Steel Alloys

Prepared by

Saad Ahmed Khodir

Researcher
Welding department
1
 Introduction
Iron or ferrum (latin word)
Elemental symbol: Fe
Atomic number: 26
Elemental group: Transition element

Physical Properties

Iron is soft, malleable, and ductile.

Iron is easily magnetized at ordinary temperatures; it is difficult to magnetize
when heated, and at about 790° C (about 1450° F) the magnetic property
disappears.

Pure iron melts at about 1535° C (about 2795° F), boils at 2750° C (4982° F),
and has a specific gravity of 7.86.

The atomic weight of iron is 55.847.
 Crystal structure of Iron

A change in the density of α-Fe

as it transforms to γ-Fe results in
an abrupt change in the volume
of the material. Sometimes this
gives rise to stresses that exceed
the elastic limit and lead to
failure. The density of γ-Fe is
about 4% higher than that α
iron.

α-Fe γ-Fe
 Classification of metals alloys
Metals

Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals

Steels Al, Cu, Mg, Ti, Ni,...

Plain carbon steels Cast Irons

Low carbon steels

Grey Iron
Medium carbon steels
White Iron
High carbon steels
Malleable &
Ductile Irons
Low alloy steels
High alloy steels
Stainless & Tool steels
 Production of steel
2. Carts called skips dump
the charge into the top of 1. A blast furnace forces
the furnace, where it filters in extremely hot air
down through bell-shaped through a mixture of ore,
containers called hoppers. coke, and limestone,
called the charge.

Iron Blast furnace

 Iron Making

• The first step in processing liquid iron into high quality steel involves an
ironmaking blast furnace.

• 3Fe2O3 + CO 2Fe3O4 + CO2

(hematite) (magnetite)

• Fe3O4 + CO 2FeO + CO2

(magnetite) (wustite)

• FeO + CO Fe + CO2

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 Current Blast Furnace Technology

• Higher air blast preheats temperatures and improved coke

properties have also helped to reduce coke requirements.

• The iron that is tapped from the blast furnace is saturated with
about 4.4% C.

• It also contains other impurities that have been reduced from the
oxides contained within the iron ore charge.

• Consequently, the hot metal also contains about 0.3 to 1.3 wt%
(Si)Fe , 0.5 to 2 wt% (Mn)Fe 0.1 to 1.0 wt% (P)Fe and 0.02 to
0.08 wt%(S).

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 Hot Metal Desulfurization

• CaO (lime) + (S)Fe CaS + (O)Fe

• CaC2 (calcium carbide) + (S)Fe CaS + 2(C)Fe

• (Mg)Fe + (S)Fe MgS

• C + O CO (gas)

• It is important to remember that calcium and magnesium oxides

are much more stable than their sulfide counterparts; calcium
sulfide and magnesium sulfide.

8
Steel making

9
 Steel making
The removal of dissolved carbon as gas and the removal of dissolved
silicon, manganese, and phosphorus to an upper slag phase takes
place sequentially according to:

(Si)Fe + O2 (SiO2)slag

2(C)Fe + O 2CO

2(Mn)Fe +1/2O2 (MnO)slag

2(P)Fe +5/2 O2 (P2O5)slag

 Electric Furnace Steelmaking

• These furnaces were originally considered

appropriate for the production of tool and alloy steels,
but they are also able to produce low carbon steels of
high quality.

• Currently, 30% of the steel production in North

America derives from scrap recycling through
remelting and refining operations in electric arc
furnaces

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 Ferroalloy/Deoxidizer Additions

• The raw steel poured from a furnace into a teeming ladle is too
highly oxidized for immediate use because it contains about 0.04 to
0.1 wt% O

• At the same time, additions of other ferroalloys (for example, Fe-Mn,

Fe-Nb, Si-Mn, Fe-V) are made as needed to meet the chemical
specifications required for the variety of steel grades that are
commonly produced by any integrated steel company

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The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
 Microstructure of Steel
Five main constituents:
• Ferrite
• Austenite
• Cementite
• Pearlite
• Martensite
 Ferrite
The structure of pure iron.
Has a body-centred cubic (BCC) crystal structure. It is soft and ductile and
imparts these properties to the steel. Very little carbon (less than 0.01%
carbon will dissolve in ferrite at room temperature). Often known as α
iron.

Austenite
This is the structure of iron at high temperatures (over 912 deg C).
Has a face-centre cubic (FCC) crystal structure. This material is important in
that it is the structure from which other structures are formed when the
material cools from elevated temperatures. Often known as γ iron. Not present
at room temperatures.

