Series on Rock and Soil Mechanic\

Vol. 10 (1 985)

FIELD INSTRUMENTATION
IN
GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING

T homas H . Hanna
B. Se., Ph. 0., C. Eng., F.l.C.E.

Professor of Civil and Structural Engineering

Universit y of Sheffield
England

First Edition 1985

T RAN S TE C H
 CONT ENTS

Pn•fac:e ......................... .. ............................. .

Ab b revia lin ns of U nils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... 6
Lisl of Ab brcvialio ns ......................... . ................ . .. 6
Tahl<• of C o n versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... 8
Lis I o f Symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... 9

C hapler I
lntroduclio n to G ro und Engineering and lhc Monilo ring
of Founda lio ns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 17
1.1 lntroduccion .................... ........ .... .. ... . .. . .. .. . 17
1.2 Soil and Rock Occurrence and I he Influence of' Geology .... . . 18
1.3 Site lnvest igacion . .................................... . . .. . 21
1.4 The Behaviour of Soil and Rock under Load . .. .... . ..... .. . . 27
1.5 Ground Problems in C ivil Engineering - A Review ... .... . . . . 32
1.5. 1 Foundatio ns .. .. . ... .... ... . ........... .. ............... . . . 32
1.5 .2 Soil and Rock as a Construct ion Macerial ........... . ....... . 35
1. 5.3 Underground Strucwres ............ . ............. . ........ . 38
1.5.4 Eanh Retaining Struccu res ....... . . ..... .. .. . .... .. ...... .. . 40
1.5.5 Slopes and Excavacions . ......... . ... . .. .. . . ..... . . ..... . .. . 43
1.5.6 Ground Reinforcemen1 .. ............... . .. . .. ........... . . . 45
1. 5. 7 Geotechnical Processes .......... . . . .. .. . . .. .. ... ... ..... • .. 46
1. 5.8 Offshore Engineering ..... . .... . ........ . ................ . . . 46
1.5 .9 Earthquake Engineering . .. .... . ... . .... . ... . ....... . .. ... . . 47
1. 5. 10 Structures on Wasce Materials ........... .. ....... . .. . .. .... . 47
1.5.11 Special Problems . . . .... .. .... .. ........ ... ... . . . ........ . . 47
1.6 The Principles of Foundation Design .................... . ... . 49
1.7 Limitations in the P resenl Methods o f Design . . .............. . 52
1.8 The Role o f Field Measurement in Design and Const ruc1 ion ... . 54
1.9 The Need for Instrumentation in Geotech nical Engineering ... . . 55
1. 10 Cornments ...... . ........................................ . 58
1.11 Corrosion in Ground Engineering . .. . . ...... ...... .......... . 61
1.1 2 A St rategy for Instrumentation ..... . .. . ....... . .. . ......... . 62

C ha plcr 2
T he Measuremenl of Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2. 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2 Load Rings.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.3 Mechanical Load Cell ........ . .... . . ... ....... . . ........... 66
2.4 Mechanical Disc. .......... ... . . .. ............ . . .. . ..... .. . 68
\I I 11 11> l'\,IKl \ll '\I \110'\ 1'\ lol llllt 11'\ll \I I Mol'll Kl'\t•

2.5 1ndin~~· r ~1 erhod\ of Lo:.Jd \Jc:a..,uro.:nH:nt 71

2.(\ Plulloda-.rk I oad lndil:atn1 .. ... 72
"~I lain-Gauged" l oad Cell ..... .. . ....... ..... ......... . 75
,2.7 I oad 5.:ming Bolt' aml St1 ut\ ........ ...................... . XI
2.9 I mtd S.:nsi ng \\ a... h.:r\ . . . . .... ........................ . 85
2.10 St rn111· Gauged Rm1f Rolr . . . ......... .. .. .. ....... ...... . 85
2.11 H}draulic Pre-,sure I oad Cell. .. ............... . ........... . 86
2.12 Vibrating-Wire Tyr>e l oad Cell. ...................... .... . . 90
2 . 13 Rock Bolt Load Cell - Vibrating-Wire Type ................ . 100
2.14 Shea1 and Normal Load Cell . . . . . . . . . .................... . 101
2. 15 Other T\ lethods of Load Measurement. ...................... . 102
2.16 Special l oad Cello; ........................................ . 104
2.17 I oad Control Cell., ................................. .. .... . 106
2.18 Pile Driving Instrumentation ............................... . 107
2.1 9 The Selection, In stallation and Use of Load Cell!> ............ . I 16

