WAKE TURBULENCE

WING TERMINOLOGY
WING AREA (S): The plane surface area of the wing. Although a portion of the area may be
covered by fuselage or engine nacelles.

WING SPAN (b): The distance from tip to tip.

AVERAGE CHORD (c): The geometric average. The product of span and average chord is the
wing area (b x c = S).

ASPECT RATIO (AR): The proportion of the span and the average chord (AR = b/c). If the plan 1
form has the curvature and the average chord is not easily determined, an alternative
expression is (b2 /S). The aspect ratio of the wing determines the aerodynamic characteristics
and structural weight.

HIGH PERFORMANCE SAIL PLANE 35

JET FIGHTER 3

HIGH SPEED JET TRANSPORT 12

ROOT CHORD (𝑪𝑹 ): The chord length at the wing centerline.

TIP CHORD (𝑪𝑻 ): The chord length at the wing tip.

TAPER RATO (𝑪𝑻 /𝑪𝑹 ): The ratio of the tip chord to root chord. The taper ratio effects the lift
distribution and structural weight of the wing. A rectangular wing has a taper ratio of 1.0
while the pointed tip delta wing has taper ratio of 0.0

SWEEP ANGLE: Usually measured as the angle between the line of 25% chord and a
perpendicular to the root chord. The sweep of wing cause definite changes in compressibility,
maximum lift, and stall characterizes.

MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC): The chord drawn through the geographic centre of
the plane area. The MAC is located on the reference axis of the aircraft and is a primary
reference for longitudinal stability considerations.
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WING TIP VORTICES
Air flowing over the top surface of the wing is at low pressure than that beneath. The trailing
edge and the wing tips are where the airflows interact. The pressure differential modifies the
directions of flow, inducing a span wise vector towards the root on upper surface and
generally, towards the tip on the lower surface. An aircraft is viewed from the rear. An anti-
clock wise vortex will be induced at the right wing tip and clock-wise vortex at the left wing
tip.
AT HIGHER ANGLES OF ATTCK (LOWER IAS) THE DECREASED CHORD WISE VECTOR WILL
INCREASE THE EFFECT OF RESULTANT SPANWISE FLOW, MAKING THE VORTICES STRONGER.
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INDUCED DOWNWASH
Trailing vortices create certain vertical velocity components in the airflow in the vicinity of the
wing, both in front of and behind it. These vertical velocities cause a downwash over the wing
resulting n a reduction in the effective angle of attack.

The stronger the vortices, the greater the reduction in effective angle of attack.

The overall lift generated by a wing will be below the value that would be generated if there
were no span-wise pressure differential. It is the production of lift itself which reduces the
magnitude of the lift force generated. To replace the lift lost by the increased downwash, the
aircraft must be flown at a higher angle of attack. This increases drag. This extra drag is called
INDUCED DRAG. The stronger the vortices, the greater the induced drag.
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WAKE TURBULENCE
Trailing wingtip vortices extended behind aircraft for a considerable distance and can present
an extreme hazard to any aircraft unfortunate enough to encounter them. Maximum
tangential airspeed in the vortex system may be as high as 90 m/s immediately behind a large
aircraft. Wake turbulence cannot be detected, so it is important for pilots to be avoided flying
in wake turbulence and well aware about the potential distribution and duration of the
vortices, plus modifications made to the “classic” vortex systems by surface wind speed and
direction. 4

AIRCRAFT WAKE VORTEX CHARACTREISTICS

Wake vortex generation begins when the nose wheel lifts off the runway on take-off and
continues until the nose wheel touches down on landing. Wake vortices exist behind every
aircraft, including helicopters; vortices are most severe when generated by heavy aircraft.
They present the greatest danger during the take-off, initial climb, finial approach and
landing phases of flight. A Wake turbulence encounter hazard due to potential loss of control
and possible structural damage, and if the experience takes place near the ground there may
be insufficient time and/or altitude to recover from upset.