Pearlite
A laminated structure formed of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite.
It combines the hardness and strength of cementite with the ductility of
ferrite and is the key to the wide range of the properties of steels. The
laminar structure also acts as a barrier to crack movement as in composites.
This gives it toughness.
 Martensite
A very hard needle-like structure of iron and carbon.
Only formed by very rapid cooling from the austenitic structure (i.e.
above upper critical temperature). Needs to be modified by tempering
before acceptable properties reached.

The needle-like structure of martensite, the white areas are retained austenite.
 CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS
Steels can be classified by different systems depending on:
1. Compositions, such as carbon, low -alloy, and alloy steels
2. Manufacturing methods , such as converter, electric furnace , or electroslag
remelting methods
3. Application, such as structural , tool, stainless steel, or heat resistant steels
4. Finishing methods, such as hot rolling, cold rolling, casting, or controlled
rolling and controlled cooling
5. Product shape, such as bar, plate, strip, tubing, or structural shape
6. Oxidation practice employed, such as rimmed, killed, semi-killed, and
capped steels
7. Microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlitic, martensitic, and austenitic)
8. Required strength level, as specified in the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) standards
9. Heat treatment, such as annealing, quenching and tempering, air cooling
(normalization), and thermo-mechanical processing
10. Quality descriptors and classifications, such as forging quality and
commercial quality
Among the above classification systems, chemical composition is the most
widely used basis for designation.
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF STEEL
The three commonly used classifications of steels by chemical
compositions are: plain carbon , low alloy, and high alloy steels.

Carbon Steel are classed into four groups, depending on their

carbon levels:

• Low Carbon Up to 0.15% carbon

• Mild Carbon Steels 0.15% to 0.29% carbon

• Medium Carbon Steels 0.30% to 0.59% carbon

• High Carbon Steels 0.60% to 1.70% carbon

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 Properties of Carbon Steels
Carbon content Properties Applications
wt %
0.01 - 0.1 Soft, ductile, no useful hardening Pressings where high
by heat treatment except by formability required
normalizing, but can be work-
hardened. Weldable.
0.1 - 0.25 Strong, ductile, no useful General engineering uses
hardening by heat treatment for a mild steel
except by normalizing, but can
be work-hardened. Weldable.
Ductile-brittle transition
temperature is just below room
temperature
0.25 - 0.6 Very strong, heat treatable to Bars and forgings for a wide
produce a wide range of range of engineering
properties in quenched and components.
tempered conditions. Difficult Connecting rods,
to weld. Can become brittle springs, hammers, axle
below room temperature. shafts requiring
strength and
toughness.
 Properties of Carbon Steels

Carbon content Properties Applications

wt %
0.6 - 0.9 Strong, whether heat treated or Used where maximum
not. Ductility lower when less strength rather than
carbon is present toughness is important.
Tools, wear resisting
components ( piano wire
and silver steels are in
this group).

0.9 - 2.0 Wear resistant and can be made Cutting tools like wood
very hard at expense of chisels, files, saw
toughness and ductility. Cannot blades..
be welded. Tend to be brittle if
the structure is not carefully
controlled
 0.1% Carbon Steel
Applications

A typical application of low

Note the small amount of carbon steel in a car body.
pearlite in the structure
 0.2% Carbon Steel

Two-dimensional view
Note the increased amount of pearlite of pearlite, consisting
compared with the 0.1% ‘dead mild’ steel of alternating layers of
cementite and ferrite.
 Low Alloy Steel
HSLA Steels

• Yield strength > 300 MPa

– High strength by
• Grain refinement through
– Microalloying with Nb, Ti, Al, V, B
– Thermo-mechanical processing
– Low impurity content
– Low carbon content
– Sometimes Cu added to provide precipitation
strengthening

• Low alloy steel is generally defined as having a 1.5% to 5% total alloy content
• Low alloy steels have higher tensile and yield strengths than mild steel or
carbon structural steel. Since they have high strength to weight ratios, they
reduce dead weight in railroad cars, truck frames, heavy equipment, etc.
• Most common alloy elements:
– Chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, boron, and
copper.
• Low alloy: Added in small percents (<5%)
– increase strength and hardenability 23
 High Alloy Steel

• This group of expensive and specialized steels contains

alloy levels.
• High alloy: Added in large percents (>10%)
– i.e. > 10.5% Cr = stainless steel where Cr improves corrosion
resistance and stability at high or low temps
• Austenitic manganese steel
• Stainless steels
• Maraging steels
• Tool steels

