Tranaport 451 - Munir

LEC 01-04
Highway Pavement
What is a pavement
1. A multi-layer system that distributes the vehicular loads over a larger area.
Or
2. HW pavement is a structures consisting of superimposed layers of selected
and processed materials whose primary function is to distribute the applied
load to subgrade. Or
3. Structures which separates the tires of vehicles from under lying
foundation.
Functions of Pavement (Imp)
1. A highway pavement is designed to support the wheel loads imposed on it

from traffic moving over it.
2. Additional stresses are also imposed by changes in the temperature of
environment.
3. Pavement should be strong enough to resists the stresses imposed on it
and should be thick enough to distribute the external loads on the
subgrade.
Desirable Characteristics of Pavement (15,CT, Imp)
1. It should be sufficiently thick to distribute the loads and stress to a safe

value on the subgrade soil.
2. It should be structurally sound enough to withstand the stresses imposed
on it.
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3. It should provide a reasonably hard wearing surface, so that the abrasive
action of wheels does not damage the surface.
4. It should be dust free so that traffic safety is not impaired.
5. Its riding quality should be good.
6. Should have low friction with tire- low energy consumption
7. Texture and adequate roughness to prevent skidding of vehicle.
8. No excessive sound from moving vehicle.
9. Impervious surface
10. Long life and low maintenance cost.
History
Roman Roads (CT-17)
1. Romans took up the practice of a military road system from the

Carthaginians. It is estimated that the Romans built about 87,000 km of
roads within their empire (about equal to the length of the U.S. Interstate
system).
2. Since the primary purpose of these roads was for foot soldiers, the roads
were straight, but virtually without regard to grade. They generated high
noise levels, were rough and labor intensive (slave and “statue” labor often
used).
3. The total thickness was as much as 0.9 m and road widths of 4.3 m or
less.
4. Roman road construction was not inexpensive. Updated construction
estimates the Appian Way in Italy are about $2,000,000 per km.
Macadam Roads
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1. John Macadam used a sloped subgrade surface to improve drainage on
which he placed angular aggregate (hand-broken, maximum size 75 mm)
in two layers for a total depth of about 200 mm.
2. On top of this, the wearing course was placed (about 50 mm thick with a
maximum aggregate size of 25 mm) to provide a “smooth” ride for wagon
wheels. Thus, the total depth of a typical Macadam pavement was about
250 mm.
3. An interesting quote by Macadam was that “no stone larger than will enter
a man’s mouth should go into a road”
4. The largest permissible load for this type of design was estimated to be
158 N/mm (900 lb. per in. width)
5. Macadam realized that the layers of broken stone would eventually
become “bound” together by fines generated by traffic.
Telford Roads
1. Telford attempted, where possible, to build roads on relatively flat grades

(no more than 1 in 30) in order to reduce the number of horses needed
to haul cargo.
2. Further, the pavement section was about 350 to 450 mm in depth and
generally specified in three layers.
3. The bottom layer was comprised of large stones (100 mm wide and 75 to
180 mm in depth). It is this specific layer which makes the Telford design
unique.
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4. On top of this were placed two layers of stones of 65 mm maximum size
(about 150 to 250 mm total thickness) followed by a wearing course of
gravel about 40 mm thick.
5. It was estimated that this system would support a load corresponding to
88 N/mm (500 lb. per in. of width)
Types of Pavement
1. Flexible Pavement: Layered system

2. Rigid Pavement: Load from flexural strength
3. Semi-Rigid: Intermediate state ex lean concrete base, soil-cement.
4. Composite: Consists of Hot Mixed Asphalt (HMA) and Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
Flexible Pavement
1. Hot mix Asphaltic (HMA) pavements are classified as "flexible" pavements

because the total pavement structure deflects, or flexes, under loading.
2. A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of
material.
3. Each layer receives the loads from the above layer, spreads them out, then
passes on these loads to the next layer below.
4. Thus, the further down in the pavement structure a particular layer is, the
less load (in terms of force per area) it must carry.
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5. In flexible pavements material layers are usually arranged in order of
descending load bearing capacity with the highest load bearing capacity
material (and most expensive) on the top and the lowest load bearing
capacity material (and least expensive) on the bottom.
The typical flexible pavement structure consisting of
1. Surface course. This is the top layer and the layer that comes in contact
with traffic. It may be composed of one or several different HMA sublayers.
2. Base course. This is the layer directly below the surface course and
generally consists of aggregate (either stabilized or unstabilized) or HMA.
3. Subbase course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A
subbase is not always needed.
Basic Structural Element of Flexural Pavement
1. A typical flexible pavement structure consists of the surface course and

the underlying base and sub-base courses.
2. Each of these layers contributes to structural support and drainage.
3. The surface course (typically an HMA layer) is the stiffest (as measured by
resilient modulus) and contributes the most to pavement strength.
4. The underlying layers are less stiff but are still important to pavement
strength as well as drainage and frost protection.
5. A typical structural design results in a series of layers gradually decrease in
material quality with depth.
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Surface course
1. The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and normally
contains the highest quality materials.
2. It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control, rut
and shoving resistance and drainage.
3. In addition, it serves to prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of
surface water into the underlying base, subbase and subgrade.
4. This top structural layer of material is sometimes subdivided into two layers:
a. Wearing Course:
i. This is the layer in direct contact with traffic loads. It is meant to take
the brunt of traffic wear and can be removed and replaced as it
becomes worn.
ii. A properly designed (and funded) preservation program should be
able to identify pavement surface distress while it is still confined to
the wearing course.
iii. This way, the wearing course can be rehabilitated before distress
propagates into the underlying intermediate/binder course.
b. Intermediate/Binder Course: This layer provides the bulk of the HMA
structure. Its chief purpose is to distribute load.
Base course
The base course is immediately beneath the surface course. It provides

additional load distribution and contributes to drainage and frost resistance.
Base courses are usually constructed out of Aggregates
Base courses are most typically constructed from durable aggregates that will
not be damaged by moisture or frost action. Aggregates can be either stabilized
or unstabilized. In certain situations, where high base stiffness is desired, base
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courses can be constructed using a variety of HMA mixes. In relation to surface
course HMA mixes, base course mixes usually contain larger Maximum
aggregate sizes, are more open graded and are subject to more lenient
specifications.
Sub-Base course
1. The subbase course is between the base course and the subgrade. It
functions primarily as structural support but it can also:
a. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement
structure.
b. Improve drainage.
c. Minimize frost action damage.
d. Provide a working platform for construction.
2. The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base
course but better than the subgrade soils.
3. A subbase course is not always needed or used. For example, a
pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff subgrade may not need the
additional features offered by a subbase course so it may be omitted from
design
4. However, a pavement constructed over a low quality soil such as a
swelling clay may require the additional load distribution characteristic that
a subbase course can offer.
5. In this scenario the subbase course may consist of high quality fill used to
replace poor quality subgrade.
Types of Flexible Pavements (VVI)
The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:
1. Conventional layered flexible pavement.

2. Full - depth asphalt pavement.
3. Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).
 Conventional Flexible Pavements are layered systems with high quality

expensive materials are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low
quality cheap materials are placed in lower layers.
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 Full - Depth Asphalt Pavements are constructed by placing bituminous
layers directly on the soil subgrade. This is more suitable when there is
high traffic and local materials are not available.
 Contained Rock Asphalt Mats are constructed by placing dense/open
graded aggregate layers in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense
graded asphalt concrete is placed above the sub-grade will significantly
reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from
surface water. (CT-16)
Full Depth Asphalt pavement advantages (CT-16)
1. No permeable layer to entrap water.

2. Time required for construction is reduced.
3. Provide and retain uniformity in pavement structures.
4. Less affected by moisture or frost.
5. No reduction of subgrade strength.
Typical layers of a flexible pavement (VVI) (16,CT-16,17)
Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement include:
1. Surface course
a. Seal coat
b. Surface course
c. Tack coat
d. Binder course
e. Prime coat
2. Base course
3. Sub-base course
4. Compacted sub-grade
5. Natural sub-grade
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 Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the
surface and to provide skid resistance.
 Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt
emulsion diluted with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer
of binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and
set very fast. (VVI) (16, CT-16)
 Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen
to an absorbent surface like granular bases on which binder layer is
placed. It provides bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime
coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water
tight surface. (VVI) (16, CT-16)
• Surface course: Surface course is the layer directly in contact with

traffic loads and generally contains superior quality materials. They are
usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete(AC). The functions
and requirements of this layer are:
1. It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage,
etc. Also it will prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of
surface water into the underlying base, sub-base and sub-grade
2. It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a
smooth and skid- resistant riding surface
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3. It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade
from the weakening effect of water
• Binder course: This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete
structure. It’s chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course The binder
course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt and doesn’t
require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the
surface course by the binder course results in more economical design.
• Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath
the surface of binder course and it provides additional load distribution and
contributes to the sub-surface drainage It may be composed of crushed
stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials
• Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath

the base course and the primary functions are to provide structural support,
improve drainage and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the
pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base
course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base
course A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a
pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the
additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations, sub-
base course may not be provided
• Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared

to receive the stresses from the layers above It is essential that at no time
soil sub-grade is overstressed It should be compacted to the desirable
density, near the optimum moisture content
Difference between Tack Coat and Prime Coat (VVI) (16, CT-16)
Tack Coat Prime Coat

