Running head: AFRICAN AMERICAN COLLEGE STUDENTS CODESWITCHING

The Cultural Competency of African-American College Students and their Utilization of Code-

Switching at Predominantly White Institutions

George B. Paasewe

Northern Illinois University

AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 2

Proposed Study

Title: The cultural competency of African-American college students and their

utilization of code-switching at predominantly white institutions (PWI).

Research Problem

Due to the lack of understanding and the bad perception of African-American vernacular,

(aka) Ebonics or Black English by the predominantly Standard English speaking environment.

Language varieties such as speech, tone, and dialect are altered for purposes of assimilation to

the Standard English speaking environment. Per Payne and Suddler (2014), the perception of

African-American white peers affects whether they code-switch when interacting with whites,

and they code-switch back or reserve their "true selves" when only interacting with

blacks. Cureton (2003) asserts that problems adapting to a new predominantly white

environment and culture could possibly function as an academic deterrent, because black student

may be more likely to develop negative feelings or attitudes toward the university.

Abstract

Prior research indicates that code-switching is common among African-Americans and

that they are comfortable code-switching. Due to the various stereotypes and perceptions

associated with the African American race, ways of dress and speech are altered for purposes of

assimilation. The goal of this proposed study is to discuss the concept of code-switching and

converse on the utilization of code-switching among Black American college students. This

forthcoming qualitative research study will observe subjects by conducting two focus groups (7-

12 participants each), and thirteen in-depth interviews of Black American college students. To

stimulate discourse, open-ended questions will be developed to encourage dialogue about

AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 3

participants’ experiences with code-switching, how they utilize code-switching, what influences

them to code-switch, and lastly, how being culturally component about society negative portrayal

of their race allows them to navigate while attending PWI’s.

The purpose of this study is to identity how Black Americans learn and utilize the tool of

code-switching. Moreover, this study will provide vital information about the use of code-

switching and could potentially benefit higher education institutions. The audience who would

benefit from this study are both student and academic affairs professionals. This study would

inform both entities about the challenges and issues of code-switching from Black English to

Standard English and how it consequently inflicts identity conflicts within an individual. In

addition, college students of all races would benefit from this study by the means of constructing

awareness among college students of the concept of code-switching and the linguistic navigating

struggles to assimilate to the Standard English speaking environment.

Aim

The aim of this proposed study is to investigate the social construction of the concept of

code-switching, and how African Americans college students utilize code-switching while

attending PWI’s. More specifically, the aim of this paper is to inform higher education

institutions of the challenges that African American students face while attending PWI’s while

highlighting the various societal pressures that causes African American college students to alter

their vernacular from Black English to Standard English to assimilate to their environment.

Furthermore, this paper declares that African American college students are culturally competent

and aware of the issues, challenges, stereotypes, and marginalization that their race endure daily

on college campuses. Therefore, such knowledge permits African Americans to code-switch to

defend against being perceived negatively by their white counterparts.

AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 4

Central Question

The focus question of this study is: How do African Americans learn and utilize/enact

code-switching? From the focus question, a few other guiding questions include:

1. What comes to mind when you hear the concept of code-switching?

2. What is your primary mode of communication? Is it Black English or Standard English?

3. In what manner, did you learn how to code-switch?

4. In what ways, do you code-switch? Do you change when you code-switch?

5. In the classroom setting, are you more likely to use Black English or Standard English

and why?

6. In what situations are you more likely to employ Black English over Standard English?

7. To you think code-switching is a beneficial tool for Black Americans to use and have?

8. Have you ever encouraged or discouraged someone to or from code-switching? If so how

and why made you to do so?

Background

Previous research indicates that code-switching is common among African-Americans

and that they are comfortable code-switching. Because of the stereotype and perceptions

associated with their race, ways of dress and speech are altered for purposes of assimilation.

Code-switching occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language

varieties, in the context of a single conversation. The practice of codes-witching refers to means

of adapting to or interchanging various communication contexts. Code-switching can increase

the possibility of positive management outcomes, such as being well-liked, fitting in, winning the
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 5

respect, friendship and trust of colleagues, and subordinates while also generating a positive

spiral of interpersonal commination with a given professional relationship.