C hapter 3
Pore Water Prc sure Mea urement Oe,•ices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3. I Int roduction......... ...... ........ ....................... 121
3.2 The Effective Stress Principle....... ........... ...... ....... 122
3.3 Soil Suction........... . .... .. ......................... . ... 125
3.4 General Requiremcms
of Water Pressure Measuring Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.5 Pic7omcter Time Lag.. .... ........... ........ ...... ....... 127
3.6 Calculation of Time Lag............. .. ............... ...... 135
3.7 Intake Factors. . ........... . ............................... 136
3.8 The Standpipe Piezometer .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3. 9 T he Casagrande Poro us Tube Piezometer .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.10 Pressure Gauges............. .. ............... .. ........... 143
3. 11 Manometers ................. ........... .... ........... . ... 145
3.12 Air and Water Pressures in Partly SaiUrated Soil............ .. 145
3.13 High Air Entry Piezometer Tip.. ............................ 148
3. 14 Hydraulic Piezometer. ......... .......................... .. 149
3. 15 Pneumatic Piezomet er.............................. ........ 151
3.16 Vibrating-Wire Type Piezometer ..................... . ....... 155
3.17 Cone Piezometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3 . 18 Piezometer for Use at a Bo undary....... .................... 162
3. 19 Piezometer for Use in Earth Fill ............................. 168
3.20 Coarse Porous Tip Piezometer .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I7 1
3.21 Negative Pore Wat er Pres ure Measuremem ... .. ............. 173
3.22 Piezometer Installation ....... . . .. .......... .... . .. ......... 174
3.23 Piezometer Sealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.24 De-Airing of Piezometers and Piezometer Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.25 Methods of Recording...................................... 182
 t c , , 11 'r' 'ii

1.26 \\"intcri;ing Pic;omctcro, .......... . ... . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . ... ... . 185

1.27 Protection of Pic;omctcr' . .. ... .. ........... . IR7
3.2H Rei at ive Ad vantage~ of Di ffcrcnt PietOmetcr Sy~tC II1'> .... .. ... . 189
3.29 Source<; of Error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 190
3.30 rhc Longevi ty of P ore Wa te r Prc sure Mcal>uring Devke'> ..... . 192
3.3 1 Tcnsion1eters . ... .. .......... .................. . ..... ... .. . 193
3.32 Lea~agc Detection by P ic;ometers .......................... . 197
l .J3 Seepage Meas urement .. . ............. .............. ... . ... . 20 1
3.34 The Differential P iezometer .. ...... . ....................... . 202

C hapter 4
T hr Measuremrnt of Total Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4. 1 Int roduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4 .2 Diaphragm P ressure Cell Design Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.3 Electrical Earth Pre sure Cells... . . ....... ................... 211
4 .-1 P iezoelect ric a nd P iezore istive Pressure Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4 .5 The TRRL Pres ure Cell. ................................... 2 14
4.6 Vibrating-Wire Earth Pres ure Cells.......................... 2 15
4 .7 A Design Approach fo r Free-Diaphragm Earth Pres ure Cell . . . 218
4.8 Pneumatic/ H ydraulic Earth Pressure Cells.................... 22 1
4.9 Installation of Pneuma tic/ H yd raulic Earth Pressure Cell . . . . . . . 223
4. 10 Installation of Pneumatic/ H ydra ulic Earth Pressure Cells
in Rock o r Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4. 11 Mea surement of T o ta l Stress on Face of a Diaphragm Wall .... 225
4. 12 The Action Factor of H ydraulic/ Pneumatic
Earth Pressure Cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4. 13 The Carlson Stre Met er....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4. 14 Normal and Shear Stre Measurement ......... ........... ... 229
4. 15 Indirect Method of Earth Pressure Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4. 16 Determination of the State o f Stress in a Soil Mass............ 236
4. 17 In -situ Stresses in Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4. 18 ln-silll Stress Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4. 19 In -situ Stress Determination by Pressuremeter .. ........ ... . ... 240
4.20 Earth Pressure Measurement with H ydraulic Piezomete rs....... 243
4.2 1 In -situ Stresses in Rocks......... ......... ........ ... ....... 247
4.22 Rock Pressure Meas urement.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4. 23 O vercoring. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.24 Stress Measurement Using H ydraulic Fracturing ............... 254
4.25 Measurement of Stress C hange in Rock ......... ............. 254
4.26 The Flat-Jack Test .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.27 Pressuremerer Testing in Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4.28 The Longevity and Reliabi lity o f Earth Pressure Cells......... . 257
,jjj 1111 J) IV.,IIH \ll '1 ·\110' I ' (,J()Jit llr\ll \1 I 'J(.J:-.1 1 Rl'- t•