Tack coat is a very light application of Prime coat is an application of low
asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion viscous cutback bitumen to an
diluted with water. absorbent surface like granular bases
on which binder layer is placed.
It provides proper bonding between It provides bonding between two layers

surface being paved and overlaying i.e. granular base and binder course.
course
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Tack coat does not require the In order to be effective, a prime coat
penetration into the underlying layer penetrates into the underlying layer,
plugs the voids, and forms a watertight
surface.
Tack coat prevents slippage and may Prime coat asphalt acts as an initial
sometimes function as a more long- sealer in the asphalt laying process to
term sealer to protect the substrate block the other layers from moisture,
from moisture and bacteria. dust and debris before additional
coating installations.
• Give figure
Flexible Pavement Design Method (Huang-2)
1. Empirical method with or without soil strength test (A-1 to A-8, B1 to B3)
2. Limiting shear failure method.
3. Limiting deflection method (0.1inch)
4. Regression method based on Pavement Performance or Road tests
5. Mechanistic empirical method (HMA or Asphalt Concrete)
What is Mechanistic Empirical Method (ME) (VVI) (CT-17)
 Mechanistic-Empirical pavement design (ME) is the latest generation of

pavement design methodology.
 Mechanistic: Uses the theory of mechanics - pavement response
(stresses/strains) to applied load
 Empirical: Observations (actual performance) used to calibrate the
mechanistic models.
Parameters of Mechanistic Empirical Method (Imp)
 Gradations, liquid limit, plasticity index, optimum water content, etc. of

base/subbase/subgrade.
 Thermal properties of the paved surface (expansion, conductivity, heat
capacity)
 Concrete shrinkage (ultimate, reversible, and time to 50%), unit weight,
cement content, water to cement ratio, etc.
 HMA air voids, binder content, unit weight, dynamic modulus, creep
compliance, IDT, etc.
Comparison between AASHTO and ME
AASHTO 1993 Mechanistic-Empirical
Basis Empirical observation from Theories of mechanics

the 1958-59 AASHO Road
Test
Original AASHO Road Test – Ottawa, SHRP test sections from

Calibration Illinois around the country
Traffic Equivalent Single Axle Load Axle load spectra

Characterization
Materials Inputs Very few Many
Climatic Effects Limited – can change inputs Integral – weather data from
based on season 600+ US weather stations
included
Performance Present Serviceability Index Various distresses, IRI
Parameter (International roughness
index)
Output Thickness Performance prediction

(distress prediction)
Rigid Pavement
 The rigid characteristic of the pavement is associated with rigidity or

flexural strength or slab action so the load is distributed over a wide area
of sub grade soil. Rigid pavement is laid in slabs with steel reinforcement.
 The rigid pavements are made of cement concrete either plain, reinforced
or pre stressed concrete.
 Critical condition of stress in the rigid pavement is the maximum flexural
stress occurring in the slab due to wheel load and the temperature
changes.
 Rigid pavement is designed and analyzed by using the elastic theory
Basic Structural Element of Rigid Pavement (Imp)
The typical rigid pavement structure consisting of:
 Surface course. This is the top layer, which consists of the PCC slab.
 Base course. This is the layer directly below the PCC layer and generally
consists of aggregate or stabilized subgrade.
 Subbase course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A
subbase is not always needed and therefore may often be omitted.
Surface course
1. The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and is made of
PCC.
2. It provides characteristics such as friction smoothness, noise control and
drainage.
3. It serves as a waterproofing layer to the underlying base, subbase and
subgrade.
4. The surface course can vary in thickness but is usually between 150 mm
(6 inches) (for light loading) and 300 mm (12 inches) (for heavy loads and
high traffic).
Base course
1. The base course is immediately beneath the surface course.

2. It provides
(1) Additional load distribution,
(2) contributes to drainage and frost resistance,
(3) uniform support to the pavement and
(4) a stable platform for construction equipment.
3. Bases also help prevent subgrade soil movement due to slab pumping.
4. Base courses are usually constructed out of:
a. Aggregate base.
b. Stabilized aggregate or soil
c. Dense-graded HMA.
d. Permeable HMA.
e. Lean concrete
Sub Base
1. The subbase course is the portion of the pavement structure between the
base course and the subgrade. It functions primarily as structural support
but it can also:
a. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement
structure.
b. Improve drainage.
c. Minimize frost action damage.
d. Provide a working platform for construction.
2. The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base
course but better than the subgrade soils. Appropriate materials are
aggregate and high quality structural fill. A subbase course is not always
needed or used.
Types of Rigid Pavements (VVI) (15, CT-16,17) Huang -15

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:
1. Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
2. Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
3. Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
4. Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement are plain cement concrete pavements

constructed with closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate
interlocks are normally used for load transfer across joints. They normally have
a joint spacing of 15 ft. to 30 ft.
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement Although reinforcements do not

improve the structural capacity significantly, they can drastically increase the
joint spacing to 30 to 100 ft. Dowel bars are required for load transfer.
Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even after cracks.
Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement Complete elimination of joints

are achieved by reinforcement.
Pre-stressed concrete pavement The pre-stressed concrete pavements have

less probability of cracking and fewer transverse joints and therefore result in
less maintenance and longer pavement life. Pre-stressed concrete has been
used more frequently for airport pavements than for highway pavements
because the saving in thickness for airport pavements is much greater than that
for highway pavements. Slab Length varied from 300 to 700 ft.
Where rigid pavements are warranted? (VVI) (CT-16)
1. Where extra performance (due to stationary/slow loading condition, stopping and

starting impact) is needed:
a. Junction
b. Bus pull-out/bay
c. Toll plaza
d. Level crossing.
e. Runway threshold/turning area
f. Taxiway
2. Road Narrow (Lane by-lane) / Remote area (Roller accessibility problem)
3. Channelized/guided Traffic
4. Inundation / Submersible potential
5. Heavy duty pavements (Sea Port and Airport)
Comparison between Flexible and Rigid Pavements (VVI) (CT-16,17)
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

Layer System
Consists of several layers: • Usually single layered
• Surface course • With Portland cement concrete
• Base course surface
• Sub-base course (may or may not) • Base course may or may not be
• Subgrade (compacted/improved soil) used
• Roadbed (natural soil)
Load carrying/distribution mechanism (15,Imp)
Each layer • A major portion of the load
• Carry a fraction of total load carried by the slab itself
• Distribute it gradually, due to aggregate • Distribute it over a relatively wide
interlocking/ frictions/ shearing, over a area of roadbed
wider area than the previous layer
• Finally over a wide area of roadbed and
thereby protect the roadbed being
overstressed
Aggregate Type
• Aggregated with high angularity are • Rounded aggregates may be used
required to ensure good interlock as they only fill the voids
Resistance/Stability
• Stability comes from aggregate • Bending (beam) action of concrete
interlocking, shearing slab
Modulus of Elasticity
 Each layer is flexible with low  Surface course is very rigid
modulus of elasticity with high modulus of elasticity
Design Concept (15,16,Imp)

 Factor considered in the design is  Factor considered here is the
the different layer system (each structural strength of the
layer must be capable of sustaining concrete.
the load intensity of that layer)  Minor variation in roadbed
 Minor variation in any layer strength strength has little influence
has pronounced influence upon upon the structural capability
riding quality of the pavement (due of the pavement.
to rutting).
 Since intensity of traffic load is
maximum at the surface highest
quality of material is used at or near
the surface
Main Modes of failure (Imp)
 Rutting  Fatigue
 Fatigue  Joint failure
 Shear  Temperature Cracks
Advantages
 Low initial involvement  Can deal with very heavy
 Offer stage construction traffic
 Easy to maintain / correct foundation  Very long life span
error  Require little maintenance
 Give smooth riding quality (in hilly  Give good light reflectance
area/rolling terrain it is the better quality
option  Provide pleasing appearance
 Offer high skid resistance  They perform quite
 Non-slippery even in wet condition satisfactory even when
 Produce low level of noise constructed on poor sub-
 Cutting/digging road side trench for grade
up-gradation of utility services is  Less susceptible to weather –
easier specially at submerged
 Can be open for traffic immediately condition
after construction  Heating of aggregates and
 Recycling is easier cement is not required
Disadvantages
 High maintenance cost  High initial cost (but low life-
 Susceptible to weather – bleeding at cycle cost)
high temperature cracking at low  Difficult to repair and correct
temperature and stripping under foundation error
submerged condition  Produce high noise due to
 Poor light reflectance quality wear and tear of vehicles
 Short life span  Up-gradation of different
 Suitable for roads in residential and underground utility services is
built-up areas very difficult
 Required uniform support  Stage construction is not
 Reflect the deformation of lower possible
layers  Cannot be reconstructed
 Performance is very sensitive to  At the end of pavement life,
surface as well as sub-surface crushing of the layer is
drainage condition required before laying of new
 Produce high built-up of bituminous surface course
superheated air layer above
pavement surface or high ambient  Before opening for traffic at
temperature least 28 days curing is
required
 After some time of use
surface becomes smooth and
slippery.
 Suitable for roads in open
areas where noise problem is
not a big issue & no need to
lay utility pipes.
Submerged Condition
 Water is enemy for bituminous  Ware course is water friendly
wearing course (stripping prob. (Concrete grains strength)
Quality Control Compliances
 Aggregate quality, gradation & layer  W/C control
compaction  Curing control
 Stringent requirement of
temperature control
Equipment Involvement
 High no. of equipment is needed  Involvement of equipment is
 Need involvement of heavy minimum
compaction equipment  For concreting work, no roller
 Need heating facility is needed
 Need professional contractor  For low standard road, no
need of involving professional
contractor.
Temperature (Imp)
 No stress is developed due to  Stress is produced due to
temperature in flexible pavement. temperature in rigid
pavement.
Economy (15,16,Imp)
 Construction cost less but  Construction cost high but
maintenance cost high maintenance cost less
More Comparison
1. Glare and night visibility (16,Imp)
Concrete is naturally brighter and more reflective than asphalt. This requires
less energy to illuminate comparable areas, which is good for the
environment. To overcome the lack of light reflectance, an asphalt pavement
requires either:
a. More street lights per km than a concrete pavement or