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 Tool Steel

• Refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that

are particularly well-suited to be made into tools.
• Characteristics include high hardness, resistance
to abrasion (excellent wear), an ability to hold a
cutting edge, resistance to deformation at elevated
temperatures (red-hardness).
• Tool steel are generally used in a heat-treated
state.
• High carbon content – very brittle
 AISI-SAE tool steel grades[1]
Significant
Defining property AISI-SAE grade
characteristics
Water-hardening W
O Oil-hardening
Air-hardening;
A
Cold-working medium alloy
Tool Steel High carbon; high
D
chromium
Shock resisting S
T Tungsten base
High speed
M Molybdenum base

H1-H19: chromium
base
H20-H39: tungsten
Hot-working H
base
H40-H59:
molybdenum base
Plastic mold P
L Low alloy
Special purpose
F Carbon tungsten
Tool Steel
Tool Steel
 Stainless Steels

• Excellent corrosion resistance

• Contain 12 to 30% Chromium
– Cr oxidizes easily and forms a thin continuous layer of oxide that
prevents further oxidation of the metal
• Cr is a ferrite stabilizer

Ferritic Stainless Steels are •

essentially Fe-Cr Alloys
Ferrite phase (bcc structure)•
Inexpensive, high strength•

Austenite is restricted to a small

region of the phase diagram
 Stainless Steels

• Austenitic Stainless Steels

– Nickel is an austenite stabilizer. The addition of both Cr and Ni
results in the austenite (g, fcc) phase being retained to room
temperature
– The austenite phase is very formable (fcc structure)
– Ni makes these alloys expensive

• Martensitic Stainless Steels

– Have both Cr and C
– There is more Cr than in ferritic SS since Cr tends to form Cr23C6,
which removes available Cr for corrosion protection
– Can be heat treated to high strength
UNS letter S indicates stainless steel
Classification of
Steels
 Effect of alloying element

Carbon

- Carbon has a strong tendency -

to segregate at the defects in
steels (such as grain boundaries
and dislocations).
- Carbon is the main hardening -
element in all steels except the
austenitic precipitation
hardening (PH) stainless steels,
maraging steels, and interstitial-
free (IF) steels.
- The strengthening effect of C
in steels consists of solid
solution strengthening and
carbide dispersion strengthening.
- As the C content in steel
increases, strength increases, but
ductility and weldability
decrease.
 Effect of alloying element
Manganese (Mn)
• combines with sulfur to prevent brittleness
• >1%
– increases hardenability
• 11% to 14%
– increases hardness
– good ductility
– high strain hardening capacity
– excellent wear resistance
• Ideal for impact resisting tools
Sulfur (S)
• Imparts brittleness
• Improves machineability
• Okay if combined with Mn
• Some free-machining steels contain 0.08% to 0.15% S
• Examples of S alloys:
– 11xx – sulfurized (free-cutting)
 Nickel (Ni)
• Provides strength, stability and toughness, Examples of Ni alloys:
– 30xx – Nickel (0.70%), chromium (0.70%)
– 31xx – Nickel (1.25%), chromium (0.60%)
– 32xx – Nickel (1.75%), chromium (1.00%)
– 33XX – Nickel (3.50%), chromium (1.50%)
Chromium (Cr)
• Usually < 2% increase hardenability and strength
• Offers corrosion resistance by forming stable oxide surface
• typically used in combination with Ni and Mo
– 30XX – Nickel (0.70%), chromium (0.70%)
– 5xxx – chromium alloys
– 6xxx – chromium-vanadium alloys
– 41xxx – chromium-molybdenum alloys
Molybdenum (Mo)
• Usually < 0.3%
• increase hardenability and strength
• Mo-carbides help increase creep resistance at elevated temps
– typical application is hot working tools
 Vanadium (V)
• Usually 0.03% to 0.25%
• increase strength
– without loss of ductility
Tungsten (W)
• helps to form stable carbides
• increases hot hardness
– used in tool steels
Copper (Cu)
• 0.10% to 0.50%
• increase corrosion resistance
• Reduced surface quality and hot-working ability
• used in low carbon sheet steel and structural steels
Silicon (Si)
• About 2%
• increase strength without loss of ductility
• enhances magnetic properties
 Boron (B)
• for low carbon steels, can drastically increase hardenability
• improves machinablity and cold forming capacity

