College Physics · Physics

 Questions and Issues

 Edit and Contribute

 Preface
 Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics
1. Physics: An Introduction
2. Physical Quantities and Units
3. Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures
4. Approximation
 Kinematics
1. Displacement
2. Vectors, Scalars, and Coordinate Systems
3. Time, Velocity, and Speed
4. Acceleration
5. Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension
6. Problem-Solving Basics for One-Dimensional Kinematics
7. Falling Objects
8. Graphical Analysis of One-Dimensional Motion
 Two-Dimensional Kinematics
1. Kinematics in Two Dimensions: An Introduction
2. Vector Addition and Subtraction: Graphical Methods
3. Vector Addition and Subtraction: Analytical Methods
4. Projectile Motion
5. Addition of Velocities
 Dynamics: Force and Newton's Laws of Motion
1. Development of Force Concept
2. Newton’s First Law of Motion: Inertia
3. Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Concept of a System
4. Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Symmetry in Forces
5. Normal, Tension, and Other Examples of Forces
6. Problem-Solving Strategies
7. Further Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion
8. Extended Topic: The Four Basic Forces—An Introduction
 Further Applications of Newton's Laws: Friction, Drag, and Elasticity
1. Friction
2. Drag Forces
3. Elasticity: Stress and Strain
 Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation
1. Rotation Angle and Angular Velocity
2. Centripetal Acceleration
 3. Centripetal Force
4. Fictitious Forces and Non-inertial Frames: The Coriolis Force
5. Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
6. Satellites and Kepler’s Laws: An Argument for Simplicity
 Work, Energy, and Energy Resources
1. Work: The Scientific Definition
2. Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem
3. Gravitational Potential Energy
4. Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
5. Nonconservative Forces
6. Conservation of Energy
7. Power
8. Work, Energy, and Power in Humans
9. World Energy Use
 Linear Momentum and CollisionsLinear Momentum and Collisions
1. Linear Momentum and Force
2. Impulse
3. Conservation of Momentum
4. Elastic Collisions in One Dimension
5. Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension
6. Collisions of Point Masses in Two Dimensions
 Statics and Torque
1. The First Condition for Equilibrium
2. The Second Condition for Equilibrium
3. Stability
4. Applications of Statics, Including Problem-Solving Strategies
5. Simple Machines
6. Forces and Torques in Muscles and Joints
 Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
1. Angular Acceleration
2. Kinematics of Rotational Motion
3. Dynamics of Rotational Motion: Rotational Inertia
4. Rotational Kinetic Energy: Work and Energy Revisited
5. Angular Momentum and Its Conservation
6. Collisions of Extended Bodies in Two Dimensions
7. Gyroscopic Effects: Vector Aspects of Angular Momentum
 Fluid Statics
1. What Is a Fluid?
2. Density
3. Pressure
4. Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid
5. Pascal’s Principle
6. Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Pressure Measurement
7. Archimedes’ Principle
8. Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids: Surface Tension and Capillary Action
9. Pressures in the Body
 Fluid Dynamics and Its Biological and Medical Applications
1. Flow Rate and Its Relation to Velocity
2. Bernoulli’s Equation
3. The Most General Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
4. Viscosity and Laminar Flow; Poiseuille’s Law
5. The Onset of Turbulence
6. Motion of an Object in a Viscous Fluid
7. Molecular Transport Phenomena: Diffusion, Osmosis, and Related Processes
 Temperature, Kinetic Theory, and the Gas Laws
1. Temperature
2. Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
3. The Ideal Gas Law
4. Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature
5. Phase Changes
6. Humidity, Evaporation, and Boiling
 Heat and Heat Transfer Methods
1. Heat
2. Temperature Change and Heat Capacity
3. Phase Change and Latent Heat
4. Heat Transfer Methods
5. Conduction
6. Convection
7. Radiation
 ThermodynamicsThermodynamics
1. The First Law of Thermodynamics
2. The First Law of Thermodynamics and Some Simple Processes
3. Carnot’s Perfect Heat Engine: The Second Law of Thermodynamics Restated
4. Applications of Thermodynamics: Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
5. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Disorder and the
Unavailability of Energy
6. Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics:
The Underlying Explanation
 Oscillatory Motion and Waves
1. Hooke’s Law: Stress and Strain Revisited
2. Period and Frequency in Oscillations
3. Simple Harmonic Motion: A Special Periodic Motion
4. The Simple Pendulum
5. Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
6. Uniform Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion
7. Damped Harmonic Motion
8. Forced Oscillations and Resonance
9. Waves
10. Superposition and Interference
11. Energy in Waves: Intensity
 Physics of Hearing
1. Sound
 2. Speed of Sound, Frequency, and Wavelength
3. Sound Intensity and Sound Level
4. Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms
5. Sound Interference and Resonance: Standing Waves in Air Columns