b. Higher watt light bulbs at the same light pole spacing as a used on a
concrete pavement.
2. Concrete Pavement provides fuel saving for heavy vehicles (Imp)
Heavy vehicles cause a greater deflection on flexible pavement than on rigid

pavements. This increased deflection of the pavement absorbs part of the
vehicle energy that would otherwise be available to propel the vehicle, thus, the
hypothesis can be made that more energy and therefore more fuel, is required
to drive on flexible pavements. Concrete’s rigid design reduces road deflection
and corresponding fuel consumption performance of heavy vehicles operating
on concrete and asphalt pavements shows that the savings in fuel consumption
for heavy vehicles travelling on concrete versus asphalt pavements was up to
20%.
3. Utility location (Imp)
For concrete pavement it is difficult to rip open the slab and restore it to the
original condition if any changes in the utility lines are to be made. For this
purpose, gaps are lift in the pavement in flexible pavement random cut in
pavement structure is possible. So for an unplanned and densely populated city
flexible pavement is preferable because utility cutting is very common feature
in these road areas.
4. Penetration of water
A cement concrete slab is practically impervious, except at joints. If joints are

sealed and well maintained, water will not penetrate and soften the subgrade.
A bituminous surface is not impervious. Water can find its way into the lower
layers through cracks and pores Such water can impair the stability of the
pavement.
5. Traffic dislocation
A cement concrete pavement requires 28 days before it can be thrown open

traffic. On the other hand, a bituminous surface can be thrown to open traffic
shortly after it is rolled. So from construction point of view concrete pavement
cause longer dislocation of traffic than flexible pavements. But maintenance
work needed for flexible pavement is very frequent than rigid pavement, which
causes small dislocation or disturbance of traffic very frequently over the life
time of flexible pavement.
6. Pavement Recycling (CT-17)
All pavements eventually have to be replaced. In case of concrete pavement

recycling, the recycled material is used as granular fill, base course for new
pavement or as aggregate to strengthen new concrete pavement. Asphalt
pavement can be recycled as “Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement” (RAP). RAP is
essentially old pavement that is reclaimed for use. In its most common form, it
is collected in loose granular form as a byproduct of pavement rehabilitation or
reconstruction (see Figures 1 and 2). RAP can be used in a variety of ways
such as:
• As an addition to regular HMA.

• As an aggregate in cold-mix asphalt.
• As a granular base course when pulverized.
• As a fill or embankment material.
7. Environmental Consideration (CT-17)
During construction of flexible pavement where bituminous layers are to be

provided, the process of heating of bitumen and aggregates and mixing the
together in hot-mix plants, can prove to be much more hazardous to the
environment than cement concrete construction where no heating of any
material is involved. Use of bitumen cutbacks can also prove to be
environmentally hazardous due to evaporation of volatile constituents into the
atmosphere. Concrete pavements are a key element of the “Cool Communities
Movement” concrete surfaces can be 300 F to 700 F cooler than asphalt
surfaces.
Concrete pavement is longer lasting and therefore environment friendly in a

sense that:
a. They don’t need to be rehabbed or reconstructed as often.
b. This means fewer raw materials are used both in the short term
and over the life of the pavement.
c. This also means fewer pollutants are going into our water air and
soil.
d. It also results in less energy begin used in construction equipment.
e. Longer lasting concrete helps reduce traffic congestion because
there are simply fewer construction work zones slowing traffic flow.
LEC 05-06
Pavement Design Requirement (Math)
Contact pressure (15)
The tyre pressure is an important factor, as it determines the contact area and
the contact pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even
though the shape of the contact area is elliptical, for sake of simplicity in
analysis, a circular area is often considered.
Problem
Axle configuration (Imp)
The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further enhanced by the
introduction of multiple axles
Equivalent Axle Load Factor
An equivalent axle load factor (EALF) defines the damage per pass to a
pavement by the axle in question relative to the damage per pass of a standard
axle load, usually the 18-kip (80-kN) single-axle load. The design is based on
the total number of passes of the standard axle load during the design period,
defined as the equivalent single-axle load (ESAL) and computed by
in which m is the number of axle load groups, Fi is the EALF for the ith -axle load
group, and ni is the number of passes of the ith-axle load group during the design
period. The EALF depends on the type of pavements, thickness or structural
capacity, and the terminal conditions at which the pavement is considered
failed. Most of the EALFs in use today are based on experience. One of the
most widely used methods i s based on the empirical equations developed from
the AASHO Road Test (AASHTO, 1972). The EALF can also be determined
theoretically based on the critical stresses and strains in the pavement and the
failure criteria. EALF can be determined from table 6.4 (Huang-259) or
Problem
LEC 07
Road Test (Math)
ASSHO Road Test
(Huang-19)
Objective (16)
The objective of this project was to determine any significant relationship

between the number of repetitions of specified axle loads of different
magnitudes and arrangements and the performance of different thicknesses of
flexible and rigid pavements. The test facility was constructed along the
alignment of Interstate 80 near Ottawa, Illinois, about 80 miles (128 km)
southwest of Chicago.
General Layout (15)
The test consisted of four large loops, numbered 3 through 6, and two smaller
loops, 1 and 2. Each loop was a segment of a four-lane divided highway whose
parallel roadways, or tangents, were connected by a turnaround at each end.
Tangent lengths were 6800 ft. (2070 m) in loops 3 through 6, 4400 ft. (1340 m)
in loop 2, and 2000 ft. (610 m) in loop 1. In all loops, the north tangents were
surfaced with HMA and south tangents with PCC. Centerlines divided the
pavements into inner and outer lanes, called lane 1 and lane 2. Each tangent
was constructed as a succession of pavement sections called structural
sections. Pavement designs varied from section to section. The minimum length
of a section was 100 ft (30 .5 m) in loops 2 through 6 and 15 ft. (4.6 m) in loop
1. Construction began in August 1956, and test traffic was inaugurated on
October 15, 1958. Test traffic was operated until November 30, 1960, at which
time 1,114,000 axle loads had been applied. The total cost of the project was
$27,000,000.
Time
 Construction: August 1956 - September 1958

 Test Traffic: October 1958 - November 1960
 Special Studies: Spring and early summer 1961
Test Facilities
 Six 2-lane test loops (see Figure 1)