Aluminum (Al)
• deoxidizer
• 0.95% to 1.30%
• produce Al-nitrides during nitriding
 Nomenclature of Steels
• Historically, many methods for identifying alloys by
their composition have been developed
• The commonly used schemes in USA are those
developed by AISI/SAE and ASTM
– The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
– American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
• European countries, Japan, Russia etc. developed
their own schemes
• In order to avoid confusion, the Universal/Unified
Numbering System (UNS) was developed
 AISI/SAE Classification of Steels
• A four digit description
– First two digits identify the alloy type
– Last two digits indicate the carbon content
– For example
• AISI/SAE 1020 steel is a plain carbon steel (10xx) which has 0.20
wt.% carbon (xx20)
• Plain carbon steel (10xx) are inexpensive, but have several limitations
including:
– Poor hardenability because the critical cooling rate is very high
– Rapid cooling leads to distortion and cracking
– Poor corrosion resistance
– Poor impact resistance at low temperature
• Alloy steels were developed to address these issues
– Alloying changes the eutectoid composition, the eutectoid carbon
content and the critical cooling rate
– These alloys are more expensive, but a better combination of
properties is obtained
 AISI/SAE Classification of Steels

UNS uses the AISI/SAE designation with a letter before and a “0” after the 4 digits
The letter identifies the alloy group
 Overview of UNS

• Axxxxx - Aluminum Alloys

• Cxxxxx - Copper Alloys, including Brass and Bronze
• Fxxxxx - Iron, including Ductile Irons and Cast Irons
• Gxxxxx - Carbon and Alloy Steels
• Hxxxxx - Steels - AISI H Steels
• Jxxxxx - Steels - Cast
• Kxxxxx - Steels, including Maraging, Stainless, HSLA, Iron-Base Superalloys
• L5xxxx - Lead Alloys, including Babbit Alloys and Solders
• M1xxxx - Magnesium Alloys
• Nxxxxx - Nickel Alloys
• Rxxxxx - Refractory Alloys
– R03xxx- Molybdenum Alloys
– R04xxx- Niobium (Columbium) Alloys
– R05xxx- Tantalum Alloys
– R3xxxx- Cobalt Alloys
– R5xxxx- Titanium Alloys
– R6xxxx- Zirconium Alloys
• Sxxxxx - Stainless Steels, including Precipitation Hardening and Iron-Based Superalloys
• Txxxxx - Tool Steels
• Zxxxxx - Zinc Alloys
 AISI/SAE, ASTM, UNS
ASTM developed a parallel classification, starting with a letter A followed by numbers and
other descriptors

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

The material specification as adopted by the ASME is identified with a prefix letter
“S”, while the remainder is identical with ASTM with the exception that the date of
adoption or revision by ASTM is not shown. Therefore, a common example of an
ASME classification is SA 387 Grade 11, Class 1.
 API Specifications
API Spec 5D : Covers all grades of seamless drill pipe (for use in drilling and producing
operations), process of manufacture, chemical composition and mechanical property
requirements , testing and inspection methods , and requirements for dimensions, weights,
and lengths.
API Spec 5L: Covers all grades of seamless and welded steel line pipe and requirements
for dimensions, weight, lengths, strengths, threaded ends, plain ends, belled ends, and
thread protectors, and testing and inspect ion methods.
This specification includes A25, A, B, X42, X46, X52, X56, X60, X65, X70, and X80
grades. It provides the standards for pipe suitable for use in conveying gas, water, and oil
on both the oil and natural gas industries.
API Spec 5LC : Covers seamless, centrifugal cast, and welded corrosion-resistant alloy line
pipe (austenitic stainless steels, martensitic stainless steels, duplex stainless steels, and
nickel -base alloys), dimensions, weights, process of manufacture, chemical and
mechanical property requirements, and testing and inspect ion methods.
API Spec 5LD: Covers seamless, centrifugal cast, and welded clad steel line pipe and lined
steel pipe with increased corrosion-resistant properties. The clad and lined steel line pipes
are composed of a base metal outside and a corrosion resistant alloy (CRA ) layer inside
the pipe; the base material conform s to AP I Spec 5L, except as modified in the API Spec
5LC document. This specification provides standards for pipe with improved corrosion
resistance suitable for use in conveying gas, water, and oils in both the oil and natural gas
industries.
 API Specifications

Compositions of carbon steel pipe (API)

 API Specifications

Compositions of carbon steel pipe (API)