6. Hearing
7. Ultrasound
 Electric Charge and Electric Field
1. Static Electricity and Charge: Conservation of Charge
2. Conductors and Insulators
3. Coulomb’s Law
4. Electric Field: Concept of a Field Revisited
5. Electric Field Lines: Multiple Charges
6. Electric Forces in Biology
7. Conductors and Electric Fields in Static Equilibrium
8. Applications of Electrostatics
 Electric Potential and Electric Field
1. Electric Potential Energy: Potential Difference
2. Electric Potential in a Uniform Electric Field
3. Electrical Potential Due to a Point Charge
4. Equipotential Lines
5. Capacitors and Dielectrics
6. Capacitors in Series and Parallel
7. Energy Stored in Capacitors
 Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law
1. Current
2. Ohm’s Law: Resistance and Simple Circuits
3. Resistance and Resistivity
4. Electric Power and Energy
5. Alternating Current versus Direct Current
6. Electric Hazards and the Human Body
7. Nerve Conduction–Electrocardiograms
 Circuits and DC Instruments
1. Resistors in Series and Parallel
2. Electromotive Force: Terminal Voltage
3. Kirchhoff’s Rules
4. DC Voltmeters and Ammeters
5. Null Measurements
6. DC Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors
 Magnetism
1. Magnets
2. Ferromagnets and Electromagnets
3. Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Lines
4. Magnetic Field Strength: Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field
5. Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field: Examples and Applications
6. The Hall Effect
7. Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
 8. Torque on a Current Loop: Motors and Meters
9. Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents: Ampere’s Law
10. Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Conductors
11. More Applications of Magnetism
 Electromagnetic Induction, AC Circuits, and Electrical Technologies
1. Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux
2. Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’s Law
3. Motional Emf
4. Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping
5. Electric Generators
6. Back Emf
7. Transformers
8. Electrical Safety: Systems and Devices
9. Inductance
10. RL Circuits
11. Reactance, Inductive and Capacitive
12. RLC Series AC Circuits
 Electromagnetic Waves
1. Maxwell’s Equations: Electromagnetic Waves Predicted and Observed
2. Production of Electromagnetic Waves
3. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
4. Energy in Electromagnetic Waves
 Geometric Optics
1. The Ray Aspect of Light
2. The Law of Reflection
3. The Law of Refraction
4. Total Internal Reflection
5. Dispersion: The Rainbow and Prisms
6. Image Formation by Lenses
7. Image Formation by Mirrors
 Vision and Optical Instruments
1. Physics of the Eye
2. Vision Correction
3. Color and Color Vision
4. Microscopes
5. Telescopes
6. Aberrations
 Wave Optics
1. The Wave Aspect of Light: Interference
2. Huygens's Principle: Diffraction
3. Young’s Double Slit Experiment
4. Multiple Slit Diffraction
5. Single Slit Diffraction
6. Limits of Resolution: The Rayleigh Criterion
7. Thin Film Interference
8. Polarization
 9. *Extended Topic* Microscopy Enhanced by the Wave Characteristics of Light
 Special Relativity
1. Einstein’s Postulates
2. Simultaneity And Time Dilation
3. Length Contraction
4. Relativistic Addition of Velocities
5. Relativistic Momentum
6. Relativistic Energy
 Introduction to Quantum Physics
1. Quantization of Energy
2. The Photoelectric Effect
3. Photon Energies and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
4. Photon Momentum
5. The Particle-Wave Duality
6. The Wave Nature of Matter
7. Probability: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
8. The Particle-Wave Duality Reviewed
 Atomic Physics
1. Discovery of the Atom
2. Discovery of the Parts of the Atom: Electrons and Nuclei
3. Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
4. X Rays: Atomic Origins and Applications
5. Applications of Atomic Excitations and De-Excitations
6. The Wave Nature of Matter Causes Quantization
7. Patterns in Spectra Reveal More Quantization
8. Quantum Numbers and Rules
9. The Pauli Exclusion Principle
 Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics
1. Nuclear Radioactivity
2. Radiation Detection and Detectors
3. Substructure of the Nucleus
4. Nuclear Decay and Conservation Laws
5. Half-Life and Activity
6. Binding Energy
7. Tunneling
 Medical Applications of Nuclear Physics
1. Medical Imaging and Diagnostics
2. Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
3. Therapeutic Uses of Ionizing Radiation
4. Food Irradiation
5. Fusion
6. Fission
7. Nuclear Weapons
 Particle Physics
1. The Yukawa Particle and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Revisited
2. The Four Basic Forces
 3. Accelerators Create Matter from Energy
4. Particles, Patterns, and Conservation Laws
5. Quarks: Is That All There Is?
6. GUTs: The Unification of Forces
 Frontiers of Physics
1. Cosmology and Particle Physics
2. General Relativity and Quantum Gravity
3. Superstrings
4. Dark Matter and Closure
5. Complexity and Chaos
6. High-temperature Superconductors
7. Some Questions We Know to Ask
 Atomic Masses
 Selected Radioactive Isotopes
 Useful Information
 Glossary of Key Symbols and Notation