Chaplt•r S
ln.;rrumenJo; for (,round Mo,cmenl Mcas urcmcnl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.1 lntiOdUl:tlnn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.2 Surfru.:e 1\ lonumentl>..... . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.3 l cvclling Statiom ................................ . ......... 163
5...1 ' ub-Surlacc Rcl't·rcnce Point., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
5.5 Bench ~ l arl.s...... ..... . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 267
5.6 Sun eying t\ lcrhod!>..... ... ..... . ... . ........... ...... ...... 167
5.7 lnvertt'd and Hanging Pendulums.. .. ............... ... . .. ... 278
5.8 Single Point Hydraulic Pneuma! ic Level Gauge!>. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.9 Multi-Point Hydraulic Level Gauges...... . ........ ....... ... 284
5. 10 Full Profile Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.1 1 lulti- Point Vertical Tube Seulemcnt Gauge~... ............ . .. 289
5.1 2 Surface Strain Meter ....... ..... .......................... 293
5.13 Soil Strain Gauges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5. 14 Inductance Soi l Strain Meters......................... . ..... 299
5.15 T ape and Rod Extensomercr!>... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
5.16 Tcnsioned-Wire Lateral Movement Gauges.................... 304
5. 17 Vibrating-Wire Extensometcrs... . ........................... 304
5.18 Multiple Rod Extcn omctcr:............ .... .... ... ... ....... 306
5. 19 Horizontal Strain Meters..... . ........ .................. .. . 307
5.20 Clinometers............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
5.21 Tension Crack Monitoring.................................. 310
5.22 Slip Plane Detectors....................................... 312
5.23 Tiltmeters.......... ..... . .... . .................... . ...... . 314
5.24 Dcrlectorncters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
5.25 Inclinometers............ ................ ....... ........... 322
5.26 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Inclinometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5.27 Fixed-In- Place Inclinometer .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 326
5.28 Borehole Deviation Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
5.29 Sliding Micrometer Deformation Measuri ng Technique . . . . . . . . . 330
5.30 Some Special Movemem Measuring Instrument s............... 334
5.31 Spot-Welded Strain Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
5.32 Longevity and Reliability o f Movement Mea uring In trument . . 345
5.33 AuLOmatic Displacement and Settlemem Plouing.............. 347

