A proposed empirical corrosion model
Engrs Structs &
for reinforced concrete
M. B. Roberts, BEng, PhD, CEng, MICE, MACI , C. Atkins, BEng, PhD , V. Hogg,
BEng, PhD , and C. Middleton, BE(Hons), MSc, PhD, CEng, MICE, MIE(Aust)
& Concrete bridge structures are a€ected by
corrosion resulting from exposure to de-
icing salts. Theoretical models exist which
describe the ingress of chlorides and sub-
sequent corrosion. However, the data
required by these theoretical models are
not routinely available. As part of the new
Midlands Links risk-based repair strategy,
an empirical corrosion model has been
developed which aims to give accurate
predictions of corrosion losses. The model
can take account of information relating
to the spatial variation of corrosion and
can also be used to predict areas of de-
lamination resulting from the build-up of
corrosion products on reinforcing bars.
From the Midlands Links corrosion model,
a more general corrosion model has been
proposed for wider application. This
model would provide information on the
relative risk from corrosion in a popu-
lation of concrete structures.
Keywords: concrete structures; corrosion;
materials technology
Introduction
The Highways Agency is developing a new
approach to bridge management which is based
on the principles of whole-life assessment. This
methodology will take account of the deterio-
ration of highway structures over time. For
concrete structures, the main mechanism of
deterioration has been identi®ed as corrosion of
the reinforcement due to chloride attack (see
Fig. 1). The whole-life assessment methodology
is therefore required to incorporate some sort of
corrosion model which takes account of this
particular type of corrosion.
2. Theoretical corrosion models aimed at
predicting corrosion losses in reinforced con-
crete structures subject to chloride attacks have
been developed by a number of researchers. 1,2
However, these models require input data which
are not readily available and they are therefore
not practical for general application. This
problem has been addressed as part of the
development of the new Midlands Links risk-
based repair strategy. 3 An empirical corrosion
model based on measured data taken from the
Midlands Links motorway viaducts has been
developed and a more general empirical cor-
rosion model has been proposed which, with
Proc. Instn Civ.
Bldgs, 2000, 140,
Feb., 1±11
Paper 11944
Written discussion
closes 31 August
2000
further calibration, could be applied to other
structures.
Corrosion in reinforced concrete
3. Reinforcement steel in concrete is gener-
ally surrounded by a protective oxide ®lm
which is maintained by the alkaline state of the
concrete matrix. While this protective oxide
®lm remains, the reinforcement does not
corrode. However, the protective oxide ®lm is
disrupted by the presence of chloride ions. This
process is called depassivation. Once the con-
centration of chloride ions exceeds a certain M. B. Roberts,
threshold level, active corrosion occurs. In Project Manager,
bridge structures, chloride ions arrive at the Maunsell Ltd,
surface of the concrete primarily as a result of Birmingham
the application of de-icing salts to road sur-
faces.
4. There are therefore two distinct phases in
the corrosion process. These are shown in Fig. 2.
The concentration of chlorides in the concrete
surrounding the reinforcing steel increases to
the threshold level, at which point active
corrosion is initiated. The rate of corrosion is
not a€ected by the chloride concentration
following initiation as once corrosion has C. Atkins, Engineer,
started, active corrosion requires only a supply Maunsell Ltd,
of oxygen and water. However, it is noted that Birmingham
if chloride concentration levels drop to below a
critical value, then repassivation can occur. 5
Theoretical corrosion model
5. Sodium and calcium chlorides present
within de-icing salts penetrate concrete by
mechanisms such as capillary movement and
permeation through cracks and as a result of
di€usion (where di€usion is de®ned as the
process by which a species migrates owing to a V. Hogg, Research
di€erential concentration). The detailing of a Associate, University
structure can also a€ect the mechanism by of Cambridge
which chlorides gain access to the reinforce-
ment. For example, tie holes and contact points
at parapet connections can provide potential
points of entry for chlorides, as can the edges of
waterproo®ng membranes. While the ingress of
chlorides actually results from a combination of
mechanisms, such as those suggested above,
di€usion is generally accepted as a representa-
tive model for the main mechanism by which
chlorides gain access to reinforcement. 6 Con- C. Middleton,
sequently, di€usion is the process by which Assistant Director of
theoretical corrosion models generally represent Research, University
the passage of chlorides from the surface of of Cambridge
1
 ROBERTS ET AL.

concrete to the reinforcement, and therefore the

time to initiation of corrosion. Fick's second
law of di€usion is frequently used to describe
the ingress of chlorides in concrete.