Significance of the Study

It is envisaged that the study will make a theoretical contribution to the body of

knowledge related to education and the social phenomena of code-switching among college

students with an emphasis on Black Americans college students. The significance of the study

is that it should provide the richness of a case study scenario to underpin the impact of code-

switching related to African Americans and their potential identity struggle due to them

switching back and forth according their linguistic environments. Significant understanding

about code-switching and the societal expectations it embodies will be gleaned from those who

are indicated a desire to participate in this project. Some of these include African American

faculty members and even custodial staff. In this way, understanding Black Americans

experiences with code-switching from the top down approach pertaining to PWI’s will contribute

to an understanding of the ways in which societal expectation impact their lived experience.

Introduction

Social scientists want to understand code-switching because it is a common social

phenomenon and it is also an increasingly popular form of communication in some communities.

Social scientists correspondingly want to understand how code-switching allows people to

identify what language is acceptable in different situations and to modify their speech to the

appropriate style. Code-Switching is also important from the developmental perspective. For

example, many researchers attribute part of the achievement gap between black and whites to the
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 6

fact that blacks lack proficiency in English, that is, they lack proficiency in using standard

English because they employ Black English.

Code-switching is defined as the use of two or more linguistic varieties in the same

conversation or interaction (Greene and Walker, 2004). Code-switching can involve the

alternation between two different tonal registers, two different languages or even a dialectical

shift within the same language, such as Black English or Standard English. Code-switching is

not meaningless or random. Code-switching is a linguistic sign and tool of awareness of

alternative communicative. It has a role, characteristic and facets. “Black English historically

has been deemed substandard due to the language patterns which digresses from mainstream

American or Standard English. Code-switching allows African-Americans to identify what

language is suitable or acceptable in various situations and modify their speech to the appropriate

style.

The practice of code-switching refers to means of adapting to or negotiating various

communication contexts. (Greene and Walker, 2004). This future research proposes to

analyze how African-Americans learn and/or enact code-switching. Code-switching is very

common among African-Americans. Payne and Suddler (2014) highlight that African-

Americans, overall, were comfortable with code-switching between a professional identity and a

more racial, black American identity. In comparison, Guiffrida (2003) finds that code-switching

was a common phenomenon among blacks. A trend emerges between the perceptions of

African-Americans as it impacts or influences code-switching. Guiffrida (2003) Resulting in a

dissonance between African-American’s true selves and the image they want their white peers to

perceive them as. Many African-Americans develop separate personas for whites

while reserving their true selves only for interactions with blacks. Some factions of the African-
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 7

American community have historically stigmatized students, rejecting their “Blackness” or

heritage, culture and essence.

Greene and Walker (2004) suggest that some African-Americans “develop an

oppositional social identity and cultural form of reference which, consciously and unconsciously,

causes them to associate certain attitudes, motivations, and behaviors. Some African-Americans

consider that as betraying African-American culture and acting ‘white. ’ The perception of both

African-Americans and whites has a huge impact on the way African-Americans code-switch

when interacting with whites, and why they code-switch back or reserve their true selves when

only interacting with blacks. It’s very important to know that African-Americans appear to

struggle with identity crises, which leads them to have disparate personae.

Review of Literature

Tensions at PWI’s

Many African – Americans begin their lives in predominantly black urban ghettoes or

rural southern communities where Black English is the normal medium of everyday

communication, (Debose 1992: 165). The subsequent upward mobility of such persons usually

entails becoming bilingual speakers of Black English and Standard English rather than

replacement of Black English by Standard English, (Debose 1992). Guiffrida (2003: 310) argues

that African-American students at PWI’s find it challenging to adjust to what may be interpreted

as a new culture and sometimes threatening environment. Cureton (2003: 301) stated that

problems adapting to a new predominantly white environment and culture could possibly

function an academic deterrent, because black students may be more likely to develop negative

feelings or attitudes toward the university.

AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 8

Black students on predominantly white campuses are asked to assimilate into an

unfamiliar environment composed of bureaucratic organizations and policies, entertainment

organizations, sports program, diverse populations with different culture values, and a judicial

system with legal agents working to maintain campus social order, (Cureton 2003: 296).

Payne and Suddler (2014: 390) argues that Black American college students struggle with the

need to know about and how to perform code-switching at PWI, and were challenged by white

student’s lack of awareness of the need to integrate black culture into their environment.

Additionally, the African-Americans participants stated that their black peers that don’t engage

in code-switching deemed them as betraying their black culture and often referred to them as

“acting white” per Greene and Walker (2004: 436).