Variation of Pressure with Depth

in a Fluid
If your ears have ever popped on a plane flight or ached during a deep dive in a
swimming pool, you have experienced the effect of depth on pressure in a fluid. At the
Earth’s surface, the air pressure exerted on you is a result of the weight of air above
you. This pressure is reduced as you climb up in altitude and the weight of air above
you decreases. Under water, the pressure exerted on you increases with increasing
depth. In this case, the pressure being exerted upon you is a result of both the weight of
water above you and that of the atmosphere above you. You may notice an air pressure
change on an elevator ride that transports you many stories, but you need only dive a
meter or so below the surface of a pool to feel a pressure increase. The difference is
that water is much denser than air, about 775 times as dense.

Consider the container in [link]. Its bottom supports the weight of the fluid in it. Let us
calculate the pressure exerted on the bottom by the weight of the fluid. That pressure is
the weight of the fluid mgsize 12{ ital "mg"} {}
divided by the area Asize 12{A} {}

supporting it (the area of the bottom of the container):

P=mgA.size 12{P= { { ital "mg"} over {A} } } {}

We can find the mass of the fluid from its volume and density:

m=ρV.size 12{m=ρV} {}
The volume of the fluid Vsize 12{V} {}

is related to the dimensions of the container. It is

V=Ah,size 12{V= ital "Ah"} {}

where Asize 12{A} {}
is the cross-sectional area and hsize 12{h} {}

is the depth. Combining the last two equations gives

m=ρAh.size 12{m=ρ ital "Ah"} {}

If we enter this into the expression for pressure, we obtain

P=(ρAh)gA.size 12{P= { { left (ρ ital "Ah" right )g} over {A} } } {}

The area cancels, and rearranging the variables yields

P=hρg.size 12{P=hρg} {}
This value is the pressure due to the weight of a fluid. The equation has general validity
beyond the special conditions under which it is derived here. Even if the container were
not there, the surrounding fluid would still exert this pressure, keeping the fluid static.
Thus the equation P=hρgsize 12{P=hρg} {}
represents the pressure due to the weight of any fluid of average density ρsize 12{ρ} {}
at any depth hsize 12{h} {}

below its surface. For liquids, which are nearly incompressible, this equation holds to
great depths. For gases, which are quite compressible, one can apply this equation as
long as the density changes are small over the depth considered. [link] illustrates this
situation.
The bottom of this container supports the entire weight of the fluid in it. The vertical
sides cannot exert an upward force on the fluid (since it cannot withstand a shearing
force), and so the bottom must support it all.

