The underwater concrete technology has historically evolved largely through a trial-and-
error process of constructing marine works. Many outstanding examples exist of high
quality concrete placed underwater. However, failures also occurred and led to excessive
cost and/or schedule overruns. These failures were largely due to improper concrete mix
design or improper placement. The problems may have occurred because proper
underwater concrete construction techniques and experience have not been widely
disseminated. This section focuses on technical issues of underwater concrete mix
design, concrete production and placement, and quality control.
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concrete generally flows under water in one of the
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90 two distinct patterns. When concrete is highly
5 flowable and cohesive, it tends to flow in a “bulged”
80 flow pattern, i.e., newly placed concrete pushes
0 previously placed concrete sideways, forming a
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successive series of bulges (Figure 2). It has been
vibration time (sec)
found that the bulged flow pattern tends to develop a
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relatively flat and smooth top surface with good in-
place concrete quality. On the other hand, less
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flowable concrete flows in a “layered” pattern, i.e.,
newly placed concrete flows upward around the
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placement pipe and over the top of previously
placed concrete (Figure 3). Apparently, this layered
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0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 flow pattern exposes more concrete to water and is
slump (mm) usually associated with a steep and rugged top
surface with large quantities of laitance. It is indeed
Figure 1: The compressive strength as a counterintuitive that, for the same cohesion, more
flowable concrete is less susceptible to laitance
function of the degree of vibration and slump formation due to its reduced exposure to water, but
3. Cohesion: The concrete is required to remain past experience and tests have verified this
cohesive underwater. The primary objective is to phenomenon.
ensure the homogeneity and strength of underwater
Table 1: Typical Workability Requirements for
concrete by minimizing cement washout,
Some Common Applications in Marine
segregation, and laitance. The desirable degree of
Foundations
cohesion for concrete, however, depends on many
construction variables such as the thickness and Applications Essential Requirements Slump Flow
configuration of concrete pours, concrete flow Inch (mm)
distance, and exposure to flowing water during Tremie seal Infill in simple geometry 11 - 16
placements. The cohesion of concrete is more for cofferdam Little obstruction to the (280 – 400)
difficult to quantify than its flowability. In theory, it is flow
often described with two rheological parameters – Drilled shafts Reinforcing steel to obstruct 14 - 18
yield stress and plastic viscosity. At present, the flow (350 – 450)
however, a comprehensive knowledge base has not Short flow path
yet been established to quantitatively correlate the
rheological parameters with concrete workability. In Reinforced Reinforcing steel to obstruct 16 – 23
practice, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ concrete the flow (400 – 580)
washout test is widely used to measure the slurry walls Moderate to Long flow path
cohesion against cement washout in the U.S. or structures
Reinforced Reinforcing steel to obstruct 23 - 27
In addition to the three basic requirements above, tremie the flow (580 – 680)
many special applications impose even higher concrete slab Long flow path
demand on workability. For example, underwater with flat top
surface Self-leveling concrete
repair of a concrete slab may require self-leveling
concrete, and placing concrete in flowing water
requires high anti -washout characteristics for In general, workability of concrete is linked to
concrete mixes. In essence, it is important to complex relationships among several variables,
understand that the workability requirement varies such as the water-to-fines ratio, cementious
over a wide range, depending on specific materials content, and chemical admixtures.
applications. The mix design should be tailored for Engineering judgment and experience are
necessary in evaluation of concrete workability for particles in concrete. It disperses and lubricates the
each application. The theoretical and practical solids to create fluidity and plasticity of concrete.
aspects of these key variables are discussed below. Bound water is a result of chemical and physical
binding of water by the solids. The chemical binding
of water results from the chemical reactions of
cement. As cement hydration progresses, more
water is chemically bound in the hydrates and the
free water gradually decreases. Loss of workability
over time is a direct result of the loss of free water.
The physical binding of water results from water
absorption and surface tension of the solids. The
larger the surface area of the solids, the higher the
water demand. Since the fines count for more than
90% of the total surface area of the solids, bound
water is nearly proportional to the fine content.