Sample

Participants in Payne and Suddler’s (2014) study identified as African American. Data

were collected through four student focus groups and eleven interviews consisting of students

that affiliates with the general African American study body, black Greek originations, student

athletes and student leaders. Each participant completed a demographic survey. In addition, two

sets of field notes were completed. Eleven interview-based field notes were generated during

individual interviews and focus groups and eleven field observations were completed at various

events on campus sponsored by and widely attended by black American students such as Black

Student Union meetings or social gatherings sponsored by Greek organization for example. Four

to seven students were included in focus groups, with a slight number of females (n=13) than

males (n=12). The sample size consisted more of senior students (n=16).
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 9

Design

The implement steps through the research process of Payne and Suddler (2014) study is

well designed and specific. The implementation steps started with four black Americans and one

second generation Liberian-American undergraduate students. These students went through a

formal application process to develop what would be called the Black American Studies

Participatory Action Research (BAMS PAR). The BAMS PAR is a “methodological framework

and process that directly involves members of the population under study by situating them as

the actual research team” (Payne and Suddler, 2014, p. 391).

Theoretical Framework

Cureton’s (2003) study on how African Americans cope, conform or resist their Black

American identity at a predominately white University is conceptualized through the blackness

theory. This theoretical framework argues that there are essentially five everyday functional

expressions or negotiations of blackness which are: bonding, bridging, buffering, code-switching

and individualism. To further explain a few, bonding highlights that how African Americans

uniquely socialize and connect with one another. Bonding essentially gives a person a sense of

belonging and connectivity with other blacks. Bridging is described as the formation of intimate

relationships between blacks and non-blacks. For example, friendships and intimate

relationships. The last function of the blackness theory I will explain is codeswitching. Per

theoretical framework, code-switching speaks to how African Americans switch their

interactional style to better accommodate new or different environments. Debose (1992), it is

imperative to know that “codeswitching or altering and softening ones’ racial-ethnic identity

while at a PWI negatively affects the academic and social performance of some black Americans

students” (p. 390). In other words, code-switching can inflict some identity conflicts within a
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 10

person which consequently affects their social and academic performance. The next section of

this paper will explain the implemented steps of the research process.

Procedure: Data Collection and Recruitment

Payne and Suddler (2014) research team in this study developed a snowball sample grid

of black students involved in Greek organizations, student athletes, student leaders and students

of the general body to recruit participants for this study. Students were contacted through email,

telephone and messages on the internet- based social networking sites. The four student focus

groups were conducted in the lounge area of the University’s center for black culture. All focus

groups interviews were audio-recorded and four of the five focus groups were video-recoded.

Individual interviews were both video- and audio-recorded. Furthermore, each participant of the

study received two copies of the consent form, one to sign and return and one to keep for his or

her records. In addition, students received a meal after the interview as a thank you for their

participation.

Relevant ethical consideration

Some relevant ethical considerations that Payne and Suddler (2014) implemented in their

studies that are congruent with my prospect research proposal are using consent forms for all

participants but more specifically, each participant of my prospect research would receive two

copies of the consent forms. Record purposes are the main reason for this ethical consideration

just in case the participants develop questions about their participation and the purpose of the

research. Another relevant ethical consideration that I plan on implementing in my future work

is using pseudonyms for research when transcribing and publishing my work. The potential of

harm to that person makes it an essential ethical consideration in deciding what information to
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 11

disclose and how to disclose it. This is salient to why the implementation of pseudonyms will be

employed in my future studies. In regards to critiques of the study, I have none. However, I

would suggest that Payne and Suddler (2014) should have recruited participants that identified as

mixed or bi-racial. The addition of incorporating bi-racial participants would allow the

researchers hear unique stories, their point of views and their navigation techniques of them

being both black and white.

White/mainstream perceptions
African-American students do not want to be perceived as the stereotypical black person,

from perceptions of how they talk as well as how they dress, another illustration of code-

switching. Guiffrida (2003: 311) points out that when socializing at home, African-Americans

were comfortable wearing baggy pants, loose shirts and du-rags (a type of bandana) on their

heads. Moving from urban environment to campus culture is a different culture. Conversely,

when socializing at a PWI, especially with white peers, most students were careful not to dress in

a way where they would be perceived as gangsters. Instead, the African-American students

learned to alter or completely change the way they dressed.

