Chitat Ng v. Canada, Communication No. 469/1991, U.N. Doc.

CCPR/C/49/D/469/1991
(1994).

The facts as submitted by the author:

1. The author of the communication is Charles Chitat Ng, a British subject, born on 24 December
1960 in Hong Kong, and resident of the United States of America, at the time of his submission detained
in a penitentiary in Alberta, Canada, and on 26 September 1991 extradited to the United States. He claims
to be a victim of a violation of his human rights by Canada because of his extradition. He is represented
by counsel.

2.1 The author was arrested, charged and convicted, in 1985, in Calgary, Alberta, following an
attempted store theft and shooting of a security guard. In February 1987, the United States formally
requested the author's extradition to stand trial in California on 19 criminal counts, including kidnapping
and 12 murders, committed in 1984 and 1985. If convicted, the author could face the death penalty.

2.2 In November 1988, a judge of the Alberta Court of Queen's Bench ordered the author's
extradition. In February 1989 the author's habeas corpus application was denied, and on 31 August 1989
the Supreme Court of Canada refused the author leave to appeal.

2.3 Article 6 of the Extradition Treaty between Canada and the United States provides:

"When the offence for which extradition is requested is punishable by death under the laws of the
requesting State and the laws of the requested State do not permit such punishment for that offence,
extradition may be refused unless the requesting State provides such assurances as the requested State
considers sufficient that the death penalty shall not be imposed or, if imposed, shall not be executed."

Canada abolished the death penalty in 1976, except for certain military offences.

2.4 The power to seek assurances that the death penalty will not be imposed is discretionary, and
is conferred on the Minister of Justice pursuant to section 25 of the Extradition Act. In October 1989, the
Minister of Justice decided not to seek these assurances.

2.5 The author subsequently filed an application for review of the Minister's decision with the
Federal Court. On 8 June 1990, the issues in the case were referred to the Supreme Court of Canada,
which rendered judgement on 26 September 1991. It found that the author's extradition without
assurances as to the imposition of the death penalty did not contravene Canada's constitutional protection
for human rights nor the standards of the international community. The author was extradited on the
same day.

The complaint:

3. The author claims that the decision to extradite him violates articles 6, 7, 9, 10, 14 and 26 of
the Covenant. He submits that the execution of the death sentence by gas asphyxiation, as provided for
under California statutes, constitutes cruel and inhuman treatment or punishment per se, and that the
conditions on death row are cruel, inhuman and degrading. He further alleges that the judicial procedures
in California, in as much as they relate specifically to capital punishment, do not meet basic requirements
of justice. In this context, the author alleges that in the United States racial bias influences the imposition
of the death penalty.

The State party's initial observations and the author's comments:

 4.1 The State party submits that the communication is inadmissible ratione
personae, loci and materiae.

4.2 It is argued that the author cannot be considered a victim within the meaning of the Optional
Protocol, since his allegations are derived from assumptions about possible future events, which may not
materialize and which are dependent on the law and actions of the authorities of the United States. The
State party refers in this connection to the Committee's Views in communication No. 61/1979 [ Leo
Hertzberg et al. v. Finland , Views adopted on 2 April 1982, paragraph 9.3.] , where it was found that the
Committee "has only been entrusted with the mandate of examining whether an individual has suffered an
actual violation of his rights. It cannot review in the abstract whether national legislation contravenes the
Covenant".

4.3 The State party indicates that the author's allegations concern the penal law and judicial
system of a country other than Canada. It refers to the Committee's inadmissibility decision in
communication No. 217/1986 [ H.v.d.P. v. the Netherlands , declared inadmissible on 8 April 1987,
paragraph 3.2.] , where the Committee observed "that it can only receive and consider communications in
respect of claims that come under the jurisdiction of a State party to the Covenant". The State party
submits that the Covenant does not impose responsibility upon a State for eventualities over which it has
no jurisdiction.

4.4 Moreover, it is submitted that the communication should be declared inadmissible as

incompatible with the provisions of the Covenant, since the Covenant does not provide for a right not to
be extradited. In this connection, the State party quotes from the Committee's inadmissibility decision in
communication No. 117/1981 [ M.A. v. Italy , declared inadmissible on 10 April 1984, paragraph 13.4.] :
"There is no provision of the Covenant making it unlawful for a State party to seek extradition of a person
from another country." It further argues that even if extradition could be found to fall within the scope of
protection of the Covenant in exceptional circumstances, these circumstances are not present in the
instant case.

4.5 The State party further refers to the United Nations Model Treaty on Extradition [ Eighth United
Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Havana, 1990; see General
Assembly resolution 45/116, annex.] , which clearly contemplates the possibility ofextradition without
conditions by providing for discretion in obtaining assurances regarding the death penalty in the same
fashion as is found in article 6 of the CanadaUnited States Extradition Treaty. It concludes that
interference with the surrender of a fugitive pursuant to legitimate requests from a treaty partner would
defeat the principles and objects of extradition treaties and would entail undesirable consequences for
States refusing these legitimate requests. In this context, the State party points out that its long,
unprotected border with the United States would make it an attractive haven for fugitives from United
States justice. If these fugitives could not be extradited because of the theoretical possibility of the death
penalty, they would be effectively irremovable and would have to be allowed to remain in the country,
unpunished and posing a threat to the safety and security of the inhabitants.

4.6 The State party finally submits that the author has failed to substantiate his allegations that
the treatment he may face in the United States will violate his rights under the Covenant. In this
connection, the State party points out that the imposition of the death penalty is not per se unlawful
under the Covenant. As regards the delay between the imposition and the execution of the death
sentence, the State party submits that it is difficult to see how a period of detention during which a
convicted prisoner would pursue all avenues of appeal, can be held to constitute a violation of the
Covenant.

5.1 In his comments on the State party's submission, counsel submits that the author is and was
himself actually and personally affected by the decision of the State party to extradite him and that the
communication is therefore admissible ratione personae. In this context, he refers to the Committee's
Views in communication No. 35/1978 [ S. Aumeeruddy-Cziffra et al. v. Mauritius , Views adopted on 9
April 1981, paragraph 9.2.] , and argues that an individual can claim to be a victim within the meaning of
the Optional Protocol if the laws, practices, actions or decisions of a State party raise a real risk of
violation of rights set forth in the Covenant.