 Loop 1 = not subject to traffic, used to test environmental effects
 Loops 2 through 6 = subject to traffic described in Figure 2
Figure 1: Loop 5 and 6 AASHO Road Test Layout (redrawn from Highway Research Board,
1961)
Major Findings (15,16)
One important contribution of the AASHO Road Test was the development of
the pavement serviceability concept together with the equations relating
serviceability, load, and thickness design of both flexible and rigid pavements.
Major findings for flexible and rigid pavements are summarized separately as
follows:
Flexible Pavements
1. The superiority of the four types are: bituminous treated, cement treated,
crushed stone, and gravel. Gravel base failed very early in the test, and
their performance was definitely inferior to that of the sections with
crushed-stone base.
2. The pavement needed to maintain a certain serviceability at a given
number of axle-load applications would be considerably thinner in the
inner than in the outer wheel path.
3. Rutting of the pavement was due principally to decrease in thickness of
the component layers. About 91% of the rutting occurred in the pavement
itself: 32% in the surface, 14% in the base, and 45% in the subbase.
Thus, only 9% of a surface rut could be accounted for by rutting of the
embankment.
4. More surface cracking occurred during periods when the pavement was
in a relatively cold state than during periods of warm weather.
5. The deflection occurring within the pavement structure (surface, base,
and subbase), as well as that at the top of the embankment soil, was
greater in the spring than during the succeeding summer months.
Rigid Pavements
1. Of the three design variables, viz. reinforcement or panel length, subbase

thickness, and slab thickness, only slab thickness has an appreciable
effect on measured strains.
2. Inspections of the pavements were made weekly and after each rain.
Faulting occasionally occurred at cracks, never at the transverse joints,
because all joints were doweled.
3. Pumping of subbase material, including the coarser fractions, was the
major factor causing failures of sections with subbase.
4. Twenty-four-hour studies of the effect of fluctuating air temperature
showed that the deflection of panel corners under vehicles traveling near
the pavement edge might increase several fold from afternoon to early
morning.
5. Corner deflections of a 40-ft (12 .2-m) reinforced panel usually exceeded
those of a 15-ft (4.6-m) no reinforced panel, if all other conditions were
the same. An increase in vehicle speed from 2 to 60 mph (3 .2 to 96 km/h)
resulted in a decrease in strain or deflection of about 29%.
Maryland Road Test
Objective (16)
The objective of this project was to determine the relative effects of four different
axle loadings on a particular concrete pavement (HRB, 1952). The tests were
conducted on a 1 .1-mile (1 .76-km) section of concrete pavement constructed
in 1941 on US 301 approximately 9 miles (14.4 km) south of La Plata, Maryland.
Major Findings (16)
1. Both the average cracking and the average settlement of slab at the joint
increased in this order: 18,000-lb (80-kN) single axle, 32,000-lb (142-kN)
tandem axle, 22,400-lb (100-kN) single axle, and 44,800-lb (200-kN)
tandem axle.
2. Pumping occurred on plastic clay soils but not on granular subgrades with
low percentages of silt and clay.
3. The failure of the slabs on the fine-grained soil can be explained by the fact
that the deflections of these slabs under all of the test loads were sufficient
to cause pumping when the other requisites for pumping were present. As
pumping developed, the deflections increased with corresponding more
rapid increase of stress to a magnitude sufficient to cause rupture of the
slab.
4. With the exception of the corner case of loading for pumping soils, the
stress and deflection resulting at vehicle speed of 40 mph (64 km/h)
averaged approximately 20% less than those at creep speed. For pumping
slabs under corner loading, the stresses averaged approximately the same
for both vehicle speeds.
5. The stresses and deflections caused by loads acting at the corners and
edges of slabs were influenced to a marked degree by temperature curling.
LEC 08-10
Stress and Strain (Math)
Flexible Pavement
Layered Elastic Systems (15)
The basic assumptions:
1. Each layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic with an elastic

modulus and µ.
2. The material is weightless.
3. Each layer has a finite thickness, except the lowest layer.
4. A uniform pressure is applied over a circular area.
5. Interface condition (continuity vs frictionless)
Fig: Flexible Pavement Model
Stresses and Strains in Flexible Pavements
1. Function of the following:

a. Material properties of each layer
b. Thickness of each layer
c. Loading conditions
2. Pavement responses generally of interest:
a. Surface deflection.
b. Horizontal tensile strains at bottom of AC layer.
c. Vertical compressive strain on top of intermediate layer (base or
subbase).
d. Vertical compressive strain on top of the subgrade.
Q: Compare between Boussinesq’s and Bermisters methods for analysis
of flexible pavement stress.
One-Layer System (Boussinesq) (13)
1. The original elastic theory published by Boussinesq in 1885.

2. For computing stresses and deflections in a half-space (soil) composed
of homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic material obeying Hooks
law.
3. The vertical stress under a load at any horizontal section decreases from
the maximum at the point located directly beneath the load to zero at a
very large distance from this point.
4. Still widely used in soil mechanics and foundation design.
Problem
Drawbacks of Boussinesq’s approach
1. The assumptions that soil is perfectly elastic and homogenous is not true.
Soil may be elastic up to a certain limit.
2. The pavement consists of a number of layers, each with its own modulus
of elasticity. Hence the assumption of one constant property for the entire
mass is not justified.
3. The assumption that the load is uniformly distributed may not be correct.
Stresses in layered systems: Burmister's theory (13)
1. Burmister extended the one-layer solutions to two and three layers in

1943.
2. Assumed layers have full frictional contact at the interface and m=0.5.
3. Equation and graphs are used to compute deflection.
4. In two layer, top layer of finite thickness and the bottom layer of semi-
infinite mass (Fig. 16.3). The top layer represents the surfacing, base and
sub-base whereas the bottom layer represents the sub grade soil
Deflection equations are:
Problem
(VVI Fig)
Problem (15,16)
Rigid Pavement
Location of the load with reference to the slab (VVI)
Three positions of loading are generally considered for estimating the stresses
in a slab in a conventional method of design. They are illustrated in Fig. 22.1.
Interior loading produces tensile stresses at the bottom of the slab. Edge
loading produces tensile stresses at the bottom of the slab parallel to the edge
and another smaller tensile stress at the top of the slab at right angles to the
edge. Corner loading produces tensile stresses at the top of the slab parallel to
the bisector of the corer angle.
Temperature changes (Imp)
Changes in temperature affect the stresses in the slab in two ways:
1. Changes in the temperature gradient through the slab will cause differential
expansion or contraction between the top and bottom of the slab. The slab
then tends to warp, but is prevented from warping due to the slab weight
and friction at load transferring devices. Stresses are induced due to such
restraint.
2. The expansion or contraction of the slab due to temperature changes is
restrained due to the friction between the subgrade and the slab. This
causes stresses in the slab.
Assumptions of Westgerd in Analysis of Stresses (15,16)
1. The concrete slab is homogeneous and isotropic and has uniform elastic
properties.
2. The reaction of the subgrade is vertical only and is proportional to the
deflection of the slab. In other words, the support provided by the subgrade
is similar to that given by a dense fluid and the subgrade has no shear
strength (Fig. 22.2).
3. The reaction of the subgrade at a point is equal to K x Deflection at that
point, the constant K being the Modulus of Subgrade Reaction.
4. The slab is uniform in thickness.
5. The load in the interior and the corner is circular in shape, positioned as
indicated in Fig. 22.1. The edge loading is semi-circular as in Fig. 22.1.
These equations (22.2-22.8 will be given in exam, know the notations only)
Problem
Critical combination of stresses (15,16)
The three conditions of loading are first analyzed for wheel load stresses. The
maximum wheel load stress occurs in the corner and the minimum occurs in the
interior. The edge load condition gives an intermediate value. The temperature
stress is critical at the edge and the interior, and is minimum at the corner. Thus,
the combination of wheel load and temperature can be critical at the edge. The
total stress by this combination should be checked with the stress at the corner
due to wheel loads.
LEC 11
Joints
Why joints are Needed? (15)
Several stresses produced in concrete due to:
1. Contraction for uniform temp drop or decrease in moisture.

2. Expansion due to uniform temp increase
3. Warping of pavement due to vertical temp and moisture differential in
Slab
Joints are provided to control such stresses, so that premature cracks due to
moisture/temp change will not occur.
Requirements of Joints (16)
1. Joints must permit movement of the slabs without restraint.

2. The joints should not unduly weaken the slab structurally and load should
be transformed from one slab to another effectively.
3. The joints must be sealed properly to exclude water grit and other
external matter.
4. The riding quality of the pavement should not be impaired.
5. The construction of joints must interfere as little as possible with laying of
the concrete.
Types of Joint
1. Contraction Joint
2. Expansion Joint
3. Isolation Joint
4. Construction Joint
Contraction Joint
1. A construction joint is a joint between slabs that results when concrete is

placed at different times. Mainly used to relieve the tensile stresses.
2. This type of joint can be further broken down into transverse and
longitudinal construction joints.
3. Longitudinal construction joints also allow slab warping without
appreciable separation or cracking of the slabs.
4. A contraction joint is a sawed, formed, or tooled groove in a concrete slab
that creates a weakened vertical plane.
5. It regulates the location of the cracking caused by dimensional changes
in the slab.
6. Unregulated cracks can grow and result in an unacceptably rough surface
as well as water infiltration into the base, subbase and subgrade, which
can enable other types of pavement distress.
7. Contraction joints are the most common type of joint in concrete
pavements.
Joint Spacing and Load Transfer of Contraction Joint (15)
1. They are generally between 1/4–1/3 the depth of the slab and typically
spaced every 3.1–15 m (12 – 50 ft.)
2. As a rough guide, the joint spacing in feet for plain concrete pavements
should not greatly exceed twice the slab thickness in inches.
3. For example, the maximum joint spacing for an 8-in. (203-mm) slab is 16
ft. Also, as a general guideline, the ratio of slab width to length should not
exceed 1 .25
Fig
Advantage of skewed Contraction Joint (16)
1. Transverse contraction joints can be cut at right angles to the direction of

traffic flow or at an angle (called a “skewed joint”). Skewed joints are cut
at obtuse angles to the direction of traffic flow to help with load transfer.
2. If the joint is properly skewed, the left wheel of each axle will cross onto
the leave slab first and only one wheel will cross the joint at a time, which
results in lower load transfer stresses and no stress concentration.
Expansion Joint, why it is not used and How it is compensated (VVI)
1. Expansion joints are transverse joints for the relief of compressive stress
that develop when concrete expands by providing space for movement.
2. Because expansion joints are difficult to maintain and susceptible to
pumping, they are no longer in use today.
3. Also their progressive closure tends to cause contraction joints to
progressively open.
4. Contraction joint openings cause a loss of load transfer particularly joints
without dowel bars.
5. Their use is compensated by using contraction joint and using isolation
joint in bridges.
Isolation Joint (16)
1. An isolation joint is used to lessen compressive stresses that develop at