Code–switching and identity

Not all African Americans code-switch, nor does everyone view code-switching as a

positive. Some people feel that code-switching deter them from being their true selves because

they must speak a certain way just to fit in Guiffrida (2003). Therefore, an individual’s personal

values affect whether they code-switch or not. Molinsky (2007) argues that when a switcher’s

personal values are highly inconsistent with new cultural norms – that is, when the behavior the

individual must enact to act appropriately in the new setting strongly conflicts with deeply help

personal values – the individual will experience high levels of identity conflict.
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 12

Complementary to this, Matrenec (2011: 237) identified that in the process of identity

development, African American males are in a constant struggle to define who they are in a

school setting where they are worried about being racially stereotyped and prejudged by teachers

and peers. Chavous et al. (2002: 241) points out that for some African American college

students, the experience of being at a PWI may result in identity conflict, acute awareness of

differential treatment, and feelings of isolation due to race. For others, little conflict,

defensiveness, or social isolation may be experienced.

African American English and the Benefits of code switching

Code-switching can be beneficial in many ways, and many researchers consider code-

switching as a tool of advancement. Molinsky (2007: 623) argues that codeswitching can help

individuals avoid negative consequences of norm violation and its association with stereotyping,

can increase the likelihood of fitting in, being respect and well-liked, and can strengthen

professional relationships. As African American students strive to be successful, the ability to

code-switch from Black English to Standard English may assist them.

Gender differences

Code-switching may be experienced differently by black men and black women.

Matrenec (2011: 227) found that navigating the complex process of identity development is

particularly difficult for African American males. African American males find themselves

trying to establish who they are and what they stand for within their ecology, while fighting for

acceptance and independence among peer groups and adults who often misunderstand them. The

experiences of black women are like black men experiences, but slightly different. Often black

women are forced to acculturate or assimilate, surrendering their individual racial identity to
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 13

appease the predominantly white environment in which they find themselves, (Terhune 2006:

10). Code-switching can cause considerable stress and damage to the psychological well-being

of the individual because it is usually done out of necessity not choice, Terhune (2006: 11). This

researcher also argues that living and working in a predominantly white environment provides

less opportunity to switch back because a central and strong black community is not readily

available, potentially placing professional black women in a continual state of suppressing their

racial identity, (Terhune 2006).

Method
My prospective qualitative research design, specifically the data driven research to

identify if there is a quantifiable relational effect between variables. Correlation methods are

used to determine the extent to which two or more variables are related among a single group of

people. In addition, in correlation research there is no attempt to manipulate the variables

because they are random variables. This research wants to determine if there is a relationship

between African American college students and their ability to code-switch from Black English

to Standard English. This research also focuses on the cultural competency that African-

Americans acquire while being at a predominantly white institution (PWI). For one to become

culturally competent it is imperative to become knowledgeable and cognizant of the issues and

challenges that various oppressed group endure. Whether it is gender, race, religion, and sexual

orientation. This research will be the foundational research to determine if African-American

students need specific resources for their racial identity needs. This research will answer the

question to how African-Americans learn and enact code-switching.

AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 14

Sampling

In this study the data will come from a predominantly white Midwestern higher education

institution. All the participants must identify as black or African- American. Bi-racial students

can also participate in the research. However, the bi-racial student must be mixed with black.

After receiving approval for the international review board (IRB) I will request the demographic

data from records and registration, which will indicate me with how many African American

students are currently on campus. The sample size that I think will be ideal to gather sufficient

data is thirty-five. Since I am looking at only the number of African American students at a

predominantly white institution, I will have direct interaction with students. Therefore, there will

be ethical considerations for students.

Data would be collected through four student focus groups and eleven interviews

consisting of students that affiliates with the general African American study body, black Greek

originations, student athletes and student leaders. Each participant completed a demographic

survey. In addition, two sets of field notes were completed. Eleven interview-based field notes

were generated during individual interviews and focus groups and eleven field observations were

completed at various events on campus sponsored by and widely attended by Black American

students such as Black Student Union meetings or social gatherings sponsored by Greek

organization for example. Four to seven students were included in focus groups, with a slight

number of females (n=13) than males (n=12). The sample size consisted more of senior students

(n=16).

Procedure
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 15

After receiving approval from the IRB, I will then contact records and registrations from

the PWI institution of choice. Due to my proposed study consisting of interviews, there will be

instrumentations methods employed. Two focus groups, (eight participants in the first and nine

in the second focus group) were conducted, with African-American college students between the

ages 18-25 who were students at UW-Whitewater. Similar questions were asked in both focus

groups and interviews, Subjects were recorded when interviewed, fourteen one-on-one

interviews were conducted with African-American students (seven men and seven women). In

both the focus groups and interviews, open-ended questions were designed to encourage

dialogue about and participants’ experiences with code-switching.