5.2 Counsel further argues that, since the decision complained of is one made by Canadian
authorities while the author was subject to Canadian jurisdiction, the communication is admissible ratione
loci. In this connection, he refers to the Committee's Views in communication No. 110/1981 [ Antonio
Viana Acosta v. Uruguay , Views adopted on 29 March 1984, paragraph 6.] , where it was held that article
1 of the Covenant was "clearly intended to apply to individuals subject to the jurisdiction of the State
party concerned at the time of the alleged violation of the Covenant" (emphasis added).

5.3 Counsel finally stresses that the author does not claim a rightnot to be extradited; he only
claims that he should not have been surrendered without assurances that the death penalty would not be
imposed. He submits that the communication is therefore compatible with the provisions of the Covenant.
He refers in this context to the Committee's Views on communication No. 107/1981 [ Almeida de
Quinteros v. Uruguay , Views adopted on 21 July 1983, paragraph 14.] , where the Committee found that
anguish and stress can give rise to a breach of the Covenant; he submits that this finding is also
applicable in the instant case.

The Committee's admissibility considerations and decision:

6.1 During its 46th session in October 1992, the Committee considered the admissibility of the
communication. It observed that extradition as such is outside the scope of application of the Covenant [
Communication No. 117/1981 ( M.A. v. Italy ), paragraph 13.4: "There is no provision of the Covenant
making it unlawful for a State party to seek extradition of a person from another country".] , but that a
State party's obligations in relation to a matter itself outside the scope of the Covenant may still be
engaged by reference to other provisions of the Covenant [ Aumeeruddy-Cziffra et al. v. Mauritius (No.
35/1978, Views adopted on 9 April 1981) and Torres v. Finland (No. 291/1988, Views adopted on 2 April
1990).] . The Committee noted that the author does not claim that extradition as such violates the
Covenant, but rather that the particular circumstances related to the effects of his extradition would raise
issues under specific provisions of the Covenant. Accordingly, the Committee found that the
communication was thus not excluded ratione materiae.

6.2 The Committee considered the contention of the State party that the claim is
inadmissible ratione loci. Article 2 of the Covenant requires States parties to guarantee the rights of
persons within their jurisdiction. If a person is lawfully expelled or extradited, the State party concerned
will not generally have responsibility under the Covenant for any violations of that person's rights that
may later occur in the other jurisdiction. In that sense a State party clearly is not required to guarantee
the rights of persons within another jurisdiction. However, if a State party takes a decision relating to a
person within its jurisdiction, and the necessary and foreseeable consequence is that this person's rights
under the Covenant will be violated in another jurisdiction, the State party itself may be in violation of the
Covenant. That follows from the fact that a State party's duty under article 2 of the Covenant would be
negated by the handing over of a person to another State (whether a State party to the Covenant or not)
where treatment contrary to the Covenant is certain or is the very purpose of the handing over. For
example, a State partywould itself be in violation of the Covenant if it handed over a person to another
State in circumstances in which it was foreseeable that torture would take place. The foreseeability of the
consequence would mean that there was a present violation by the State party, even though the
consequence would not occur until later on.
 6.3 The Committee therefore considered itself, in principle, competent to examine whether the
State party is in violation of the Covenant by virtue of its decision to extradite the author under the
Extradition Treaty of 1976 between the United States and Canada, and the Extradition Act of 1985.

6.4 The Committee observed that pursuant to article 1 of the Optional Protocol the Committee may
only receive and consider communications from individuals subject to the jurisdiction of a State party to
the Covenant and to the Optional Protocol "who claim to be victims of a violation by that State party of
any of their rights set forth in the Covenant". It considered that in the instant case, only the consideration
on the merits of the circumstances under which the extradition procedure, and all its effects, occurred,
would enable the Committee to determine whether the author is a victim within the meaning of article 1 of
the Optional Protocol. Accordingly, the Committee found it appropriate to consider this issue, which
concerned the admissibility of the communication, together with the examination of the merits of the case.

7. On 28 October 1992, the Human Rights Committee therefore decided to join the question of
whether the author was a victim within the meaning of article 1 of the Optional Protocol to the
consideration of the merits. The Committee expressed its regret that the State party had not acceded to
the Committee's request under rule 86, to stay extradition of the author.

The State party's further submission on the admissibility and the merits of the
communication:

8.1 In its submission, dated 14 May 1993, the State party elaborates on the extradition process in
general, on the Canada-United States extradition relationship and on the specifics of the present case. It
also submits comments with respect to the admissibility of the communication, in particular with respect
to article 1 of the Optional Protocol.

8.2 The State party recalls that "extradition exists to contribute to the safety of the citizens and
residents of States. Dangerous criminal offenders seeking a safe haven from prosecution or punishment
are removed to face justice in the State in which their crimes were committed. Extradition furthers
international cooperation in criminal justice matters and strengthens domestic law enforcement. It is
meant to be a straightforward and expeditious process. Extradition seeks to balance the rights of fugitives
with the need for the protection of the residents of the two States parties to any given extradition
treaty.The extradition relationship between Canada and the United States dates back to 1794.... In 1842,
the United States and Great Britain entered into the Ashburton-Webster Treaty which contained articles
governing the mutual surrender of criminals.... This treaty remained in force until the present Canada-
United States Extradition Treaty of 1976."

8.3 With regard to the principle aut dedere aut judicare the State party explains that while some
States can prosecute persons for crimes committed in other jurisdictions in which their own nationals are
either the offender or the victim, other States, such as Canada and certain other States in the common
law tradition, cannot.