Time to initiation
6. The use of Fick's second law of di€usion
in modelling the di€usion of chlorides into
concrete was ®rst proposed by Collepardi: 7,8
qC…x; t† q2 C…x; t†
ˆ Dc …1†
qt qx2
where C is the chloride penetration into the
concrete, x is the distance from the surface, t is
the time and Dc is the chloride di€usion
coecient. The standard solution to this equa-
tion for an isotropic, semi-in®nite medium was
presented by Crank and cited by Ho€man and
Weyers 9 as
  
x
C…x; t† ˆ Cs 1 ÿ erf p …2†
2 …Dc t†
where C…x; t† is the chloride concentration at
depth x after time t for an equilibrium chloride
concentration CS at the surface, CS is the
chloride concentration at the surface and erf is
the error function. It has been shown, therefore,
that the initiation period for corrosion of
reinforcement can be described by equation (3)
ments, named low, medium and high, have been Fig. 1. Chloride-
below: 2
de®ned. All chloride values are given for the induced corrosion on
  
…dI ÿ fI =2†2 Ccr ÿ CS ÿ2 total (acid-soluble) chloride level as a per- cross-beam element
TI ˆ erf ÿ1 …3† centage with respect to the cement. The initial
4Dc Ci ÿ CS
chloride concentration Ci is assumed to be 0%.
where TI is the corrosion initiation period Also included in Table 1 are a set of proposed
(years), dI is the depth from the surface to the values for the e€ective surface chloride concen-
centroid of the reinforcing bar (mm), fI is tration and apparent di€usion coecient, 2 for
the uncorroded bar diameter (mm), Dc is the direct use in equation (3). It can be seen that
chloride di€usion coecient (mm 2 /year), Ccr is while the proposed e€ective surface chloride
the critical chloride concentration (%), CS is the concentration values are similar to the actual
chloride content on the surface (%) and Ci is values obtained from the literature review, the
the initial chloride concentration (%). apparent di€usion coecient values for the low
7. Fick's law of di€usion assumes a homo- and high corrosion environments di€er by
geneous, porous medium. This is far from the orders of magnitude from the observed, actual
reality of concrete cover material. The actual values.
values of the surface chloride concentration and
di€usion coecient are time-dependent and are
Loss of cross-sectional area
a€ected by the chemical composition of the
10. The cross-sectional area of reinforce-
cement and the temperature and humidity of
the concrete.
8. In order to take account of the di€erences
Corrosion

between reality and the conditions assumed by

the theoretical equations, modi®ed values of
surface chloride concentration and di€usion
coecient are derived. These values are
described as e€ective or apparent values.
Previous studies 1,2 have used existing test
data from a number of sources in order to
derive these apparent values of the corrosion
parameters, for direct use in equation (3).
9. An extensive literature review 10 has sug-
gested that the corrosion parameter values in
Table 1 are representative of actual values Time to
Time Fig. 2. Two-phase
Active corrosion
found in UK bridges. Three corrosion environ- initiation corrosion process 4
2
 CORROSION MODEL FOR
REINFORCED CONCRETE

Table 1. Corrosion parameter values

Variable Actual parameter values E€ective parameter values

Surface chloride content C S Low, 50´33% Low, 0´575%

Medium, 0´33±0´67% Medium, 0´650%
High, 40´67% High, 0´725%

Critical chloride concentration C cr 0´3% 0´3%

2
Chloride di€usion coecient D c Low, 3´15 mm /year Low, 25´0 mm 2 /year
Medium, 31´5 mm 2 /year Medium, 30´0 mm 2 /year
High, 315´0 mm 2 /year High, 35´0 mm 2 /year