Chapter 6
Special Foundation Instruments and T heir Uses... ... ..... ..... ...... 35 1
6.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
6.2 Borehole T.V. Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
6.3 Borehole Periscope . .. .... . .... .... ......................... 353
6.4 Rock Core Orientation Measuremem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
6.5 Multiple Shot Survey Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
6.6 Accelerometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 '5
6.7 Temperature Sensor .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 363
6.h Ulu-.t Pr\.''>'>urc \ku-.ur \.'mcnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
6.9 Prc-.... urc \lca-.un:mcnt'> in Silo~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
6.10 ~pedal I n•.trumcntm ion in 11 ighwa~ Engtneet i ng. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36R
6.11 I raffic Induced Strain'> ............. .... ........... .. ....... 374
6. 12 comtic Emi~~ion l thtrumentation... ... . ................... 376
6. 13 J\cou~ tic Emi!>ltion Mo nito ring Sy!>tem Dc~ ign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
6. 14 lVIicroseism ic Con 1rol Net\\ o r I-.!.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
6. 15 Ground Vibration-. - Principle ~ of ltNrumcntation ......... .. 381
6. 16 Vibration Data ProtUrcmcm and Proce~~ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
6.17 Ground Vibration lonitoring..... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
(\. 18 Examples of Vibratio n and Blast Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
6.19 Long T erm Load Tc\t-, ......... .... ........................ 396
6.20 Ground Freezing ln'>Lrumentation. ................ .... . .. .... 403
6.2 1 Radioactive Wao;tc Mo nitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
6.22 Roof Failure Detect ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
6.23 Soi l Com paction Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 11
6.24 Instrumentation in Coal Mine .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. 413
6.25 Avalanche Instrumentation ... ...... . .. . ...... .... . .... ...... 425
6 .26 Non-Destructive Tc ·ting of Rocl-. Bolts ......... ...... .... .... 43 1
6.27 Con truction Equipment Inst rumentation . ........ ... .... ..... 431
6.28 In trumemation of Plate Bearing Te t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
6.29 Continuou Mea urcmcnt and Recording
of Denection of StrucLUre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
6.30 Prc sure Cell for Concrete ................................. 444
6.3 1 Other Instruments..................................... .. .. 447