T- and unsymmetrical intersections, ramps, bridges, building foundations,
drainage inlets, manholes, and anywhere differential movement between
the pavement and a structure (or another existing pavement) may take
place.
2. They are typically filled with a joint filler material to prevent water and dirt
infiltration.
Difference between dowel bar and tie bars (VVI)
Dowel Bar Tie Bar

Short steel bars that provide a Deformed rebars/steel bars or
mechanical connection between slabs connectors used for holding faces of
without restricting horizontal joint rigid slabs in contact to maintain
movement aggregate interlock
They increase load transfer efficiency by Although they may provide some
allowing the leave slab to assume some minimal amount of load transfer, they are
of the load before the load is actually not designed to act as load transfer
over it devices and should not be used as such
Typically used between transverse slab. Typically used at longitudinal joints (see
This reduces joint deflection and stress Figure 2.37) or between an edge joint
in the approach and leave slabs. and a curb or shoulder
Dowel bars are typically 1.25 to 1.5 Typically, tie bars are about 0.5 inches in
inches in diameter 18 inches long and diameter and between 24 and 40 inches
spaced 12 inches apart. Thumb rule long.
diameter of dowel be equal to 1/8 of slab
thickness.
LEC 13
Pavement Distress
Flexible Pavement Distress
Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking (15)
Description: Series of interconnected cracks caused by fatigue failure of the

HMA surface (or stabilized base) under repeated traffic loading. In thin
pavements, cracking initiates at the bottom of the HMA layer where the tensile
stress is the highest then propagates to the surface as one or more longitudinal
cracks. This is commonly referred to as "bottom-up" or "classical" fatigue
cracking. In thick pavements, the cracks most likely initiate from the top in areas
of high localized tensile stresses resulting from tire-pavement interaction and
asphalt binder aging (top-down cracking). After repeated loading, the
longitudinal cracks connect forming many-sided sharp-angled pieces that
develop into a pattern resembling the back of an alligator or crocodile.
Problem: Indicator of structural failure, cracks allow moisture infiltration,

roughness, may further deteriorate to a pothole.
Possible Causes: Inadequate structural support, which can be caused by a

myriad of things. A few of the more common ones are listed here:
1. Decrease in pavement load supporting characteristics
a. Loss of base, subbase or subgrade support (e.g., poor drainage or
spring thaw resulting in a less stiff base).
b. Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer (the stripped portion
contributes little to pavement strength so the effective HMA thickness
decreases)
2. Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier loads than anticipated in
design)
3. Inadequate structural design
4. Poor construction (e.g., inadequate compaction)
Repair: A fatigue cracked pavement should be investigated to determine the
root cause of failure. Any investigation should involve digging a pit or coring
the pavement to determine the pavement's structural makeup as well as
determining whether or not subsurface moisture is a contributing factor. Once
the characteristic alligator pattern is apparent, repair by crack sealing is
generally ineffective. Fatigue crack repair generally falls into one of two
categories:
1. Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of subgrade support.
Remove the cracked pavement area then dig out and replace the area of
poor subgrade and improve the drainage of that area if necessary. Patch
over the repaired subgrade.
2. Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general structural failure. Place
an HMA overlay over the entire pavement surface. This overlay must be
strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated loading because the
underlying fatigue cracked pavement most likely contributes little or no
strength.
Bleeding (15,16)
Description: A film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface. It usually

creates a shiny, glass-like reflecting surface (as in the third photo) that can
become quite sticky.
Problem: Loss of skid resistance when wet
Possible Causes: Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the aggregate
voids during hot weather and then expands onto the pavement surface. Since
bleeding is not reversible during cold weather, asphalt binder will accumulate
on the pavement surface over time. This can be caused by one or a combination
of the following:
1. Excessive asphalt binder in the HMA (either due to mix design or
manufacturing)
2. Excessive application of asphalt binder during BST application (as in the
above figures)
3. Low HMA air void content (e.g., not enough room for the asphalt to
expand into during hot weather)
Repair: The following repair measures may eliminate or reduce the asphalt
binder film on the pavement's surface but may not correct the underlying
problem that caused the bleeding:
1. Minor bleeding can often be corrected by applying coarse sand to blot up
the excess asphalt binder.
2. Major bleeding can be corrected by cutting off excess asphalt with a
motor grader or removing it with a heater planer. If the resulting surface
is excessively rough, resurfacing may be necessary (APAI, no date
given).
Patching
Description: An area of pavement that has been replaced with new material to
repair the existing pavement. A patch is considered a defect no matter how well
it performs.
Problem: Roughness.
Possible Causes:
1. Previous localized pavement deterioration that has been removed and
patched.
2. Utility cuts.
Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action. The only way they can be
removed from a pavement's surface is by either a structural or non-structural
overlay.
Potholes (13,16)
Description: Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface that

penetrate all the way through the HMA layer down to the base course. They
generally have sharp edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole. Potholes
are most likely to occur on roads with thin HMA surfaces (25 to 50 mm (1 to 2
inches)) and seldom occur on roads with 100 mm (4 inch) or deeper HMA
surfaces.
Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular damage can result from driving across
potholes at higher speeds), moisture infiltration
Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are the end result of alligator cracking.
As alligator cracking becomes severe, the interconnected cracks create small
chunks of pavement, which can be dislodged as vehicles drive over them. The
remaining hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged is called a pothole.
Repair: In accordance with patching techniques.
Raveling (13,16)
Description: The progressive disintegration of an HMA layer from the surface

downward as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate particles.
Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, water collecting in the
raveled locations resulting in vehicle hydroplaning, loss of skid resistance.
Possible Causes: Several including:

1. Loss of bond between aggregate particles and the asphalt binder as a
result of:
a. A dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the asphalt
binder to bond with the dust rather than the aggregate.
b. Aggregate Segregation. If fine particles are missing from the
aggregate matrix, then the asphalt binder is only able to bind the
remaining coarse particles at their relatively few contact points.
c. Inadequate compaction during construction. High density is
required to develop sufficient cohesion within the HMA. The third
figure above shows a road suffering from raveling due to
inadequate compaction caused by cold weather paving.
2. Mechanical dislodging by certain types of traffic (studded tires, snowplow
blades or tracked vehicles).
Repair: A raveled pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause

of failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two categories:
1. Small, localized areas of raveling. Remove the raveled pavement and
patch.
2. Large raveled areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the
damaged pavement and overlay.
Rutting (13,16)
Description: Surface depression in the wheel path. Pavement uplift (shearing)

may occur along the sides of the rut. Ruts are particularly evident after a rain
when they are filled with water. There are two basic types of rutting: mix rutting
and subgrade rutting. Mix rutting occurs when the subgrade does not rut yet the
pavement surface exhibits wheel path depressions as a result of compaction/mix
design problems. Subgrade rutting occurs when the subgrade exhibits wheel
path depressions due to loading. In this case, the pavement settles into the
subgrade ruts causing surface depressions in the wheel path.
Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle hydroplaning, can be
hazardous because ruts tend to pull a vehicle towards the rut path as it is steered
across the rut.
Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any of a pavement's layers or

subgrade usually caused by consolidation or lateral movement of the materials
due to traffic loading. Specific causes of rutting can be:
1. Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during construction. If it is not
compacted enough initially, HMA pavement may continue to densify under
traffic loads.
2. Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of inadequate pavement structure).
3. Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g., excessively high asphalt
content, excessive mineral filler, insufficient amount of angular aggregate
particles).
Ruts caused by studded tire wear present the same problem as the ruts
described here, but they are actually a result of mechanical dislodging due to
wear and not pavement deformation.
Repair: A heavily rutted pavement should be investigated to determine the root

cause of failure (e.g. insufficient compaction, subgrade rutting, poor mix design
or studded tire wear). Slight ruts (< 1/3 inch deep) can generally be left
untreated. Pavement with deeper ruts should be leveled and overlaid.
Blowup (Buckling) (13)
Description: A localized upward slab movement and shattering at a joint or

crack. Usually occurs in spring or summer and is the result of insufficient room
for slab expansion during hot weather.
Problem: Roughness, moisture infiltration, in extreme cases (as in the second
photo) can pose a safety hazard.
Possible Causes: During cold periods (e.g., winter) PCC slabs contract leaving
wider joint openings. If these openings become filled with incompressible
material (such as rocks or soil), subsequent PCC slab expansion during hot
periods (e.g., spring, summer) may cause high compressive stresses. If these
stresses are great enough, the slabs may buckle and shatter to relieve the
stresses. Blowup can be accelerated by:
1. Joint spalling (reduces slab contact area and provides incompressible
material to fill the joint/crack)
2. D cracking (weakens the slab near the joint/crack area)
3. Freeze-thaw damage (weakens the slab near the joint/crack area)
Repair: Full-depth patch.
Spalling (15)
Description: Cracking, breaking or chipping of joint/crack edges. Usually

occurs within about 0.6 m (2 ft.) of joint/crack edge.
Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, generally an indicator of

advanced joint/crack deterioration.
Possible Causes: Possible causes are (AASHTO, 1993):