5L

(a) value is shown, it is a maximum limit, except for silicon, where a single Where a single
value denotes a minimum limit.
(b) Open hearth, electric furnace, or basic oxygen.
(i) Electric resistance.
(k) Electric resistance or electric induction. (l) Submerged arc.
(m) Nb, Ti, V, or a combination, may be used by agreement between purchaser and
manufacturer.
Compositions of alloy steel pipe (API)
(a) Except for copper, where a single value is shown, it is a maximum limit.
(b) Open hearth, electric furnace, or basic oxygen.
(c) Alloy steel grade(s) only.
(d) Furnace butt or electrical resistance.
(e) 0.005 min Nb, 0.02 min V, or a combination thereof shall be used at the discretion of
the manufacturer.
(f) Electric resistance or electric flash.
(g) Nickel, chromium, and copper combined shall not exceed 0.5%.
(h) Alloys are typically added in various amounts, even though it is not specified in API
Specification 5CT.
(i) Carbon content may be increased to 0.55% max if the product is oil quenched.
(j) No limits, but must be reported in analysis.
(k) Cold expanded or nonexpanded.
(l) Submerged arc, electric resistance, gas metal arc, spiral weld submerged-arc, and
double seam.
(m) Butt weld, electric weld, and submerged-arc weld.
(n) Pipe meeting the mechanical property requirements but deviating from the above
limits may be supplied subject to agreement of purchaser and manufacturer.
(o) Maximum content may be subject to agreement by purchaser and manufacturer.
(p) Maximums are 0.11% Nb, 0.11% V, 0.06% Ti, 0.001% B, and 0.020% (product
analysis only) Ce.
• The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is the
largest organization of its kind in the world. It has compiled
some 48 volumes of standards for materials, specifications,
testing methods and recommended practices for a variety of
materials ranging from textiles and plastics to concrete and
metals

• ASTM designated steels commonly specified for

construction are A36-77 and A242-79

• The ASTM designation may be further subdivided into Grades

or Classes

• An example of a full designation is A285-78 Grade A or A485-

79 Class 70.
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 How to Strengthen Metals:
• Finer grain boundaries.
• Increase dislocation density via COLD WORKING (strain
hardening)
• Add alloying elements to give –SOLID SOLUTION HARDENING.
• Add alloying elements to give precipitates or dispersed
particles – PRECIPITATION HARDENING
• DISPERSION HARDENING– fine particles (carbon) impede
dislocation movement.
– Referred to as Quench Hardening, Austenitizing and Quench or simply
“Heat Treat”.
– Generally 3 steps: heat to austenite T, rapid quench, then temper.
 Direct Hardening –
Austenitizing and quench:

• Austenitizing – again taking a steel with .6%

carbon or greater and heating to the austenite
region.
• Rapid quench to trap the carbon in the crystal
structure – called martensite (BCT)
• Quench requirements determined from
isothermal transformation diagram (IT
diagram).
• Get “Through” Hardness!!!
The Heat Treatment Process

“Pearlite” (ductile)

BCC + Fe3C
with different
microstructures

“Martensite” (brittle) How you heat treat

makes all the
difference to the steel
you get
 Tempering
The brittleness of martensite makes hardened
steels unsuitable for most applications.
This requires the steel to be tempered by re-
heating to a lower temperature to reduce the
hardness and improve the toughness. This
treatment converts some of the martensite to
another structure called tempered martensite.
 Normalising
1. Heat to Upper Critical Temperature, at which
point the structure is all Austenite
2. Cool slowly in air.
3. Structure will now be fine equi-axed pearlite.
4. Used to restore the ductility of cold or hot
worked materials whilst retaining other
properties.
 Annealing
1. Heat to above Upper Critical Temperature, at
which point the structure is all Austenite
2. Cool very slowly in the furnace.
3. Structure will now be large-grained pearlite.
4. Used to improve the properties of cast and
forged steels prior to machining.
 Spheroidising
1. Heat to just below Lower Critical
Temperature. (about 650-700 0C)
2. Cool very slowly in the furnace.
3. Structure will now be spheroidized, in which
the Iron Carbide has rounded shape.
4. Used to improve the properties of medium
and high carbon steels prior to machining or
cold working.
 Process (stress-relief) Annealing
1. Heat to below Upper Critical Temperature to
cause recrystallisation
2. Cool very slowly in the furnace.
3. Structure will now be equi-axed pearlite.
4. Used to maximise the ductility of low carbon
steels and other materials after cold
working.
Thank You

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