ment at time t, A…t†, is described by the Surface

equations 2
p (λt )
A…t† ˆ nf2I for t  TI …
4
p
A…t† ˆ n‰f…t†Š2 for TI  t  TI ‡ fI =mlicorr
4 φ(t ) = φ(I ) –2λt
…
A…t† ˆ 0 for t > TI ‡ fI =mlicorr …
where
f…t† ˆ fI ÿ mlicorr t
and n is the number of reinforcing bars, TI is
the time to initiation of corrosion (years), fI is
the initial diameter of the reinforcement bars
(mm), f…t† is the diameter of the corroded bar
at time t (mm), m is a corrosion coecient
which is dependent on the type of corrosion,
l is a factor to convert the corrosion rate from
mA/cm 2 to mm/year (ˆ 0
0115), icorr is the
corrosion current density (mA/cm 2 ) and t is the
time (years). The reduction in section capacity
as a result of loss of cross-sectional area can
therefore be calculated.
11. An important part of any theoretical
corrosion model is the pattern of corrosion
which it assumes. Some assumption of cor-
rosion pattern is required in the calculation of
corrosion current density values as the
measured value of corrosion current is divided
by the assumed corroding surface area of the
reinforcing bars and converted into a corrosion
current density.
Uniform corrosion model
12. Uniform (or general) corrosion is com-
monly assumed when calculating levels of
corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. A
value of m ˆ 2 for the corrosion coecient is
used in equations (4) and (5) in order to
simulate a uniform loss of reinforcement bar
material from around the circumference of a
reinforcement bar (see Fig. 3). The equivalent
form of equation (5) in this case would be
f…t† ˆ fI ÿ 0
0230icorr t
Cover
4a†
4b†
4c†
(λt ) Fig. 3. Model for
uniform corrosion
…5†
typically 4±8 times the equivalent uniform
corrosion loss, i.e. m ˆ 4 to 8. 11 It is noted
however, that while pitting corrosion is more
severe in terms of the loss of section, it is likely
to a€ect a more localized area of a bridge deck
compared with uniform corrosion. The overall
e€ects of localized pitting corrosion on the
capacity of a bridge deck may therefore be no
more severe than the e€ects of more widespread
general corrosion. As a result of this, only the
uniform corrosion model is considered in this
study.
Corrosion current density values
14. A review of the relevant literature 10
suggested that the values of corrosion current
density shown in Table 2 are representative of
measured values typically found on UK bridges.
Identification of corrosion environment
15. The parameter values proposed for use
within the theoretical corrosion model have
been identi®ed from an extensive literature
review of existing data. An appropriate corro-
sion environment for use in the analysis of a
speci®c structure or element within a structure
could therefore be identi®ed by comparing the
calculated (e€ective) parameter values with
Table 2. Corrosion parameter values from literature review
…6† Variable Suggested values

Corrosion current density i corr Low, 50´2 mA/cm 2

Pitting corrosion Medium, 0´2±1´0 mA/cm 2
13. It has been shown that where pitting High, 41´0 mA/cm 2
corrosion occurs, the local loss of section is
3
 ROBERTS ET AL.

those listed above, for use within the model.

However, this would require best-®t analyses of
measured values of surface chloride concentra-
tion and di€usion coecient. Corrosion current
density values would also be required for each
section of the structure being analysed. Values
of di€usion coecient and corrosion current
density are not routinely available and so this
method of identi®cation of appropriate corro-
sion environments is not considered practical.
No other guidance is generally available on how
to select an appropriate corrosion environment
for use within the theoretical corrosion models.

Empirical corrosion models

16. An empirical corrosion model has been
developed by the Highways Agency as part of
the new Midlands Links risk-based repair
strategy. 3 Their lead consultant for the deteri-
oration model is Maunsell Ltd, with veri®cation
being undertaken by W S Atkins. At the time of
writing, the narrative and procedural docu-
ments are nearing completion. The Midlands
Links deterioration model is described herein
and a simpli®ed empirical model, appropriate
for wider application, is proposed. This simpli-
®ed empirical model is based on the method-
ology developed for the Midlands Links.
Further work is required in order to verify the
quantitative corrosion parameters proposed
within this simpli®ed empirical model.
The Midlands Links deterioration model
17. The development of the new Midlands
Links risk-based repair strategy was initiated
in 1996 after is became apparent that the
assumed timescale for the completion of the
whole-life minimum-cost repair strategy could
not be achieved, thereby introducing undeter-
mined risks to the structural integrity of the
viaducts. A signi®cant proportion of the cross-
beams supporting the elevated sections of the
Midlands Links motorway viaducts (see Fig. 4)
were deteriorating as a result of the e€ects of
corrosion. The main cause of this corrosion was
identi®ed as chloride attack, which was exacer-
bated by failure of the expansion joints located
at the ends of the simply supported spans of the
viaducts. These joints are situated directly
above the cross-beams supporting the elevated
sections.
18. A large amount of data has been col-
lected from the cross-beams on the Midlands
sion coecient, the chloride pro®le data from Fig. 4. The Midlands
Tnow are used to determine the time at which Links motorway
chlorides arrived at the surface (T1 ). These viaducts
same two parameters describing the rate of
chloride ingress are then used to calculate the
time to initiation of corrosion. This will be the
time taken to reach the critical chloride level
(T2 ). The time over which the section or
structure has been actively corroding can now
be estimated. An empirical relationship
between the half-cell potential and the corrosion
rate (in mm 2 /yr) has been developed and so
measured values of half-cell potential are used
to de®ne the corrosion rate for the section of the
structure undergoing analysis. The cumulative
loss of cross-sectional area at Tnow can there-
fore be calculated. A limit has been empirically
derived which de®nes the level of section loss
at which delamination can be expected to occur.
Loss of bond will have an e€ect on the sectional
capacity as the anchorage length of the re-
inforcement will be reduced. A more detailed
description of the corrosion model is given
below.
T0 = time of construction
T1 = time of arrival of chlorides at surface
T2 = time of corrosion initiation
Tg = time to gutter installation (1985)
Delaminated