8.4 Extradition in Canada is governed by the Extradition Act and the terms of the applicable treaty.
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which forms part of the constitution of Canada and
embodies many of the rights protected by the Covenant, applies. Under Canadian law extradition is a two
step process, the first involving a hearing at which a judge considers whether a factual and legal basis for
extradition exists. The person sought for extradition may submit evidence at the judicial hearing. If the
judge is satisfied on the evidence that a legal basis for extradition exists, the fugitive is ordered
committed to await surrender to the requesting State. Judicial review of a warrant of committal to await
surrender can be sought by means of an application for a writ of habeas corpus in a provincial court. A
decision of the judge on the habeas corpus application can be appealed to the provincial court of appeal
and then, with leave, to the Supreme Court of Canada. The second step in the extradition process begins
following the exhaustion of the appeals in the judicial phase. The Minister of Justice is charged with the
responsibility of deciding whether to surrender the person sought for extradition. The fugitive may make
written submissions to the Minister and counsel for the fugitive, with leave, may appear before the
Minister to present oral argument. In coming to a decision on surrender, the Minister considers a complete
record of the case from the judicial phase, together with any written and oral submissions from the
fugitive, and while the Minister's decision is discretionary, the discretion is circumscribed by law. The
decision is based upon a consideration of many factors, including Canada's obligations under the
applicable treaty of extradition, facts particular to the person and the nature of the crime for which
extradition is sought. In addition, the Minister must consider the terms of the Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms and the various instruments, including the Covenant, which outline Canada's international
human rights obligations. Finally, a fugitive may seek judicial review of the Minister's decision by a
provincial court and appeal a warrant of surrender, with leave, up to the Supreme Court of Canada. In
interpreting Canada's human rights obligations under the Canadian Charter, the Supreme Court of Canada
is guided by international instruments to which Canada is a party, including the Covenant.

8.5 With regard to surrender in capital cases, the Minister of Justice decides whether or not to
request assurances to the effect that the death penalty should not be imposed or carried out on the basis
of anexamination of the particular facts of each case. The Canada-United States Extradition Treaty was
not intended to make the seeking of assurances a routine occurrence but only in circumstances where the
particular facts of the case warrant a special exercise of discretion.

8.6 With regard to the abolition of the death penalty in Canada, the State party notes that "certain
States within the international community, including the United States, continue to impose the death
penalty. The Government of Canada does not use extradition as a vehicle for imposing its concepts of
criminal law policy on other States. By seeking assurances on a routine basis, in the absence of
exceptional circumstances, Canada would be dictating to the requesting State, in this case the United
States, how it should punish its criminal law offenders. The Government of Canada contends that this
would be an unwarranted interference with the internal affairs of another State. The Government of
Canada reserves the right ... to refuse to extradite without assurances. This right is hold in reserve for use
only where exceptional circumstances exist. In the view of the Government of Canada, it may be that
evidence showing that a fugitive would face certain of foreseeable violations of the Covenant would be one
example of exceptional circumstances which would warrant the special measure of seeking assurances
under article 6. However, the evidence presented by Ng during the extradition process in Canada (which
evidence has been submitted by counsel for Ng in this communication) does not support the allegations
that the use of the death penalty in the United States generally, or in the State of California in particular,
violates the Covenant."

8.7 The State party also refers to article 4 of the United Nations Model Treaty on Extradition, which
lists optional, but not mandatory, grounds for refusing extradition: "(d) If the offence for which extradition
is requested carries the death penalty under the law of the Requesting State, unless the State gives such
assurance as the Requested State considers sufficient that the death penalty will not be imposed or, if
imposed, will not be carried out." Similarly, article 6 of the Canada-United States Extradition Treaty
provides that the decision with respect to obtaining assurances regarding the death penalty is
discretionary.

8.8 With regard to the link between extradition and the protection of society, the State party
submits that Canada and the United States share a 4,800 kilometre unguarded border, that many
fugitives from United States justice cross that border into Canada and that in the last twelve years there
has been a steadily increasing number of extradition requests from the United States. In 1980 there were
29 such requests; by 1992 the number had increased to 88. "Requests involving death penalty cases are a
new and growing problem for Canada ... a policy of routinely seeking assurances under article 6 of the
Canada-United States Extradition Treaty will encourage even more criminal law offenders, especially those
guilty of the most serious crimes, to flee the United States for Canada. Canada does not wish to become a
haven for the most wanted and dangerous criminals from the United States. If the Covenant fetters
Canada's discretion not to seek assurances,increasing numbers of criminals may come to Canada for the
purpose of securing immunity from capital punishment."

9.1 With regard to Mr. Ng's case, the State party recalls that he challenged the warrant of
committal to await surrender in accordance with the extradition process outlined above, and that his
counsel made written and oral submissions to the Minister to seek assurances that the death penalty
would not be imposed. He argued that extradition to face the death penalty would offend his rights under
section 7 (comparable to articles 6 and 9 of the Covenant) and section 12 (comparable to article 7 of the
Covenant) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Supreme Court heard Mr. Ng's case at
the same time as the appeal by Mr. Kindler, an American citizen who also faced extradition to the United
States on a capital charge [ See communication No. 470/1991, Kindler v. Canada , Views adopted on 30
July 1993.] , and decided that their extradition without assurances would not violate Canada's human
rights obligations.

9.2 With regard to the admissibility of the communication, the State party once more reaffirms that
the communication should be declared inadmissible ratione materiae because extradition per se is
beyond the scope of the Covenant. A review of the travaux pr�paratoires reveals that the drafters of
the Covenant specifically considered and rejected a proposal to deal with extradition in the Covenant. In
the light of the negotiating history of the Covenant, the State party submits that "a decision to extend the
Covenant to extradition treaties or to individual decisions pursuant thereto, would stretch the principles
governing the interpretation of human rights instruments in unreasonable and unacceptable ways. It
would be unreasonable because the principles of interpretation which recognize that human rights
instruments are living documents and that human rights evolve over time cannot be employed in the face
of express limits to the application of a given document. The absence of extradition from the articles of
the Covenant when read with the intention of the drafters must be taken as an express limitation."