Calculating the Average Pressure and Force Exerted: What Force Must a Dam
Withstand?
In [link], we calculated the mass of water in a large reservoir. We will now consider the
pressure and force acting on the dam retaining water. (See [link].) The dam is 500 m
wide, and the water is 80.0 m deep at the dam. (a) What is the average pressure on the
dam due to the water? (b) Calculate the force exerted against the dam and compare it
with the weight of water in the dam (previously found to be 1.96×1013N

).

Strategy for (a)

The average pressure P¯¯¯

due to the weight of the water is the pressure at the average depth h¯
of 40.0 m, since pressure increases linearly with depth.

Solution for (a)

The average pressure due to the weight of a fluid is

P¯¯¯=h¯ρg.size 12{P=hρg} {}
Entering the density of water from [link] and taking h¯size 12{h} {}

to be the average depth of 40.0 m, we obtain

P¯¯¯==(40.0 m)(103kgm3)(9.80ms2)3.92×105Nm2=392 kPa.

Strategy for (b)

The force exerted on the dam by the water is the average pressure times the area of
contact:

F=P¯¯¯A.size 12{F= {overline {P}} A} {}

Solution for (b)

We have already found the value for P¯¯¯size 12{ { bar {P}}} {}
. The area of the dam is A=80.0 m×500 m=4.00×104m2size 12{A="80" "." 0`m
times "500"`m=4 "." "00" times "10" rSup { size 8{4} } `m rSup { size 8{2} } } {}

, so that

F==(3.92×105N/m2)(4.00×104m2)1.57×1010N.alignl { stack { size 12{F= \( 3 "."

"92" times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } `"N/m" rSup { size 8{2} } \) \( 4 "." "00" times "10" rSup {
size 8{4} } `m rSup { size 8{2} } \) } {} # " "=1 "." "57" times "10" rSup { size 8{"10"} } `N
"." {} } } {}

Discussion
Although this force seems large, it is small compared with the 1.96×1013Nsize 12{1 "."
"96" times "10" rSup { size 8{"13"} } `N} {}
weight of the water in the reservoir—in fact, it is only 0.0800%

of the weight. Note that the pressure found in part (a) is completely independent of the
width and length of the lake—it depends only on its average depth at the dam. Thus the
force depends only on the water’s average depth and the dimensions of the dam, not on
the horizontal extent of the reservoir. In the diagram, the thickness of the dam increases
with depth to balance the increasing force due to the increasing pressure.epth to
balance the increasing force due to the increasing pressure.
The dam must withstand the force exerted against it by the water it retains. This force is
small compared with the weight of the water behind the dam.

Atmospheric pressure is another example of pressure due to the weight of a fluid, in this
case due to the weight of air above a given height. The atmospheric pressure at the
Earth’s surface varies a little due to the large-scale flow of the atmosphere induced by
the Earth’s rotation (this creates weather “highs” and “lows”). However, the average
pressure at sea level is given by the standard atmospheric pressure Patmsize 12{P rSub
{ size 8{"atm"} } } {}

, measured to be
1 atmosphere (atm)=Patm=1.01×105N/m2=101 kPa.size 12{1`"atmosphere"` \(
"atm" \) =P rSub { size 8{"atm"} } =1 "." "01" times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } `"N/m" rSup {
size 8{2} } ="101"`"kPa"} {}
This relationship means that, on average, at sea level, a column of air above 1.00m2
of the Earth’s surface has a weight of 1.01×105Nsize 12{1 "." "01" times "10" rSup {
size 8{5} } `N} {}
, equivalent to 1 atm

. (See [link].)
Atmospheric pressure at sea level averages 1.01×105 Pa size 12{1 "." "01" times "10"
rSup { size 8{5} } `"Pa"} {} (equivalent to 1 atm), since the column of air over this 1 m2
size 12{1`m rSup { size 8{2} } } {}, extending to the top of the atmosphere, weighs
1.01×105 N size 12{1 "." "01" times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } " N"} {}.
Calculating Average Density: How Dense Is the Air?