1. Excessive stresses at the joint/crack caused by infiltration of
incompressible materials and subsequent expansion (can also cause
blowups).
2. Disintegration of the PCC from freeze-thaw action or "D" cracking.
3. Weak PCC at a joint caused by inadequate consolidation during
construction. This can sometimes occur at a construction joint if (1) low
quality PCC is used to fill in the last bit of slab volume or (2) dowels are
improperly inserted.
4. Misalignment or corroded dowel.
5. Heavy traffic loading.
Repair: Spalling less than 75 mm (3 inches) from the crack face can generally
be repaired with a partial-depth patch. Spalling greater than about 75 mm (3
inches) from the crack face may indicated possible spalling at the joint bottom
and should be repaired with a full-depth patch.
Pumping (15,16)
Description: Movement of material underneath the slab or ejection of material

from underneath the slab as a result of water pressure. Water accumulated
underneath a PCC slab will pressurize when the slab deflects under load. This
pressurized water can do one of the following:
1. Move about under the slab.
2. Move from underneath one slab to underneath an adjacent slab. This
type of movement leads to faulting.
3. Move out from underneath the slab to the pavement surface. This results
in a slow removal of base, subbase and/or subgrade material from
underneath the slab resulting in decreased structural support.
Problem: Decreased structural support of the slab, which can lead to linear
cracking, corner breaks and faulting.
Possible Causes: Water accumulation underneath the slab. This can be

caused by such things as: a high water table, poor drainage, and panel cracks
or poor joint seals that allow water to infiltrate the underlying material.
Repair: First, the pumping area should be repaired with a full depth patch to
remove any deteriorated slab areas. Second, consideration should be given to
using dowel bars to increase load transfer across any significant transverse
joints created by the repair. Third, consideration should be given to stabilizing
any slabs adjacent to the pumping area as significant amounts of their
underlying base, subbase or subgrade may have been removed by the pumping.
Finally, the source of water or cause of poor drainage should be addressed.
LEC 15-17
Design of Flexible Pavement (Math)
Asphalt Institute Method
Design Criteria by Asphalt Institute Method (AI) (16) (Imp)
Two types of strains have frequently been considered the most critical for the
design of asphalt pavements. One is the horizontal tensile strain 𝜖𝑡 at the bottom
of the asphalt layer, which causes fatigue cracking ; the other is the vertical
compressive strain 𝜖𝑐 on the surface of the subgrade, which causes permanent
deformation or rutting . These two strains are used as failure criteria in the
Asphalt Institute method.
Pic
1. Fatigue Criterion. For a standard mix with an asphalt volume (Vb) of 11%
and an air void volume (Va) of 5%, the equation is
in which 𝑁𝑓 is the allowable number of load repetitions to control fatigue

cracking and |E*| is the dynamic modulus of the asphalt mixture. If the asphalt
or air void volume is different from 11 or 5%, a correction factor C, shown must
be applied. However, Eq. 7.38, based on the standard mix, was used to develop
the design charts. Eq 7.38 would result in fatigue cracking of 20% of the total
area, as observed on selected sections of the AASHO Road Test (AI, 1982).
2. Permanent Deformation Criterion The allowable number of load
repetitions to control permanent deformation can be expressed as
Equation 11.22 was used to develop the design charts. As long as good
compaction of the pavement components is obtained and the asphalt mix is well
designed, the use of Eq. 11.22 should not result in rutting greater than 0.5 in.
(12.7 mm) for the design traffic.
Material Characterization
1. Poisson ratios can be reasonably assumed as 0.45 for subgrade soils and
0.35 for all other materials.
2. Resilient Modulus The resilient modulus (𝑀𝑅 ) used in this design
procedure is the normal resilient modulus, which is not representative of
times when the subgrade is freezing or thawing. At least six to eight test
values are usually used to determine the design subgrade resilient modulus.
The design subgrade resilient modulus is defined as the modulus value that
is smaller than 60, 75, or 87 .5% of all the test values. Lower design 𝑀𝑅 is
assigned when higher traffic level exists to ensure a conservative design
Other relations when direct test results are not available: For most fine-
grained soil or for materials with MR less than 210 MPa (30ksi)
Problem
Emulsified Asphalt Mixtures It is permissible to use emulsified asphalt
mixtures for base courses. Depending on aggregate types, three types of mixes
are specified:
1. Type I: Mixes with processed dense graded aggregates, which should be

mixed in a plant and have properties similar to HMA.
2. Type II: Mixes with semi processed, crusher run, pit run, or bank run
aggregates.
3. Type III: mixes with sands or silty sands.
Environmental Effect (VVI)
In addition to the effect of monthly temperature changes throughout the year on

the stiffness moduli of HMA and emulsified asphalt mixtures, the design charts
also take into consideration the effect of freezing and thawing on the resilient
modulus of the subgrade and granular materials. This was accomplished by
using an increased modulus to represent the freezing period and a reduced
modulus to represent the thaw period. These adjustments are needed for
regions with a MAAT (Mean Annual Air Temperature) of 45°F (7°C) or 60° F
(15.5°C) but not for those of 75°F (24°C)
Environmental Condition on Subgrade Materials
Problem
Problem
AI Procedure Design Flowchart (15)
Advantages of AI Procedure (15)
1. Mechanistic based approach

2. Direct consideration of fatigue and rutting
3. Simple to use
4. Only three inputs-ESALs, MR, and MAAT
Limitations of AI Procedure (15)
1. No direct consideration of environmental effects. No seasonal variation

in moisture.
2. Too broad temperature
3. Relies heavily on many empirical inputs
a. ESALs
b. Empirical stress/strain criteria
c. Assumptions of AC layers as layered elastic system.
AASHTO Design Procedure
Design Equation
AASHTO ’93 Flexible Pavement Design Variables
1. Time (Design Life)

2. Traffic (Total Design Life ESAL)
3. Reliability (“Safety Factor”) (15,16)
4. Serviceability (∆PSI) (15)
5. Soil Resilient Modulus (Seasonal Variation)
6. Structure Number (SN) (16)
Time (Design Life) (15) (CT)
1. Performance Period
a. Period of time that the initial pavement structure will last before it
requires rehabilitation.
b. Pavement deteriorates from the initial serviceability to the terminal
serviceability.
c. Designer or Government Agency selects the duration (typically 20
years).
2. Analysis Period
a. Time period that any design strategy must cover.
b. Can be equal to or greater than performance period.
c. Include the initial pavement service life plus one rehabilitation (Table
11.13). Usually maximum 50 years.
Reliability (“Safety Factor”) (16)
1. Incorporates some degree of certainty into the design process to ensure

that the various design alternatives will last the analysis period.
2. Suggested Standard Deviation (S0) is 0.44 for flexible pavements when

the variance of future traffic is considered, and 0.49 when the variance of
future traffic is not considered.
Serviceability (∆PSI) (15)
1. PSI or Present Serviceability Index – describing physical characteristics of
pavements which can be measured objectively and then related to subjective
evaluations of comfort (roughness, cracking, patching, rut depth)
2. ∆PSI=PSIi – PSIt
 PSIi: initial serviceability (immediately after construction) ~4.2
 PSIt: terminal serviceability (lowest acceptable level before remedial
action must be taken) dependent on roadway classification, typically
2.5 for highway
3. ∆PSI = ƒ (traffic, environment)
Loss of Serviceability
1. The total loss of serviceability can be computed with the following equation:
∆PSI = ∆PSI traffic + ∆PSI swell/frost heave
Where,
∆PSI = total loss in serviceability
∆PSI traffic = serviceability loss due to ESALs
∆PSI swell/frost heave = serviceability loss due to swelling and/or frost

heave of roadbed soil
2. The effects of frost heave and swelling can be reduced by replacement or

treatment of soil.
Soil Resilient Modulus (Seasonal Variation)
The effective roadbed soil resilient modulus is an equivalent modulus that would
result in the same damage if seasonal modulus values were actually used.
Structural Number (SN) (15)
Structural number is a function of layer thicknesses, layer coefficients, and

drainage coefficients and can be computed by
Where:
ai = Layer Coefficients
mi = Drainage Coefficients
Di = Minimum Layer Thicknesses
 Design: use design SN number to calculate minimum layer thickness Di
 Solution not unique – cost analysis, construction consideration
Figure 11.25
Layer Coefficients (ai)
1. Relative ability of a unit thickness of a given material to function as a

structural component in a pavement.
2. It represents the relative performance of different materials as pavement
layers
 Asphalt Concrete Surface Course: a1 = 0.44
 Untreated and Stabilized Base Courses: a2 = 0.249(log E2) – 0.977
 Granular Subbase Course: a3 = 0.227(log E3) – 0.839
where: Ei = K1 θK2
Drainage Coefficients (mi)

1. The layer coefficients of granular base and subbase layer need to be
modified based on the quality of drainage and the availability of moisture
2. Determined according to
a. The length of time for water to be removed from bases and subbases
and depends primarily on their permeability
b. The percentage of time pavement structure is exposed to moisture levels
approaching saturation
(Take median value from chart)
Minimum Layer Thicknesses (Di)
Advantages of AASHTO Procedure
1. Straight forward.
2. Inclusion of reliability and standard deviation.
3. Can be applied to a variety of traffic, climate, material condition.
Limitations of AASHTO Procedure
1. Empirical-developed to specific condition over a short period of time.