9.3 The State party further contends that Mr. Ng has not submitted any evidence that would
suggest that he was a victim of any violation in Canada of rights set forth in the Covenant. In this context,
the State party notes that the author merely claims that his extradition to the United States was in
violation of the Covenant, because he faces charges in the United States which may lead to his being
sentenced to death if found guilty. The State party submits that it satisfied itself that the foreseeable
treatment of Mr. Ng in the United States would not violate his rights under the Covenant.

10.1 On the merits, the State party stresses that Mr. Ng enjoyed a full hearing on all matters
concerning his extradition to face the death penalty. "If it can be said that the Covenant applies to
extradition at all ... an extraditing State could be said to be in violation of theCovenant only where it
returned a fugitive to certain or foreseeable treatment or punishment, or to judicial procedures which in
themselves would be a violation of the Covenant." In the present case, the State party submits that since
Mr. Ng's trial has not yet begun, it was not reasonably foreseeable that he would be held in conditions of
incarceration that would violate rights under the Covenant or that he would in fact be put to death. The
State party points out that if convicted and sentenced to death, Mr. Ng is entitled to many avenues of
appeal in the United States and that he can petition for clemency; furthermore, he is entitled to challenge
in the courts of the United States the conditions under which he is held while his appeals with respect to
the death penalty are outstanding.

10.2 With regard to the imposition of the death penalty in the United States, the State party recalls
that article 6 of the Covenant did not abolish capital punishment under international law:

"In countries which have not abolished the death penalty, the sentence of death may still be
imposed for the most serious crimes in accordance with law in force at the time of the commission of the
crime, not contrary to the provisions of the Covenant and not contrary to the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The death penalty can only be carried out pursuant
to a final judgment rendered by a competent court. It may be that Canada would be in violation of the
Covenant if it extradited a person to face the possible imposition of the death penalty where it was
reasonably foreseeable that the requesting State would impose the death penalty under circumstances
which would violate article 6. That is, it may be that an extraditing State would be violating the Covenant
to return a fugitive to a State which imposed the death penalty for other than the most serious crimes, or
for actions which are not contrary to a law in force at the time of commission, or which carried out the
death penalty in the absence of or contrary to the final judgment of a competent court. Such are not the
facts here ... Ng did not place any evidence before the Canadian courts, before the Minister of Justice or
before the Committee which would suggest that the United States was acting contrary to the stringent
criteria established by article 6 when it sought his extradition from Canada.... The Government of Canada,
in the person of the Minister of Justice, was satisfied at the time the order of surrender was issued that if
Ng is convicted and executed in the State of California, this will be within the conditions expressly
prescribed by article 6 of the Covenant."

10.3 Finally, the State party observes that it is "in a difficult position attempting to defend the
criminal justice system of the United States before the Committee. It contends that the Optional Protocol
process was never intended to place a State in the position of having to defend the laws or practices of
another State before the Committee."

10.4 With respect to the issue whether the death penalty violates article 7 of the Covenant, the
State party submits that "article 7cannot be read or interpreted without reference to article 6. The
Covenant must be read as a whole and its articles as being in harmony.... It may be that certain forms of
execution are contrary to article 7. Torturing a person to death would seem to fall into this category as
torture is a violation of article 7. Other forms of execution may be in violation of the Covenant because
they are cruel, inhuman or degrading. However, as the death penalty is permitted within the narrow
parameters set by article 6, it must be that some methods of execution exist which would not violate
article 7."

10.5 As to the method of execution, the State party submits that there is no indication that
execution by cyanide gas asphyxiation, the chosen method in California, is contrary to the Covenant or to
international law. It further submits that no specific circumstances exist in Mr. Ng's case which would lead
to a different conclusion concerning the application of this method of execution to him; nor would
execution by gas asphyxiation be in violation of the Safeguards Guaranteeing Protection of Those
Facing the Death Penalty, adopted by the Economic and Social Council in Resolution 1984/50.

10.6 Concerning the "death row phenomenon", the State party submits that each case must be
examined on its specific facts, including the conditions in the prison in which the prisoner would be held
while on "death row", the age and the mental and physical condition of the prisoner subject to those
conditions, the reasonably foreseeable length of time the prisoner would be subject to those conditions,
the reasons underlying the length of time and the avenues, if any, for remedying unacceptable conditions.
It is submitted that the Minister of Justice and the Canadian courts examined and weighed all the evidence
submitted by Mr. Ng as to the conditions of incarceration of persons sentenced to death in California:

"The Minister of Justice ... was not convinced that the conditions of incarceration in the State of
California, considered together with the facts personal to Ng, the element of delay and the continuing
access to the courts in the State of California and to the Supreme Court of the United States, would
violated Ng's rights under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms or under the Covenant. The
Supreme Court of Canada upheld the Minister's decision in such a way as to make clear that the decision
would not subject Ng to a violation of his rights under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms."
 10.7 With respect to the question of the foreseeable length of time Mr. Ng would spend on death
row if sentenced to death, "[t]here was no evidence before the Minister or the Canadian courts regarding
any intentions of Ng to make full use of all avenues for judicial review in the United States of any potential
sentence of death. There was no evidence that either the judicial system in the State of California or the
Supreme Court of the United States had serious problems of backlogs or other forms of institutional delay
which would likely be a continuing problem when and if Ng is held to await execution." In this connection,
the State party refers to the Committee's jurisprudencethat prolonged judicial proceedings to not per
se constitute cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment even if they can be a source of mental strain for the
convicted prisoners [ Communications Nos. 210/1986 and 225/1987 ( Earl Pratt and Ivan Morgan v.
Jamaica ), Views adopted on 6 April 1989; and Nos. 270/1988 and 271/1988 ( Randolph Barrett and
Clyde Sutcliffe v. Jamaica ), Views adopted on 30 March 1992.] . The State party contends that it was not
reasonably foreseeable on the facts presented by Mr. Ng during the extradition process in Canada that any
possible period of prolonged detention upon his return to the United States would result in a violation of
the Covenant, but that it was more likely that any prolonged detention on death row would be attributable
to Mr. Ng pursuing the many avenues for judicial review in the United States.