Calculate the average density of the atmosphere, given that it extends to an altitude of
120 km. Compare this density with that of air listed in [link].

Strategy

If we solve P=hρgsize 12{P=hρg} {}

for density, we see that

ρ¯=Phg.size 12{ { bar {ρ}}= { {P} over { ital "hg"} } } {}

We then take Psize 12{P} {}
to be atmospheric pressure, hsize 12{h} {}
is given, and gsize 12{g} {}
is known, and so we can use this to calculate ρ¯size 12{ { bar {ρ}}} {}

Solution

Entering known values into the expression for ρ¯size 12{ { bar {ρ}}} {}

yields

ρ¯=1.01×105N/m2(120×103m)(9.80m/s2)=8.59×10−2kg/m3.size 12{ { bar {ρ}}= { {1 "." "01"

times "10" rSup { size 8{5} } `"N/m" rSup { size 8{2} } } over { \( "120" times "10" rSup {
size 8{3} } `m \) \( 9 "." "80"`"m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } \) } } =8 "." "59" times "10" rSup { size
8{ - 2} } `"kg/m" rSup { size 8{3} } } {}

Discussion

This result is the average density of air between the Earth’s surface and the top of the
Earth’s atmosphere, which essentially ends at 120 km. The density of air at sea level is
given in [link] as 1.29kg/m3size 12{1 "." "29"`"kg/m" rSup { size 8{3} } } {}

—about 15 times its average value. Because air is so compressible, its density has its
highest value near the Earth’s surface and declines rapidly with altitude.

Calculating Depth Below the Surface of Water: What Depth of Water Creates the
Same Pressure as the Entire Atmosphere?

Calculate the depth below the surface of water at which the pressure due to the weight
of the water equals 1.00 atm.

Strategy
 We begin by solving the equation P=hρgsize 12{P=hρg} {}
for depth hsize 12{h} {}

h=Pρg.size 12{h= { {P} over {ρg} } } {}

Then we take Psize 12{P} {}
to be 1.00 atm and ρsize 12{ρ} {}

to be the density of the water that creates the pressure.

Solution

Entering the known values into the expression for hsize 12{h} {}

gives

h=1.01×105N/m2(1.00×103kg/m3)(9.80m/s2)=10.3m.size 12{h= { {1 "." "01" times "10" rSup {

size 8{5} } `"N/m" rSup { size 8{2} } } over { \( 1 "." "00" times "10" rSup { size 8{3} }
`"kg/m" rSup { size 8{3} } \) \( 9 "." "80"`"m/s" rSup { size 8{2} } \) } } ="10" "." 3`m} {}

Discussion

Just 10.3 m of water creates the same pressure as 120 km of air. Since water is nearly
incompressible, we can neglect any change in its density over this depth.

What do you suppose is the total pressure at a depth of 10.3 m in a swimming pool?
Does the atmospheric pressure on the water’s surface affect the pressure below? The
answer is yes. This seems only logical, since both the water’s weight and the
atmosphere’s weight must be supported. So the total pressure at a depth of 10.3 m is 2
atm—half from the water above and half from the air above. We shall see in Pascal’s
Principle that fluid pressures always add in this way.

Section Summary
 Pressure is the weight of the fluid mgsize 12{ ital "mg"} {}

divided by the area

Asize 12{A} {}
supporting it (the area of the bottom of the container):
P=mgA.size 12{P= { { ital "mg"} over {A} } } {}
 Pressure due to the weight of a liquid is given by

P=hρg,size 12{P=hρg} {}
where Psize 12{P} {}
is the pressure, hsize 12{h} {}
is the height of the liquid, ρsize 12{ρ} {}
is the density of the liquid, and gsize 12{g} {}
is the acceleration due to gravity.