The research team in this study developed a snowball sample grid of black students

involved in Greek organizations, student athletes, student leaders and students of the general

body to recruit participants for this study. Students were contacted through email, telephone and

messages on the internet- based social networking sites. The four student focus groups were

conducted in the lounge area of the University’s center for black culture. All focus groups

interviews were audio-recorded and four of the five focus groups were video-recoded.

Individual interviews were both video- and audio-recorded. Furthermore, each participant of the

study received two copies of the consent form, one to sign and return and one to keep for his or

her records. In addition, students received a meal after the interview as a thank you for their

participation

Participants

As with any qualitative study, I will utilize purposeful sampling in choosing my research

setting and participations. The specific sampling design is conceptual/theoretical The

participants of this sample consisted of African American students who attended the PWI of
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 16

choice will identify as black. A total of thirty participants were recruited for this study (16

women and 12 men).

Data Collection

The proposed research team for this study will develop a snowball sample grid of black students

involved in Greek organizations, student athletes, student leaders and students of the general

body to recruit participants for this study. Students will be contacted through email, telephone

and messages on the internet- based social networking sites. The four student focus groups were

conducted in the lounge area of the University’s center for black culture. All focus groups

interviews were audio-recorded and four of the five focus groups were video-recoded.

Individual interviews were both video- and audio-recorded. Furthermore, each participant of the

study will receive two copies of the consent form, one to sign and return and one to keep for his

or her records. In addition, students received a meal after the interview as a thank you for their

participation.

Gatekeeper

I will work with the demographic data from records and registration office to gain access to the

necessary permissions. The records and registration office oversees all the demographic break

down of students according by race, and therefore would need to be aware of the researcher’s

intentions and research plan. The gatekeeper will be used to identify any additional sources of

permission I may need to gain.

Data analysis

I will prepare the data for review by first creating as system of organization. I will then begin to

transcribe the interviews and observations into a word-processing file. As each interview is
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 17

transcribed, I will check for accuracy. All files will be uploaded into a computer software

program for analysis.

Limitations

One possible limitation to this proposed study might run into is the problem of self-

reported data. A self-report is any method which involves asking a participant about their

feelings, attitudes, beliefs and so on. When people self-report, you don’t get accurate data due to

people biases. Also, participants are not as truthful all the time about information they share.

Another possible limitation of this prospective research is the small sampling size. Having a

small sampling size can have profound effects on the outcome and worth of the study. The

proposed sample size will not impact the results of my data.

AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 18

Reference

DeBose, Charles. 1992. “Codeswitching: Black English and Standard English in the African-

American Linguistic Repertoire.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development

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Greene, Deric and Felicia R. Walker. 2004. “Recommendations to Public Speaking Instructors for

the Negotiation of Code-Switching Practices Among Black English-Speaking African-

American Students.” The Journal of Negro Education 73(4):435-442.

Gross, Alan M., Lisa Koch and Russel Kolts. 2001. “Attitudes Toward Black English and Code

Switching.” Journal of Black Psychology 27(1):29-41.

Guiffrida, Douglas A. 2003. “African-American Student Organizations as Agents of Social

Integration.” Journal of College Student Development 44(3):304-319.

Matrenec, Ravi H. 2011. “Thoughts on Poverty: The Struggle for Identity for African American

Adolescent Males in a Predominantly White, Affluent School.” Journal of Poverty

15(3):226-240.

Molinsky, Andrew. 2007. “Cross-Cultural Code Switching: The Psychological Challenges of

Adapting Behavior in Foreign Cultural Interactions.” The Academy of Management

Review 32(2):662-640.
AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS UTILIZTION OF CODE-SWITCHING 19

Payne, Yasser A. and Carl Suddler. 2014. “Cope, Conform or Resist? Functions of a Black

American Identity at a Predominantly White University.” Equity & Excellence in Education

47(3):385-403.

Rahman, Jacquelyn. 2008. “Middle – Class African Americans: Reactions and Attitudes Toward

African American English.” The Journal of American Speech 83(2):141-176.

Scotton, Carol M. and William Ury. 1977. “Bilingual Strategies: The Social Functions of Code-

Switching.” Journal of Linguistics 15(193):5-20.

Terhune, Carol P. 2006. “Biculturalism, Code-Switching and Shifting: The Experiences of Black

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5(2):9-15.