Author's and counsel's comments on the State party's submission:

11.1 With regard to the extradition process in Canada, counsel points out that a fugitive is ordered
committed to await surrender when the Judge is satisfied that a legal basis for extradition exists. Counsel
emphasizes, however, that the extradition hearing is not a trial and the fugitive has no general right to
cross-examine witnesses. The extradition judge does not weigh evidence against the fugitive with regard
to the charges against him, but essentially determines whether a prima facie case exists. Because of this
limited competence, no evidence can be called pertaining to the effects of the surrender on the fugitive.

11.2 As regards article 6 of the Extradition Treaty, counsel recalls that when the Treaty was signed
in December 1971, the Canadian Criminal Code still provided for capital punishment in cases of murder, so
that article 6 could have been invoked by either contracting State. Counsel submits that article 6 does not
require assurances to be sought only in particularly "special" death penalty cases. He argues that the
provision of the possibility to ask for assurances under article 6 of the Treaty implicitly acknowledges that
offences punishable by death are to be dealt with differently, that different values and traditions with
regard to the death penalty may be taken into account when deciding upon an extradition request, and
that an actual demand for assurances will not be perceived by the other party as unwarranted interference
with the internal affairs of the requesting State. In particular, article 6 of the Treaty is said to "... allow the
requested State ... to maintain a consistent position: if the death penalty is rejected within its own
borders ... it could negate any responsibility for exposing a fugitive through surrender, to the risk of
imposition of that penalty or associated practices and procedures in the other State". It is further
submitted that "it is very significant that the existence of the discretion embodied in article 6, in relation
to the death penalty, enables the contracting parties to honour both their own domestic
constitutions and their international obligations without violating their obligations under the bilateral
Extradition Treaty".

11.3 With regard to the link between extradition and the protection of society, counsel notes that
the number of requests for extradition by the United States in 1991 was 17, whereas the number in 1992
was 88. He recalls that at the end of 1991, the Extradition Treaty between the United States and Canada
was amended to the effect that inter alia taxation offences became extraditable; ambiguities with regard
to the rules of double jeopardy and reciprocity were removed. Counsel contends that the increase in
extradition requests may be attributable to these 1991 amendments. In this context, he submits that at
the time of the author's surrender, article 6 of the Treaty had been in force for 15 years, during which the
Canadian Minister of Justice had been called upon to make no more than three decisions on whether or
not to ask for assurances that the death penalty would not be imposed or executed. It is therefore
submitted that the State party's fear that routine requests for assurances would lead to a flood of capital
defendants is unsubstantiated. Counsel finally argues that it is inconceivable that the United States would
have refused article 6 assurances had they been requested in the author's case.

11.4 As regards the extradition proceedings against Mr. Ng, counsel notes that his Federal Court
action against the Minister's decision to extradite the author without seeking assurances never was
decided upon by the Federal Court, but was referred to the Supreme Court to be decided together with Mr.
Kindler's appeal. In this context, counsel notes that the Supreme Court, when deciding that the author's
extradition would not violate the Canadian constitution, failed to discuss criminal procedure in California or
evidence adduced in relation to the death row phenomenon in California.

11.5 As to the State party's argument that extradition is beyond the scope of the Covenant,
counsel argues that the travaux pr�paratoires do not show that the fundamental human rights set forth
in the Covenant should never apply to extradition situations: "Reluctance to include an express provision
on extradition because the Covenant should 'lay down general principles' or because it should lay down
'fundamental human rights and not rights which are corollaries thereof' or because extradition was 'too
complicated to be included in a single article' simply does not bespeak an intention to narrow or stultify
those 'general principles' or 'fundamental human rights' or evidence a consensus that these general
principles should never apply to extradition situations."

11.6 Counsel further argues that, already during the extradition proceedings in Canada, the author
suffered from anxiety because of the uncertainty of his fate, the possibility of being surrendered to
California to face capital charges, the likelihood that he would be "facing an extremely hostile and high
security reception by California law enforcement agencies", and that he must therefore be considered a
victim within the meaning of article 1 of the Optional Protocol. In this context, the author submits that he
was aware "that the California Supreme Court had, since 1990, become perhaps the most rigid court in
the country in rejecting appeals from capital defendants".

11.7 The author refers to the Committee's decision of 28 October 1992 and submits that, in the
circumstances of his case, the very purpose of his extradition without seeking assurances was to
foreseeably expose him to the imposition of the death penalty and consequently to the death row
phenomenon. In this connection, counsel submits that the author's extradition was sought upon charges
which carry the death penalty, and that the prosecution in California never left any doubt that it would
indeed seek the death penalty. He quotes the Assistant District Attorney in San Francisco as saying that:
"there is sufficient evidence to convict and send Ng to the gas chamber if he is extradited...".

11.8 In this context, counsel quotes from the judgment of the European Court of Human Rights in
the Soering case: "In the independent exercise of his discretion, the Commonwealth's attorney has
himself decided to seek and persist in seeking the death penalty because the evidence, in his
determination, supports such action. If the national authority with responsibility for prosecuting the
offence takes such a firm stance, it is hardly open to the court to hold that there are no substantial
grounds for believing that the applicant faces a real risk of being sentenced to death and hence
experiencing the 'death row phenomenon'." Counsel submits that, at the time of extradition, it was
foreseeable that the author would be sentenced to death in California and therefore be exposed to
violations of the Covenant.

11.9 Counsel refers to several resolutions adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations [
GA Res. 2857(XXVI), GA Res. 32/61, GA Res. 37/192.] in which the abolition of the death penalty was
considered desirable. He further refers to Protocol 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights and to
the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: "[O]ver the last
fifty years there has been a progressive and increasingly rapid evolution away from the death penalty.
That evolution has led almost all Western democracies to abandon it". He argues that this development
should be taken into account when interpreting the Covenant.
 11.10 As to the method of execution in California, cyanide gas asphyxiation, counsel argues that it
constitutes inhuman and degrading punishment within the meaning of article 7 of the Covenant. He notes
that asphyxiation may take up to twelve minutes, during which condemned persons remain conscious,
experience obvious pain and agony, drool and convulse and often soil themselves (reference is made to
the execution of Robert F. Harris at San Quentin Prison in April 1992). Counsel further argues that, given
the cruel character of this method of execution, a decision of Canada not to extradite without assurances
would not constitute a breach of its Treaty obligations with the United States or undue interference with
the latter's internal law and practices. Furthermore, counsel notes that cyanide gas execution is the sole
method of execution in only three States in the United States (Arizona, Maryland and California) and that
there is no evidence tosuggest that it is an approved means of carrying out judicially mandated executions
elsewhere in the international community.