2. The use of effective resilient modulus and layer coefficient concept.
3. ESAL (LEF): based on limited inspection.
4. Limited materials and subgrade.
LEC 18-19
RHD Design (Math)
International method which form the basis of RHD Design guide (13)
This RHD Pavement Design Guide has been prepared based on two
internationally recognized design standards, namely the AASHTO Pavement
Design Manual and the TRL Overseas Road Note 31, with a view to making
the design of road pavements as straightforward as possible and to ensure that
the same standards are adopted for all RHD roads.
Elucidate Following as per RHD (16)
1. Base Year Traffic Counts
For both the geometric and pavement design of new roads, or the upgrading /
widening of existing roads, traffic counts must be undertaken to establish the
current Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) on the road. At least one whole
day (24 hour) traffic count in both directions of flow should be undertaken on a
typical weekday for sections of the road having more or less the same traffic
volumes.
For geometric design purposes the forecast traffic demand for the road
in the design year should be estimated expressed in passenger car units
(PCUs). This determines the required capacity or width of the road and details
of this design procedure are contained in the RI-ID Geometric Design Manual.
For the design of road pavements, a different approach is adopted in that
an estimate must be made of the cumulative number of heavy axle loads that
the road pavement will be subjected to over its design life. In this cars,
rickshaws and other light traffic may be ignored with only trucks and other
commercial vehicles being considered.
For single carriageway roads the average truck and commercial vehicle
flow in both directions is adopted for design purposes i.e. 0.5 x the sum of both
directions. For dual carriageways, where trucks may be more heavily loaded in
one direction than the other, the' pavement for each carriageway should be
subject to a separate design based on the forecast commercial traffic for that
carriageway (heaviest loaded lane).
2. Design Life and Traffic Growth Rates
For new roads and the full depth reconstruction of existing roads the following
design standards are to be adopted:
Pavement Design Traffic Growth Rate
Life
National Road 20 years 10% pa
Regional 20 years 7% pa
Road
Table 2: Pavement Design Life and Traffic Growth Rates
Where a new or reconstructed road is likely to lead to a significant generation

or diversion of traffic, detailed traffic studies should be undertaken to estimate
the additional traffic that will use the road in addition to the estimated base flow.
3. Determining Cumulative ESAs Over the Pavement Design Life
For pavement design purposes all heavy commercial vehicles are expressed
in terms of the equivalent number of standard axles that they represent. A
Standard Axle is taken to be 8,160 kg. Based on axle load studies previously
undertaken in Bangladesh, the following equivalence factors have been
determined:
Vehicle Category Equivalence Factor
Large Truck (dual axle) 4.8
Medium Truck (Single axle) 4.62
Small Truck 1.0
Large Bus 1.0
Mini Bus 0.5
Table 3: Vehicle Equivalence Factors
Using the recorded (or estimated) AADT for the above vehicle categories
together with their equivalence factors, estimates should be made of the current
daily ESAs for the road. This should then be multiplied by 365 to obtain the
annual ESAs for the road.
To obtain the cumulative ESA loading over the design life of the road, the
current annual ESA loading should be multiplied by one of the following factors:
The above factors have been derived from the following compound growth
formula:
The above factors have been derived from the following compound growth
formula:
(Note: For National Roads r = 10% and n = 20 years; For Regional Roads r=7%
and n = 20 years)
4. Determination of Improved Sub-Grade Thickness.
Q: In Bangladesh how the low CBR Problem is assessed? (13,16)
It can be seen from the foregoing design chart that it assumes a minimum sub-
grade strength pf 5% CBR. In Bangladesh, apart from higher ground within the
Chittagong Hill Tracts where in situ CBRs will be higher, most roads are
constructed on embankments that will have a CBR of less than 5%. Under
these circumstances an improved sub-grade layer should be provided as
follows:
CBR Compacted Thickness of additional layer to provide required CBR

Required CBR of Underlying layer
2% 3% 4% 5%
5% 250 mm 150 mm 100 mm
Table 6: Improved Sub-Grade Requirements
In all cases, sub-grade material with a CBR of less than 2% should be removed
and replaced with fill material complying with Section 2.6 of the RHD
Specification.
Freeboard Requirement for RHD Design/ How the effect of flood is

considered by RHD Design (Imp,16)
In a flood prone country like Bangladesh, keeping the important highways

above submergence level is essential. Yet the need for economy (avoiding
over-design) cannot be over emphasized. Therefore, the road level must be
judiciously fixed looking at the frequency of disruption as predicted from return
periods of flood i.e. HFL (high flood level) for 20-yr and 50-yr return periods.
Broadly, the freeboards for National and Regional Highways should be:
1. 1m to 1.2m above 50-year HFL measured from the HFL to the road top
at embankment edge
2. 0.30 m above 50-year HFL measured from HFL to top of subgrade
(bottom of pavement)
3. 1.5 m above ponding level measured from stagnant water level to top of
subgrade (to avoid saturation of subgrade owing to capillary action).
4. Highest level calculated from the above three criteria shall be applicable.
In case of Zila roads 20-year I-IFL may be considered.
The embankment height for important new roads such as bypasses must be
designed strictly in accordance with these freeboard guidelines. For upgrading
existing roads, especially in built-up areas, the freeboard may have to be
reduced for other considerations.
Problems associated with Road Infrastructures Development in

Bangladesh
1. Cost of highway construction is very high due to:

a. 75% area is at or near flood level: need high embankment or wide
r.o.w.
b. Comprises unconsolidated alluvial deposit i.e. poor foundation
condition.
c. Riverine topography: need high density of suspended structures.
d. Scarcity of high quality construction materials (natural aggregates,
bitumen etc.)
2. Highway maintenance is also very expensive due to:
a. A Recurrent flood caused by Heavy rainfall and siltation problem.
b. A Prolonged food/submergence due to construction of high
embankments in the E-W direction without adequate drainage
facilities which prevents natural flow of runoff.
3. Other Problems
a. Overloading.
b. Short construction periods.
c. Lack of funds for timely maintenance of infrastructures.
Problem (15)
LEC 20-22
Rigid Pavement (Math)
AASHTO Rigid Pavement Design
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
The property of roadbed soil to be used for rigid pavement design is the modulus
of subgrade reaction k, rather than the resilient modulus MR. It is therefore
necessary to convert MR to k. As with MR, the values of k also vary with the
season of the year, and the relative damage caused by the change of k needs
to be evaluated.
 Without Subbase
If the slab is placed directly on the subgrade without a sub - base, AASHTO
suggested the use of the following theoretical relationship based on an analysis
of a plate-bearing test:
Here, k is in pci and MR is in psi.
 Without Subbase
If a subbase exists between the slab and the subgrade the composite modulus
of subgrade reaction can be determined from fig 12.8. The modulus is based
on subgrade of infinite depth and is denoted by k∞
 Rigid Foundation at Shallow Depth
Equation 12.22 and Figure 12.18 are based on a subgrade of infinite depth. If
a rigid foundation lies below the subgrade and the subgrade depth to rigid
foundation DSG is smaller than 10 ft (3 m), then the modulus of subgrade
reaction must be modified by the chart shown in Figure 12 .19. The chart can
be applied to slabs either with or without a subbase.
Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
The effective modulus of subgrade reaction is an equivalent modulus that would

result in the same damage if seasonal modulus values were used throughout
the year. The equation for evaluating the relative damage (12.30) and the
method for computing the effective k are discussed next.
-----------------------------Equation -12.30
Computation
Table 12.17 shows the computation of the effective modulus of subgrade

reaction for a slab thickness of 9 in. (229 mm). It is assumed that the slab is
placed directly on a subgrade having the monthly resilient moduli shown in the
table .
Explanation of Columns in Table 12 .1 7
1. Each year is divided into 12 months, each with a different subgrade

