Governing Equation and Mathematical Formulation

4.1 Two-phase flow model

In the two phases flow model considers each phase individually and formulates separate mass,
momentum and energy equation for both liquid phase and vapour phase. But in the present
simulation single energy equation is solved for liquid phase as vapour is assumed to be in a
saturated state.

The continuity equation for the liquid phase and vapour phase are expressed as:

 l  l    l  l u l   lv

 

t  

 v  v    v  v u v   vl

 

t  
where αl and αv are the void fraction of the liquid phase and vapour phase, ρl and ρv are the density
 
of liquid phase and vapour phase, and u l are the
u v velocities of liquid and vapour phase, and
and  vl mass rates across the phase boundary.
are interfacial
lv

The momentum equation for liquid phase and vapour phase can be expressed as:

               
T
  
  l l u l   . l l u l     l p   l l g  . l leff   u l     ul     lv uv  vl u l   F lv
t            
             
T
    
 v  v u v   .  v  v u v     v p   v  v g  . v veff   uv     uv     vl ul  lv u v   F vl
t            

where P is the pressure, g is the gravitational vector,  eff
l
and  veffare effective viscosities of

liquid and vapour phase, F lv and 
F vl are the total interfacial force.

The energy equation for liquid phase can be expressed as:

 

 l l hl   . l l ul hl   . l l Tl  Tl hl   lv hv  vl hl 
t  PrTl 
where hl and hv are enthalpies of the liquid phase and vapour phase, μTl and μTv are turbulent
viscosities of liquid phase and vapour phase, PrTl and PrTv are turbulent Prandtl number of liquid
phase and vapour phase.
4.2 Heat flux partitioning model

The total heat flux qw in accordance to heat flux portioning model is divided into three parts,
namely the convective heat flux qc, the evaporative heat flux qe and quenching heat flux qq can be
written as:
q w  qc  qq  qe

The heated wall surface is partitioned into area Ab, which is covered by nucleating bubbles and a
portion (1-Ab), which is covered by fluid.

The convective heat flux can be written as:


qc  hs 1  Ab  Tw  T f 

where hs is the single phase heat transfer coefficient, Tw is the wall temperature and Tf is the fluid
temperature.

The quenching heat flux qq represents the effects of transient energy transfer of fresh bulk liquid,
coming to the wall to replace departing steam bubble, and is expressed as:

qq 
2K f

Ab Tw  T f 
 f T
Where kf is the fluid thermal conductivity, T is the waiting time for the next bubble to appear on
the site and λf is the fluid thermal diffusivity.

The evaporative heat flux qe can be expressed as:

qe  Vd N a v h fg

where Na is the active nucleation site density, ρv is the vapour density, hfg is the latent heat of
evaporation, and Vd is the volume of bubble based on bubble departure diameter. It can be
expressed as:
d bw
3
Vd 
6

where dbw is the bubble departure diameter.

Active nucleation site density

The active nucleation site density depends on wall surface roughness, the wettability of the solid-
liquid pair and wall superheat. For water and steel, the active nucleate site density is correlated
according to Lemmert and Chawla depending solely on wall superheat as
Na  C n Twn

Where n=1.805, C=210, ΔTw is the wall superheat, and ΔTw=Tw-Tsat.

Bubble departure diameter

For the bubble departure diameter, the Tolubinsky and kostanchuk correlation is applied.
  T  
d bw  min  0.0014 ,0.0006 exp   sub  
  45  
where ΔTsub is liquid subcooling, and ΔTsub=Tsat-Tl. The correlation is derived for high pressure
water boiling experimental data.

Frequency of bubble departure

Using the simple correlation by Cole, the frequency of bubble departure was calculated as follows:


f  sqrt 4 g l   g  / 3d w l 
where g is the gravitational acceleration.

Area of influence

The area of influence depends upon bubble departure diameter and the nucleation site density.
 N d 2 
Ab  min 1, K a bw 
 4 

where the value of empirical constant K has been implemented based on Del valle and kenning’s
findings
 Ja 
K  4.8 exp   sub 
 80 

where Jasub is the subcooled Jacob number. It is defined as:

l c pl Tsub
Jasub 
 v h fg
Interfacial area concentration

Interfacial area concentration is defined as the volumetric interfacial area between two phases.
The interfacial area models are derived from the surface area to volume area ratio, Ar, for a
spherical bubble.
d b2 6
Ar  
1 3 db
d b
6
Then artificial area concentration is expressed as
6 v
Aif   v Ar 
db

Interfacial heat and mass transfer

In subcooled boiling flow, the interfacial heat and mass transfer between the two phases are described
by bubble evaporation on the heated wall and bubble condensation in the bulk flow. As the bubbles
departs from the wall and move toward the subcooled region, heat transfer from the bubble to the
liquid. The heat transfer rate due to condensation is expressed as:

qcond  hif Aif (Tsat  Tl )

l c pl Tsub
Jasub 
 v h fg
Also, the interfacial mass transfer or condensation rate across the phase boundary is deduced as
hif Aif (Tsat  Tl )
lv  vl 
hiv
Interfacial momentum transfer

The total interfacial force F lv in the momentum equation includes the following forces:
     
Flv   F vl  F D  F L  F W L  F TD

The drag force FisD caused by interfacial friction force and pressure difference acted on the vapour
bubbles, which is compared by Ishii-Zuber correlation.
 1     
F D  C D Aif  l u v  u l  u v  u l 
8  

where CD is the drag coefficient.


From Drew, the lift force F L in terms of slip velocity and curl of liquid phase velocity is
described by
      
F L  C L v  l  u v  u l      u l 
   

where CL is the lift coefficient, the model developed by Moraga is used in this study.

The wall lubrication force acts in the lateral direction away from the wall and tends to push the
vapour bubble away from the heated wall. The Antal model is used for wall lubrication force.

2
  v  l u tan  d 
F WL   max  0, C w1  C w2 b  n w
db  yw 


where yw is the distance to the nearest wall, n w is the unit normal pointing away from the wall.
Cw1 and Cw2 are non-dimensional coefficients.