11.11 As to the death row phenomenon, the author emphasizes that he intends to make full use of
all avenues of appeal and review in the United States, and that his intention was clear to the Canadian
authorities during the extradition proceedings. As to the delay in criminal proceedings in California,
counsel refers to estimates that it would require the Californian Supreme Court 16 years to clear the
present backlog in hearing capital appeals. The author reiterates that the judgments of the Supreme Court
in Canada did not in any detail discuss evidence pertaining to capital procedures in California, conditions
on death row at San Quentin Prison or execution by cyanide gas, although he presented evidence relating
to these issues to the Court. He refers to his Factum to the Supreme Court, in which it was stated: "At
present, there are approximately two hundred and eighty inmates on death row at San Quentin. The cells
in which inmates are housed afford little room for movement. Exercise is virtually impossible. When a
condemned inmate approaches within three days of an execution date, he is placed under twenty-four
hour guard in a range of three stripped cells. This can occur numerous times during the review and appeal
process.... Opportunity for exercise is very limited in a small and crowded yard. Tension is consistently
high and can escalate as execution dates approach. Secondary tension and anguish is experienced by
some as appeal and execution dates approach for others. There is little opportunity to relieve tension.
Programs are extremely limited. There are no educational programs. The prison does little more than
warehouse the condemned for years pending execution.... Death row inmates have few visitors, and few
financial resources, increasing their sense of isolation and hopelessness. Suicides occur and are
attributable to the conditions, lack of programs, extremely inadequate psychiatric and physiological care
and the tension, apprehension, depression and despair which permeate death row".

11.12 Finally, the author describes the circumstances of his present custodial regime at Folsom
Prison, California, conditions which he submits would be similar if convicted. He submits that whereas the
other detainees, all convicted criminals, have a proven track record of prison violence and gang affiliation,
he, as a pre-trial detainee, is subjected to far more severe custodial restraints than any of them. Thus,
when moving around in the prison, he is always put in full shackles (hand, waist and legs); forced to keep
leg irons when showering; not allowed any social interaction with the other detainees; given less than five
hours per week of yard exercise; and continuously facing hostility from the prison staff, in spite of good
behaviour. Mr. Ng adds that unusual and very onerous conditions have been imposed on visits from his
lawyers and others working on his case; direct face-to-face conversations with investigators have been
made impossible, and conversations with them, conducted over the telephone or through a glass window,
may be overheard by prison staff. These restrictions are said to seriously undermine the preparation of his
trial defence. Moreover, his appearances in Calaveras County Court are accompanied by exceptional
security measures: for example, during every court recess,the author is taken from the courtroom to an
adjacent jury room and placed, still shackled, into a three foot by four foot cage, specially built for the
case. The author contends that no pre-trial detainee has ever been subjected to such drastic security
measures in California.

11.13 The author concludes that the conditions of confinement have taken a heavy toll on him,
physically and mentally. He has lost much weight, suffers from sleeplessness, anxiety, and other nervous
disorders. This situation, he emphasizes, has foreclosed "progress toward preparation of a reasonably
adequate defence".

Further submission from the author and State party's reaction thereto:

12.1 In an affidavit dated 5 June 1993, signed by Mr. Ng and submitted by his counsel, the author
provides detailed information about the conditions of his confinement in Canada between 1985 and his
extradition in September 1991. He notes that following his arrest on 6 July 1985, he was kept at the
Calgary Remand Center in solitary confinement under a so-called "suicide watch", which meant 24 hour
camera supervision and the placement of a guard outside the bars of the cell. He was only allowed one
hour of exercise each day in the Center's "mini-yard", on "walk alone status" and accompanied by two
guards. As the extradition process unfolded in Canada, the author was transferred to a prison in
Edmonton; he complains about "drastically more severe custodial restrictions" from February 1987 to
September 1991, which he links to the constant and escalating media coverage of the case. Prison guards
allegedly began to tout him, he was kept in total isolation, and contact with visitors was restricted.

12.2 Throughout the period 1987-1991, the author was kept informed about progress in the
extradition process; his lawyers informed him about the "formidable problems" he would face if returned
to California for prosecution, as well as about the "increasingly hostile political and judicial climate in
California towards capital defendants generally". As a result, he experienced extreme stress, sleeplessness
and anxiety, all of which were heightened as the dates of judicial decisions in the extradition process
approached.

12.3 Finally, the author complains about the deceptions committed by Canadian prison authorities
following the release of the decision of the Canadian Supreme Court on 26 September 1991. Thus, instead
of being allowed to contact counsel after the release of the decision and to obtain advice about the
availability of any remedies, as agreed between counsel and a prison warden, he claims that he was lured
from his cell, in the belief that he would be allowed to contact counsel, and thereafter told that he was
being transferred to the custody of United States marshals.

12.4 The State party objects to these new allegations as they "are separate from the complainant's
original submission and can only serve to delay consideration of the original communication by the Human
Rights Committee". It accordingly requests the Committee not to takethese claims into consideration.

Review of admissibility and consideration of merits:

13.1 In his initial submission, author's counsel alleged that Mr. Ng was a victim of violations of
articles 6, 7, 9, 10, 14, and 26 of the Covenant.