Conceptual Questions
Atmospheric pressure exerts a large force (equal to the weight of the atmosphere above
your body—about 10 tons) on the top of your body when you are lying on the beach
sunbathing. Why are you able to get up?

Why does atmospheric pressure decrease more rapidly than linearly with altitude?

What are two reasons why mercury rather than water is used in barometers?

[link] shows how sandbags placed around a leak outside a river levee can effectively
stop the flow of water under the levee. Explain how the small amount of water inside the
column formed by the sandbags is able to balance the much larger body of water
behind the levee.
Because the river level is very high, it has started to leak under the levee. Sandbags are
placed around the leak, and the water held by them rises until it is the same level as the
river, at which point the water there stops rising.

Why is it difficult to swim under water in the Great Salt Lake?

Is there a net force on a dam due to atmospheric pressure? Explain your answer.

Does atmospheric pressure add to the gas pressure in a rigid tank? In a toy balloon?
When, in general, does atmospheric pressure not affect the total pressure in a fluid?

You can break a strong wine bottle by pounding a cork into it with your fist, but the cork
must press directly against the liquid filling the bottle—there can be no air between the
cork and liquid. Explain why the bottle breaks, and why it will not if there is air between
the cork and liquid.

Problems & Exercises

What depth of mercury creates a pressure of 1.00 atm?

The greatest ocean depths on the Earth are found in the Marianas Trench near the
Philippines. Calculate the pressure due to the ocean at the bottom of this trench, given
its depth is 11.0 km and assuming the density of seawater is constant all the way down.

Verify that the SI unit of hρgsize 12{hρg} {}

is N/m2size 12{"N/m" rSup { size 8{2} } } {}

Water towers store water above the level of consumers for times of heavy use,
eliminating the need for high-speed pumps. How high above a user must the water level
be to create a gauge pressure of 3.00×105N/m2size 12{3 "." "00" times "10" rSup {
size 8{5} } `"N/m" rSup { size 8{2} } } {}

The aqueous humor in a person’s eye is exerting a force of 0.300 N on the 1.10-
cm2size 12{1 "." "10""-cm" rSup { size 8{2} } } {}
area of the cornea. (a) What pressure is this in mm Hg? (b) Is this value within the
normal range for pressures in the eye?

How much force is exerted on one side of an 8.50 cm by 11.0 cm sheet of paper by the
atmosphere? How can the paper withstand such a force?

What pressure is exerted on the bottom of a 0.500-m-wide by 0.900-m-long gas tank

that can hold 50.0 kg of gasoline by the weight of the gasoline in it when it is full?

Calculate the average pressure exerted on the palm of a shot-putter’s hand by the shot
if the area of contact is 50.0cm2size 12{"50" "." 0`"cm" rSup { size 8{2} } } {}
and he exerts a force of 800 N on it. Express the pressure in N/m2
and compare it with the 1.00×106Pa

pressures sometimes encountered in the skeletal system.

The left side of the heart creates a pressure of 120 mm Hg by exerting a force directly
on the blood over an effective area of 15.0cm2.size 12{"15" "." 0`"cm" rSup { size 8{2} }
} {}

What force does it exert to accomplish this?

Show that the total force on a rectangular dam due to the water behind it increases with
the square of the water depth. In particular, show that this force is given
by F=ρgh2L/2size 12{F=ρ ital "gh" rSup { size 8{2} } L/2} {}
, where ρsize 12{ρ} {}
is the density of water, hsize 12{h} {}
is its depth at the dam, and Lsize 12{L} {}

is the length of the dam. You may assume the face of the dam is vertical. (Hint:
Calculate the average pressure exerted and multiply this by the area in contact with the
water. (See [link].)

Glossary
pressure
 the weight of the fluid divided by the area supporting it

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