Therefore, it is the water-to-fine ratio that determines
the amounts of bound water, free water and
workability of concrete. For underwater concrete, a
water-to-fine ratio in the range of 0.85 to 1.0 by
volume often provides a good balance between
Figure 2: Flowable underwater concrete exhibits flowability and cohesion requirements.
a “bulged” flow pattern
A practical question is whether a portion of the
cement content can be replaced with other fines
without degrading the performance of underwater
concrete. It is well known that a moderate increase
in sand content tends to reduce cement washout in
concrete placed underwater. It appears that the
increased washout resistance is a direct result of an
increase in fine content.
In order to minimize cement washout and laitance, Excessive obstruction to flow, such as closely
the placement operation should cause as little spaced reinforcing bars, would cause buildup and
disturbance to the concrete underwater as possible. sudden overflow of concrete. This tends to create
Most of the disturbance occurs during starting and trapping laitance. It is a good practice to limit the
restarting of the placement, or due to loss of the maximum size of the aggregate to facilitate the
seal, or by dragging the tremie horizontally while concrete flow. A rule of thumb is to keep the clear
embedded in the concrete underwater. This requires spacing between bars at least 5 times the maximum
that the tremie pipe be embedded in fresh concrete size of coarse aggregates. This greatly exceeds
to a minimum depth of 0.7 m (2 ft). Vertical some code provisions for concrete placed in air. But
movement of the tremie pipe should be limited to it is necessary, because the driving force to cause
that absolutely necessary. Horizontal movement of the concrete flow is reduced due to buoyancy of
embedded tremie pipes should be generally water.
prohibited.
Reinforcement or other obstructions should be
There are two basic techniques to start tremie detailed to facilitate the concrete flow. In general,
placement – the dry method and wet method. While large size steel bars are preferred to a large number
the dry method utilizes an end cap to seals off a of small bars. Bundled bars are preferred to single
tremie pipe from the water entry, the wet method bars at closer spacing. Mechanical couplers are
utilizes a moving plug to prevent the concrete from preferable to lap splices. On the other hand, flowing
mixing with water. The plug fits tightly inside a tremie concrete can impart a significant force on the
pipe. As concrete is fed into the tremie, the plug reinforcement. It is desirable to make the
slides down under weight of the concrete and push reinforcement into cages that are securely supported
out water in a piston-like action. to the forms at multiple points.
1. The workers should have been properly trained 8. Periodic checking of concrete delivery and
and supervised full time by an experienced placement equipment. Before using a tremie
foreman or engineer who is familiar with the pipe, all the joints should be checked for
requirements for good workmanship. possible leakage.
2. Contractor should conduct frequent testing of 9. Adequate contingency plans should be provided
concrete from batch-to-batch and within a batch. in the Contractor’s quality assurance program. If
Important tests include slump, slump flow, unit the sounding data indicate an undesirable
weight, temperature, and concrete compressive distribution of tremie concrete, the foreman will
strength of concrete cylinders. determine the need to adjust the placement rate
or relocate the tremie according to the
3. After the concrete hardens, cores should be contingent plan.
taken to verify the quality of the in-place
concrete. Locations of the coring should be CONCLUSIONS
determined by the project engineer after
examining the concrete placement log. Underwater concreting is often a critical component
of the marine foundation construction. It is
4. Continuous soundings at predetermined and technically demanding, usually on the critical path of
well-marked locations over the entire placement the project schedule, and involves complex
areas. All sounding data should be recorded on construction logistics. Therefore, its significance in
data sheets and submitted to the project the project goes far beyond the concreting
engineer at the end of each shift. A typical operations themselves. This is the area where
sounding device is a plate connected onto a sound design and competent construction planning
weighted line marked for easy reading. can achieve a meaningful reduction in risk and cost.
Alternatively, sonar depth finders may be used
to constantly monitor the depth of concrete at
specific locations. Underwater inspection or
monitoring by divers without independent
soundings is not recommended.