13.2 When the Committee considered the admissibility of the communication during its 46th
session and adopted a decision relating thereto (decision of 28 October 1992), it noted that the
communication raised complex issues with regard to the compatibility with the Covenant, ratione
materiae, of extradition to face capital punishment, in particular with regard to the scope of articles 6
and 7 of the Covenant to such situations and their application in the author's case. It noted however that
questions about the issue of whether the author could be deemed a "victim" within the meaning of article
1 of the Optional Protocol remained, but considered that only consideration on the merits of all the
circumstances under which the extradition procedure, and all its effects, occurred, would enable the
Committee to determine whether Mr. Ng was indeed a victim within the meaning of article 1. The State
party has made extensive new submissions on both admissibility and merits and reaffirmed that the
communication is inadmissible because "the evidence shows that Ng is not the victim of any violation in
Canada of rights set out in the Covenant". Counsel, in turn, has filed detailed objections to the State
party's affirmations.
 13.3 In reviewing the question of admissibility, the Committee takes note of the contentions of the
State party and of counsel's arguments. It notes that counsel, in submissions made after the decision of
28 October 1992, has introduced entirely new issues which were not raised in the original communication,
and which relate to Mr. Ng's conditions of detention in Canadian penitentiaries, the stress to which he was
exposed as the extradition process proceeded, and alleged deceptive manoeuvres by Canadian prison
authorities.

13.4 These fresh allegations, if corroborated, would raise issues under articles 7 and 10 of the
Covenant, and bring the author within the ambit of article 1 of the Optional Protocol. While the wording of
the decision of 28 October 1992 would not have precluded counsel from introducing them at this stage of
the procedure, the Committee, in the circumstances of the case, finds that it need not address the new
claims, as domestic remedies before the Canadian courts were not exhausted in respect of them. It
transpires from the material before the Committee that complaints about the conditions of the author's
detention in Canada or about alleged irregularities committed by Canadian prison authorities were not
raised either during the committal or the surrender phase of the extradition proceedings. Had it been
argued that an effective remedy for the determination of these claims is no longer available, the
Committee finds that it was incumbent upon counsel to raise them before the competent courts, provincial
orfederal, at the material time. This part of the author's allegations is therefore declared inadmissible
under article 5, paragraph 2(b), of the Optional Protocol.

13.5 It remains for the Committee to examine the author's claim that he is a "victim" within the
meaning of the Optional Protocol because he was extradited to California on capital charges pending
trial, without the assurances provided for in Article 6 of the Extradition Treaty between Canada and the
United States. In this connection, it is to be recalled that (a) California had sought the author's extradition
on charges which, if proven, carry the death penalty; (b) the United States requested NG's extradition on
those capital charges; (c) the extradition warrant documents the existence of a prima facie case
against the author; (d) United States prosecutors involved in the case have stated that they would ask for
the death penalty to be imposed; and (e) the State of California, when intervening before the Supreme
Court of Canada, did not disavow the prosecutors' position. The Committee considers that these facts
raise questions with regard to the scope of articles 6 and 7, in relation to which, on issues of admissibility
alone, the Committee's jurisprudence is not dispositive. As indicated in the case of Kindler v. Canada [
See communication 470/1991, Views adopted on 30 July 1993, paragraph 12.3.] , only an examination on
the merits of the claims will enable the Committee to pronounce itself on the scope of these articles and to
clarify the applicability of the Covenant and Optional Protocol to cases concerning extradition to face the
death penalty.

14.1 Before addressing the merits of the communication, the Committee observes that what is at
issue is not whether Mr. Ng's rights have been or are likely to be violated by the United States, which is
not a State party to the Optional Protocol, but whether by extraditing Mr. Ng to the United States, Canada
exposed him to a real risk of a violation of his rights under the Covenant. States parties to the Covenant
will also frequently be parties to bilateral treaty obligations, including those under extradition treaties. A
State party to the Covenant must ensure that it carries out all its other legal commitments in a manner
consistent with the Covenant. The starting point for consideration of this issue must be the State party's
obligation, under article 2, paragraph 1, of the Covenant, namely, to ensure to all individuals within its
territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the Covenant. The right to life is the most
essential of these rights.

14.2 If a State party extradites a person within its jurisdiction in such circumstances that as a
result there is a real risk that his or her rights under the Covenant will be violated in another jurisdiction,
the State party itself may be in violation of the Covenant.
 15.1 With regard to a possible violation by Canada of article 6 of the Covenant by its decision to
extradite Mr. Ng, two related questionsarise:

(a) Did the requirement under article 6, paragraph 1, to protect the right to life prohibit Canada
from exposing a person within its jurisdiction to the real risk (i.e. a necessary and foreseeable
consequence) of being sentenced to death and losing his life in circumstances incompatible with article 6
of the Covenant as a consequence of extradition to the United States?

(b) Did the fact that Canada had abolished capital punishment except for certain military offences
require Canada to refuse extradition or request assurances from the United States, as it was entitled to do
under article 6 of the Extradition Treaty, that the death penalty would not be imposed against Mr. Ng?

15.2 Counsel claims that capital punishment must be viewed as a violation of article 6 of the
Covenant "in all but the most horrendous cases of heinous crime; it can no longer be accepted as the
standard penalty for murder." Counsel, however, does not substantiate this statement or link it to the
specific circumstances of the present case. In reviewing the facts submitted by author's counsel and by
the State party, the Committee notes that Mr. Ng was convicted of committing murder under aggravating
circumstances; this would appear to bring the case within the scope of article 6, paragraph 2, of the
Covenant. In this connection the Committee recalls that it is not a "fourth instance" and that it is not
within its competence under the Optional Protocol to review sentences of the courts of States. This
limitation of competence applies a fortiori where the proceedings take place in a State that is not party to
the Optional Protocol.