CONDITION VORTICES EFFECT

HIGHER WEIGHT STRONGER VORTICES

WEIGHT
LOWER WEIGHT WEAKER VORTICES

INCREASED WILL DECREASE

WING SPAN
DECREASED WLL INCREASE

LOWER SPEED STRONGER VORTICES

AIRSPEED
HGHER SPEED WEAKER VORTICES

CONFIGURATION CLEAN VORTEX SRENTH IS HIGH

(for given speed
NORMAL VORTEX STRENTH IS LESS
& weight)

HIGHER AOA STRONGER VORTICES

ATTITUDE
LOWER AOA LESSER VORTICES

** FOR GIVEN WEIGHT AND SPEED HELICOPTER PRODUCES STRONGER VORTEX THAN A/C
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DISTRIBUTION OF TRAILING VORTICES
Typically the two trailing vortices remain separated by about 3/4th of aircraft’s wing span and
in still air they tend to drift to slowly downwards and level off, usually 500 to 1000 Ft below
the flight path of the A/C. Behind a large A/C the trailing vortices can extend as much as nine
nautical miles.

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VORTEX MOMENT NEAR THE GROUND
If the generating A/C is within 1000ft of the ground, the vortices will “touch-down” and move
outwards at about 5kts from the track of the generating aircraft at a height approximately
equal to aircraft’s wingspan.

In crosswind, if the surface wind is light and steady, the wake vortex system “n contact” with
the ground will drift with wind. The possible effect of crosswind on the motion of vortex close
to the ground.

With parallel runways, wake turbulence from an aircraft operating on one runway
can be potential hazard to aircraft operating from other.

 Atmospheric turbulence has the greatest influence on the decay of the wake vortices;
the stronger the wind, the quicker the decay.
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PROBABILITY OF WAKE TURBULANCE ENCOUNTER
Certain separation minima are applied by Air Traffic Control (ATC), but this does not
guarantee avoidance. ATC applied separation merely reduces the probability of an encounter
to a lower level, and may minimize the magnitude of the upset if an encounter does occur.
Particular care should exercise by the pilot of heavier aircraft, especially in conditions of light
wind. The majority of serious incidents, close to the ground, occur when winds are light.

WAKE TURBULENCE AVOIDANCE

If the locations of wake vortices behind a preceding or crossing aircraft are visualized,
appropriate flight path control will minimize the probability of a wake turbulence encounter. 7
Staying above of preceding or crossing aircraft will usually keep your aircraft out of the
generating aircraft’s wake vortex. Unfortunately, deviating from published approach and
departure requirements in order to stay above/upwind of the flight path of the preceding
aircraft may not be advisable. Maintaining proper separation remains the best advice for
avoiding a wake turbulence encounter.

GROUND EFFECT
When landing and taking off, the closeness of the wing to the ground prevents full
development of the trailing vortices, making them much weaker. Up wash and downwash are
reduced, causing the effective angle of attack of the wing to increase. Therefore, when an
aircraft is “in ground effect” lift will generally be increased and induced drag will be
decreased. In addition, the reduced downwash will effect longitudinal stability because of
CP movement, and the pitching movement because of changes to the effective angle of
attack of tail plane.
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THE IMPACT OF GROUND EFFECT
The influence of ground effect depends on the distance of the wing above the ground. A large
reduction in 𝐂Di will take place only when the wing is very close to the ground (within half the
wing span).

* Low wing A/C will experience a greater degree of ground effect than an A/C with high
mounted wing.

HIGH AND LOW TAIL CHARACTERISTICS

LOW TAIL HIGH TAIL

Low mounted tail plane will have its A high mounted tail plane maybe outside
effective angle of attack modified by the the influence of changing downwash angle
changing downwash angle behind the wing. and not suffer the same disadvantages

Ground effect may possible the change the aerodynamic characteristics of the tail plane
in its own right.
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INFLUENCE OF TAILPLANE CAMBER ON PITCHING MOMENT
The type of tail lane camber does not influence the pitching moment generated when down
wash from the wing changes. Decreased down wash will always result in an aircraft nose
down pitching moment and vice versa.
Down wash will change not only because of the ground effect, but also when flaps are
operated and when a shockwave forms on the wing at speeds higher than MCRIT , this
phenomena is a key element towards a full understanding of Principles of Flight.

EFFECT CONDITION
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INCREASNG DOWNWASH DECREASING TAIL PLANE EFFECTIVE AOA

DEREASING DOWN WASH INCREASING TAIL PLANE EFFECTIVE AOA

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TAILPLANE ANGLE OF ATTACK

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CONCLUSION

ENTERING GROUND EFFECT

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LEAVING GROUND EFFECT

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SUMMARY

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