C hapter 7
T he Performance of lnstrumented Foundations
and Foundation Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
7. 1 Introduction . ........ ... ... ............ ............. ..... . 451
7.2 Fo undation .. .................. . ........................ . . 451
7. 2.1 Spread Foundation .............. .. ....................... . 452
7 .2.2 Mat Foundation ............... ... ... ... ................. . 454
7.2.3 Oil Tank Foundatiom ....... ... . .......................... . 459
7.2.4 Set 1lemcnt -Sen it i ve Foundations ....................... .. .. . 464
7.3 Piles .............. . ..................................... . 467
7 .3.1 Pi les under Static Load .. ..... ... ......................... . . 469
7.3. 2 P ile Bending Instrumentation ......... .... ..... . . .... ..... . . 471
7.3.3 Tension Pile ............................ . .... .... ... ... . . . 472
7.3.4 Lateral Load Te ting of Pile ... . .. . ................... . ... . 473
7.3.5 Ground Di placement During Pile Driving .................. . 479
7.3.6 Instrumentation of Pile Groups .. ......................... .. . 483
7.3.7 Special Ins trumen tation for Pile . .......................... . 484
7. 3.8 ln. trumemation of P iles During Drh ing ....... . . . .. . .. .. .... . 489
7.3.9 I ntcgrity Testing of P ile!> .................................. . 493
\ 11110 J'-;\JRl \11 '1 \11 0"\ "(,LO i l:lll'll \1 I "C.rl'll Kl'<,
-------
7.4 Instrumentation o f l· ill ites ............... .. .............. . 494
7.5 Earth Retaini ng Strm:turc-. .................. . ....... . ...... . 506
7.5. 1 Diaphragm Walls ................ .......... .............. . 506
7.5.2 Bridge Abutmems . ........ ........... ............ . . . ..... . 507
7.5.3 Rigid Fou ndation Walls .... . ....... .. ....... •... ........... 512
7.- .4 Reinforced Earth Walls ............ .. ...................... . 513
7.5.5 Cofferdam I nstrumcntation ........................... . .... . 513
7.6 Strullcd ExcavatiOnl. ...................................... . 517
7.6. 1 Ground Movements near Excavations ..... . ................. . 518
7.6.2 Instrumen tation of Trench Excava tions ...................... . 523
7.7 G r ound Heave and Swelling ...... ........ .. ..... ....... .. .. . 530
7.7. 1 G round Heave ... ...................... . .......... . . ... .. . 53 1
7.7.2 Soil Heave/ Swell ing Monitoring . ........................... . 534
7.8 M ovement Due to Dcwatering ................. .... ........ . 544
7.9 G round Improvement ......... ....... ..... . .. . . ...... ..... . 547
7. 10 I nstrumentation o f Road Foundations and Highways ......... . 559
7. 11 G round A nchors ... ....... ....... ...... ...... ....... .... .. . 564
7 . 11.1 A nchored Wall Monitori ng ....... ...... ..... ........ .. .... . 567
7 . 11.2 A nchored Struc ture ...................................... . 569
7. 12 Natu ral Slopes ..................... . .................... . . 57 1
7. 13 Excavated Sl opes .......... . . . ........................... . . 576
7. 14 Rock Slope .............................................. . 584
7. 15 T unnel I n trumentation .................................... . 590
7. 15. 1 Buried Cul verts ......................... .... . .......... ... . 605
7. 15.2 C ut and Cover Tunnel . ........ ....... ...... . ............. . 608
7. 15.3 Concrete Lining Behaviour in Pres ure Tunnels .............. . 611
7. 15.4 Tunnel Lining M easurement s ......... . .... . .... ..... ....... . 6 16
7. 15.5 U nderground Cavern ..................................... . 6 17
7. 16 Underground Mining Instrumentation ....................... . 620
7. 17 Case H istories of M icro eism ic Detection ..... . .... .. ........ . 626
7 . 18 Instrumentation o f O ffsho re Structures ..... .. ............... . 63 1
7. 18. 1 Di ffercnces Bet wecn Onshore and Offsho re Inst rum entati on ... . 63 1
7. 18.2 T ypes of Off hore Foundation Inst rumen tation ............... . 633
7. 18.3 Instrumentation for Gravity Structure ................ .. .... . 633
7. 18.4 Instrumentation for Piled Structure ........... .. ........... . 639
7. 19 Instrument Use in Emba nk ment Dam M onitorin g ............ . 640
7. 19. 1 High way and Rail road Embankments .. ........ ...... .. . .... . 664
7. 19.2 Flood Defence Em bankments ... ....... ... ............ . .... . 670
7. 19.3 General Aspects of Dam I n trumentation .............. . . . ... . 678
7.20 I n trumentation at Labor atory Scale ........... ...... ... .... . 684
7.2 1 Gener al .................. ....... ... ..................... . . 684
Chapter R
Pl a nnin~ and lnterprct:lliMI of ln~trum c ntation Pro~ mmmc' ....... 687
8.1 An Approach 10 Ground Engineering.... .................... 687
8.2 T he Organisation of a Project.......... ..................... 689
8.3 The Pla nning of a Field Measurement Programme ...... . ...... 690
8.4 The Selection or Instruments .. . . ... .... .. ................... 693
8.5 In ta llation and Monitoring ... . .. .... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
8.6 The Procurement a nd Reponing of Field Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
8. 7 Accuracy of Mea!turement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
8.8 Planning of Observation<; with Respect
to Sa fety a nd Deterioration.. . ............... .. . .... ........ 7 10
8.9 The Ro le of Model T ests in Instrumenta tio n Pla nning.......... 715
8. 10 Data Acquisition Syste ms................................... 7 18
8. 11 Measurements During Con t ructio n ... . ........ . ............. 720
8. 12 Meas urements During Opera tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 1
8. 13 The Use of Field Measurements in the Development
of Computational Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
8. 13.1 Rigid Permanent Structure .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . 722
8. 13.2 Piled Raft Foundatio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
8. 13.3 The Behaviour or a T e 1 Shaft in Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
8. 13.4 Earth Dams . ................. . ............................ 737
8. 13.5 Deep Excavations .......................................... 740
8. 13.6 Simu lation of Room and Pillar Coal Mining....... . .......... 749
8. 13.7 General .. .... . . ... . . ........ . ..... . .. .... . ............... . 756
8. 14 An Approach to lnstrumenlation
for Field Scale Research Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
8. 15 Concluding Remark ............ . ... ... ....... . ............. 759

Refe rences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 1

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

S ubj ect Index .. . .. . ............... . .. . . ... ........... . . .. ....... . 837