15.3 The Committee notes that article 6, paragraph 1, must be read together with article 6,
paragraph 2, which does not prohibit the imposition of the death penalty for the most serious crimes.
Canada did not itself charge Mr. Ng with capital offences, but extradited him to the United States, where
he faces capital charges and the possible [and foreseeable] imposition of the death penalty. If Mr. Ng had
been exposed, through extradition from Canada, to a real risk of a violation of article 6, paragraph 2, in
the United States, this would have entailed a violation by Canada of its obligations under article 6,
paragraph 1. Among the requirements of article 6, paragraph 2, is that capital punishment be imposed
only for the most serious crimes, under circumstances not contrary to the Covenant and other
instruments, and that it be carried out pursuant to a final judgment rendered by a competent court. The
Committee notes that Mr. Ng was extradited to stand trial on 19 criminal charges, including 12 counts of
murder. If sentenced to death, that sentence, based on the information which the Committee has before
it, would be based on a conviction of guilt in respect of very serious crimes. He was over eighteen years
when the crimes of which he stands accused were committed. Finally, while the author has claimed before
the Supreme Court of Canada and before the Committee that his right to a fair trial would not be
guaranteed in the judicial process in California, because of racial bias in the jury selection process and in
the imposition of the death penalty, theseclaims have been advanced in respect of purely hypothetical
events, and nothing in the file supports the contention that the author's trial in the Calaveras County
Court would not meet the requirements of article 14 of the Covenant.

15.4 Moreover, the Committee observes that Mr. Ng was extradited to the United States after
extensive proceedings in the Canadian courts, which reviewed all the charges and the evidence available
against the author. In the circumstances, the Committee concludes that Canada's obligations under article
6, paragraph 1, did not require it to refuse Mr. Ng's extradition.

15.5 The Committee notes that Canada has itself, except for certain categories of military offences,
abolished capital punishment; it is not, however, a party to the Second Optional Protocol to the Covenant.
As to issue (b) in paragraph 15.1 above, namely whether the fact that Canada has generally abolished
capital punishment, taken together with its obligations under the Covenant, required it to refuse
extradition or to seek the assurances it was entitled to seek under the Extradition Treaty, the Committee
observes that abolition of capital punishment does not release Canada of its obligations under extradition
treaties. However, it should be expected that, when exercising a permitted discretion under an extradition
treaty (namely, whether or not to seek assurances that the death penalty would not be imposed) a State
party which itself abandoned capital punishment gives serious consideration to its own chosen policy. The
Committee notes, however, that Canada has indicated that the possibility to seek assurances would
normally be exercised where special circumstances existed; in the present case, this possibility was
considered and rejected.

15.6 While States must be mindful of their obligation to protect the right to life when exercising
their discretion in the application of extradition treaties, the Committee does not find that the terms of
article 6 of the Covenant necessarily require Canada to refuse to extradite or to seek assurances. The
Committee notes that the extradition of Mr. Ng would have violated Canada's obligations under article 6 of
the Covenant, if the decision to extradite without assurances had been taken summarily or arbitrarily. The
evidence before the Committee reveals, however, that the Minister of Justice reached his decision after
hearing extensive arguments in favour of seeking assurances. The Committee further takes note of the
reasons advanced by the Minister of Justice, in his letter dated 26 October 1989 addressed to Mr. Ng's
counsel, in particular, the absence of exceptional circumstances, the availability of due process and of
appeal against conviction, and the importance of not providing a safe haven for those accused of murder.

15.7 In the light of the above, the Committee concludes that Mr. Ng is not a victim of a violation by
Canada of article 6 of the Covenant.

16.1 In determining whether, in a particular case, the imposition of capital punishment constitutes
a violation of article 7, the Committee will have regard to the relevant personal factors regarding the
author,the specific conditions of detention on death row, and whether the proposed method of execution is
particularly abhorrent. In the instant case, it is contented that execution by gas asphyxiation is contrary to
internationally accepted standards of humane treatment, and that it amounts to treatment in violation of
article 7 of the Covenant. The Committee begins by noting that whereas article 6, paragraph 2, allows for
the imposition of the death penalty under certain limited circumstances, any method of execution provided
for by law must be designed in such a way as to avoid conflict with article 7.

16.2 The Committee is aware that, by definition, every execution of a sentence of death may be
considered to constitute cruel and inhuman treatment within the meaning of article 7 of the Covenant; on
the other hand, article 6, paragraph 2, permits the imposition of capital punishment for the most serious
crimes. Nonetheless, the Committee reaffirms, as it did in its General Comment 20[44] on article 7 of the
Covenant (CCPR/C/21/Add.3, paragraph 6) that, when imposing capital punishment, the execution of the
sentence "... must be carried out in such a way as to cause the least possible physical and mental
suffering".

16.3 In the present case, the author has provided detailed information that execution by gas
asphyxiation may cause prolonged suffering and agony and does not result in death as swiftly as possible,
as asphyxiation by cyanide gas may take over 10 minutes. The State party had the opportunity to refute
these allegations on the facts; it has failed to do so. Rather, the State party has confined itself to arguing
that in the absence of a norm of international law which expressly prohibits asphyxiation by cyanide gas,
"it would be interfering to an unwarranted degree with the internal laws and practices of the Unites States
to refuse to extradite a fugitive to face the possible imposition of the death penalty by cyanide gas
asphyxiation".

16.4 In the instant case and on the basis of the information before it, the Committee concludes
that execution by gas asphyxiation, should the death penalty be imposed on the author, would not meet
the test of "least possible physical and mental suffering", and constitutes cruel and inhuman treatment, in
violation of article 7 of the Covenant. Accordingly, Canada, which could reasonably foresee that Mr. Ng, if
sentenced to death, would be executed in a way that amounts to a violation of article 7, failed to comply
with its obligations under the Covenant, by extraditing Mr. Ng without having sought and received
assurances that he would not be executed.

16.5 The Committee need not to pronounce itself on the compatibility, with article 7, of methods of
execution other than that which is at issue in this case.

17. The Human Rights Committee, acting under article 5, paragraph 4, of the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, is of the view that the facts as found by the Committee reveal a
violation by Canada of article 7 of the Covenant.

18. The Human Rights Committee requests the State party to make such representations as might
still be possible to avoid the imposition of the death penalty and appeals to the State party to ensure that
a similar situation does not arise in the future.

[Adopted in English, French and Spanish, the English text being the original version. Subsequently
to be issued also in Arabic, Chinese and Russian as part of the Committee's annual report to the General
Assembly.]