4.18 Heavy mineral placer deposits containing titanium, chromite, diamond, ilmenite, magnetite, monazite, rutile, zircon, garnet, and
sillimanite along Indian coastline.
Important parameters to consider when designing or
evaluating a geochemical survey are:
- Orientation survey,
- Areal extent of the survey,
- Sampling density,
- Type of samples to collect (soil, bedrock, stream water,
vegetation, gas, etc.),
- Postcollection treatment of the samples (anomaly
enhancement, sieving of soil samples into different
particle size fractions),
- Choice of chemical analysis.
Geochemical exploration eventually works on real-time
modeling e ability to determine new sampling, drilling
locations before moving drill rig for target testing, infill
drilling, need to redrill and step-out decisions. It reduces
71
lead times, which is especially important, when exploration
season is short.
FURTHER READING
Govett (1983) [28] was the premier textbook writer of exploration
geochemistry. Bateman (1950) [4], Hawkes et al. (1962) [36], Levinson
(1974) [51] and Beus et al. (1975) [3] described a good account of
geochemical application in mineral exploration. Govett, 1983, gave
a detailed analysis of rock geochemistry in mineral exploration in third
volume of a series on “Handbook of Exploration Geochemistry.” Rose
et al. (1983) [60] dealt with advance methods in geochemical exploration.
Talapatra (2006) [70] in his modeling approach elaborated nonconven-
tional techniques for concealed land and offshore deposits supported by
Indian case studies. Recent publications of Colin Dunn (2007) [14]
and Carranza (2008) [8] can be referred for advance studies in
geochemistry.