modulus.
2. The roadbed resilient moduli are the same as those used in the DAMA
program for a MAAT of 60°F (15 .5°C) and a normal modulus of 4500 psi
(31 MPa), as shown in Table 11 .10. The maximum modulus is 50,000
psi (345 MPa) and occurs in March when the subgrade is frozen.
3. The k values are obtained from Eq . 12.22. Because no corrections for
rigid foundation are needed, these k values can be used for computing
relative damage.
4. The relative damage can be obtained from Eq . 12.30 or Figure 12.20.
The sum of relative damage is 988.7 and the average over the 12 months
is 82 .4, which is equivalent to an effective modulus of 263 pci (71.4
MN/M3).
Loss of Subgrade Support
To account for the potential loss of support by foundation erosion or differential

vertical soil movements, the effective modulus of subgrade reaction must be
reduced by a factor, LS. Figure 12.21 shows a chart for correcting the effective
modulus of subgrade reaction due to the loss of foundation support. For
example, if the effective modulus of subgrade reaction for full contact, LS = 0,
is 540 pci (147 MN/m3), the effective modulus of subgrade reaction for partial
contact with LS = 1 is 170 pci (46 MN/m 3). Figure 12.21 was developed by
computing the maximum principal stress under a single-axle load for four
different contact conditions with LS = 0, 1, 2, and 3. The best case is LS = 0,
when the slab and foundation are assumed to be in full contact. The worst case
is LS = 3, when an area of slab, 9 ft (2 .7 m) long and 7 .25 ft (2.2 m) wide along
the pavement edge, is assumed not to be in contact with the subgrade. The
area assumed not to be in contact for LS = 2 is smaller than that for LS = 3 but
greater than that for LS = 1.
Thickness Design
Problem-1 (VVI, 2016)
Problem-2
PCA Rigid Pavement Design
Design Criteria of Portland Cement Association (13,16)
1. Fatigue Analysis
Edge loads produce the worst stresses. Fatigue based on tensile stress
due to edge loads. Fatigue analysis is based on the edge stress midway
between the transverse joints, with the most critical loading position being
shown in Figure 12.9 Because the load is near the mid slab far away from the
joints, the presence of the joints has practically no effect on the edge stress.
When a concrete shoulder is tied onto the mainline pavement, the magnitude
of the critical stress is reduced considerably. The cumulative damage concept,
is used for fatigue analysis.
in which Dr is the damage ratio accumulated over the design period due to all
load groups.
2. Erosion Analysis
Corner loads produce the worst deflections. Erosion based on deflections

due to corner loads. Pavement distresses such as pumping, erosion of
foundation, and joint faulting are related more to pavement deflections than to
flexural stresses. The most critical pavement deflection occurs at the slab
corner when an axle load is placed at the joint near the corner, as shown in
Figure 12.11. The equation for erosion damage is:
in which C2 = 0.06 for pavements without concrete shoulders and 0 .94 for
pavements with tied concrete shoulders. With a concrete shoulder, the corner
deflection is not significantly affected by the truck load placement, so a large
C2 should be used. The percent erosion damage should be less than 100%.
Damage Analysis (Memorize the eqn)
Damage is based on fatigue cracking only. For fatigue cracking damage ratio
accumulated over the design period due to all load group is
If Dr <1 then load is less than allowable. The allowable number of repetitions
can be expressed as
in which Nf is the allowable number of repetitions, o is the flexural stress in

slab, and Sc is the modulus of rupture of concrete. The following fatigue
equations are recommended by the PCA:
Problem (15)
Simplified Design Procedure (13) (H-562)
Comparison between AASHTO and PCA method of Rigid Pavement
Design Procedure (15)
AASHTO PCA
Based on reliability, using mean Does not consider reliability, but
values for all variables incorporates load safety factors an d
more conservative material
properties
Based on the equivalent 18-kip (80- Considers both fatigue cracking and
kN) single-axle load applications and foundation erosion, using actual
does not distinguish the type of single- and tandem-axle loads .
distress
Following parameter values are A load safety factor of 1 .2 and the
assumed: : same Sc of 650 psi and k of 100 pci
reliability R = 95%, standard deviation are assumed.
So = 0.35, serviceability loss ∆PSI =
2.0 (pt = 2.5), drainage coefficient Cd
= 1 .0, load transfer coefficient J = 3.2
without concrete shoulders and 2.5
with concrete shoulders, concrete
modulus of rupture Sc = 650 psi and
modulus of subgrade reaction k = 100
pci.
The use of the AASHTO equation for The ESAL obtained by the PCA
thin pavements, such as concrete method is more reasonable, at least
shoulders, is less conservative for thinner pavements.
100 | s h a h a d a T
LEC 22
Soil Stabilization
1. Macadam Road (13)
2. Prime Coat
a. A prime coat is an application of liquid bituminous material to a
previously untreated base or wearing surface. The bituminous
material penetrates the surface and is generally completely
absorbed.
b. The prime coat serves to promote adhesion or "bond" between the
base and wearing surface. Secondly, it serves to consolidate the
surface on which the new treatment is to be placed. Thirdly, it may
function to a certain extent as a deterrent to the rise of capillary
moisture into the wearing surface.
101 | s h a h a d a T
c. The material used in the prime coat should be liquid asphalt or road
tar of low viscosity and high penetrating qualities.
3. Tack Coats
a. A "tack coat" is defined as a single application of bituminous material
to an existing bitumen, Portland cement concrete, brick or block
surface or base. Its purpose is to provide adhesion between the
existing surface and the new bituminous wearing surface.
b. Tack coats are very frequently applied to old surfaces of various
types as a first step in the construction of a new bituminous wearing
surface. As in the case of prime coat, it is absolutely essential that
the surface to which the material is applied be clean and dry. The
bituminous material is applied be clean and dry.
Read Herringbone Bond road pattern
102 | s h a h a d a T
LEC 23
Construction Equipment
Types of Equipment
EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT:

Dozer
Wheel Loader
Hydraulic Excavator
Vibratory Compactor
ROAD MAKING EQUIPMENT:
Roller
Road Paver
Asphalt Concrete Plant
HAULING EQUIPMENT:
Tractors Trailors
Trucks
Tipper
103 | s h a h a d a T

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LEC 01-04

Functions of Pavement (Imp)

1. A highway pavement is designed to support the wheel loads imposed on it

Desirable Characteristics of Pavement (15,CT, Imp)

1. It should be sufficiently thick to distribute the loads and stress to a safe

Roman Roads (CT-17)

1. Romans took up the practice of a military road system from the

1. Telford attempted, where possible, to build roads on relatively flat grades

1. Flexible Pavement: Layered system

1. Hot mix Asphaltic (HMA) pavements are classified as "flexible" pavements

The typical flexible pavement structure consisting of

Basic Structural Element of Flexural Pavement

1. A typical flexible pavement structure consists of the surface course and

The base course is immediately beneath the surface course. It provides

Types of Flexible Pavements (VVI)

The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:

1. Conventional layered flexible pavement.

 Conventional Flexible Pavements are layered systems with high quality

Full Depth Asphalt pavement advantages (CT-16)

1. No permeable layer to entrap water.

Typical layers of a flexible pavement (VVI) (16,CT-16,17)

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement include:

• Surface course: Surface course is the layer directly in contact with

• Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath

• Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared

Tack Coat Prime Coat

It provides proper bonding between It provides bonding between two layers

Flexible Pavement Design Method (Huang-2)

2. Limiting shear failure method.

3. Limiting deflection method (0.1inch)

4. Regression method based on Pavement Performance or Road tests

5. Mechanistic empirical method (HMA or Asphalt Concrete)

 Mechanistic-Empirical pavement design (ME) is the latest generation of

Parameters of Mechanistic Empirical Method (Imp)

 Gradations, liquid limit, plasticity index, optimum water content, etc. of

Comparison between AASHTO and ME

AASHTO 1993 Mechanistic-Empirical

Basis Empirical observation from Theories of mechanics

Original AASHO Road Test – Ottawa, SHRP test sections from

Traffic Equivalent Single Axle Load Axle load spectra

Materials Inputs Very few Many

Output Thickness Performance prediction

 The rigid characteristic of the pavement is associated with rigidity or

Basic Structural Element of Rigid Pavement (Imp)

The typical rigid pavement structure consisting of:

1. The base course is immediately beneath the surface course.

Types of Rigid Pavements (VVI) (15, CT-16,17) Huang -15

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement are plain cement concrete pavements

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement Although reinforcements do not

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement Complete elimination of joints

Pre-stressed concrete pavement The pre-stressed concrete pavements have

Where rigid pavements are warranted? (VVI) (CT-16)

1. Where extra performance (due to stationary/slow loading condition, stopping and

Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

Design Concept (15,16,Imp)

a. More street lights per km than a concrete pavement or

2. Concrete Pavement provides fuel saving for heavy vehicles (Imp)

Heavy vehicles cause a greater deflection on flexible pavement than on rigid

3. Utility location (Imp)

A cement concrete slab is practically impervious, except at joints. If joints are

A cement concrete pavement requires 28 days before it can be thrown open

6. Pavement Recycling (CT-17)

All pavements eventually have to be replaced. In case of concrete pavement