Links motorway viaducts as part of a long-term

Time corroding
Loss of section: mm2

monitoring programme. Detailed surveys of two

cross-beams in particular have provided data
regarding actual corrosion losses, actual cover,
chloride pro®les, half-cell potential measure-
Not delaminated

ments and delamination. Corrosion rate i

19. Figure 5 describes the general method- assumed constant
ology behind the Midlands Links corrosion Fig. 5. Midlands Links
model. Assuming constant values for the rate of corrosion model
T0 T1 T2 Tg Tnow
increase of the surface concentration and di€u- Time methodology
4
 CORROSION MODEL FOR
REINFORCED CONCRETE

20. Data collection. The empirical cor-

rosion model has been developed from data
collected from a number of cross-beams from
the Midlands Links motorway viaducts. The
data were gathered in 1988 under two separate
repair contracts.
21. Corrosion loss measurements were taken
from two cross-beams. The concrete from each
of the cross-beams was broken out and detailed
measurements of section loss due to corrosion
were taken. Areas of general and pitting corro-
sion losses were identi®ed and classi®ed into a
number of speci®c corrosion patterns. These
speci®ed corrosion patterns are detailed in
Fig. 6.
22. Dimensions of each corrosion loss area
were recorded in a prescribed way and thus the
area loss due to corrosion could be calculated
for each reinforcement bar for the two cross-
beams.
23. Additional measured data also included
the following.
(a) Actual cover depths measured at 1 m inter-
vals along each face of each cross-beam.
(b) Half-cell potential measurements taken on a
600 mm grid for each cross-beam.
(c) Chloride pro®le samples taken from along
the length of each face of the cross-beams.
For each face, the chloride pro®le samples
were taken from the locations with the
most negative half-cell measurements.
(d ) Delamination survey data.
24. Time to initiation of corrosion. The
Midlands Links model uses Fick's second law
(see equation (2)) to model the chloride ingress
with time for ®xed values of the rate of increase
in surface concentration and of the di€usion
coecient. A curve-®tting exercise was carried
out on the chloride pro®le data taken from the
two cross-beams in order to determine these
®xed values.
25. The ®xed values used to model the time
to initiation within the Midlands Links cor-
rosion model are given below. The whole of the
Midlands Links corrosion model is based on a
best-®t analysis of the measured data. Thus the
values for each of the parameters used within
the model are complementary. Any changes
made to the numerical value of one parameter
within the model would entail an appropriate
change to the other parameters in order to
maintain the best-®t solution to the measured
Type A Type B Type C
Fig. 6. Corrosion
patterns identi®ed for
the Midlands Links
Type D Type E corrosion model
26. The rate of increase in surface chloride
concentration will be related to the surface run-
o€ for the structure and so this value will be
speci®c to the conditions encountered on the
Midlands Links project, i.e. failed expansion
joints allowing surface water to leak onto cross-
beams below. However, during 1985 gutters
were installed beneath the expansion joints to
prevent any further contamination of the sub-
structures. The di€usion coecient is related to
the concrete mix proportions, the blend of
cement used, the water±binder ratio and also
the age of the structure. 12 This value will also,
therefore, be site- and structure-speci®c to the
Midlands Links motorway viaducts.
27. The ®xed values of the rate of increase
of e€ective surface concentration and of the
apparent di€usion coecient are substituted
into equation (2) for discrete intervals of
time (where `time' e€ectively represents the
length of time that the section has been exposed
to chlorides). The result is a set of reference
chloride pro®les (see Fig. 7). Analysis of
chloride pro®les taken after the installation of
gutters indicated limited change in the
chloride pro®les after 1985. Therefore, current
measured pro®les may be compared with
these reference pro®les. By matching a
measured chloride pro®le from the structure
undergoing assessment to one of the reference
pro®les, an indication of the time interval
between the installation of the gutters and the
time of arrival of chlorides at the beam is
obtained. Knowing the year of installation of
gutter Tg , a value for the time T1 can therefore
be calculated.
4·5
13 years
4·0
Cl by mass of cement: %

data. The rate of increase in surface chloride 3·5 11 years

concentration is therefore described as e€ective, 3·0
9 years
while the di€usion coecient is de®ned as an 2·5

apparent value. The values are as follows. 2·0 7 years

1·5 5 years
. Rate of increase in e€ective surface chloride 1·0
3 years
concentration = 0´45%/year (by mass of 0·5
Fig. 7. Reference
1 years
cement). 0
chloride pro®les for
. Apparent di€usion coecient = 220 mm 2 / 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Midlands Links
year. Depth: mm corrosion model
5
 ROBERTS ET AL.

28. In the calculation of the reference 14

chloride pro®les, equation (2) has been applied

Time after exposure: years

12
assuming superposition of the chloride levels. 10
This procedure is based on the assumption that
8
more chlorides will be applied to the structure
each winter, until the installation of gutters, 6
and so there will be a gradual build-up of 4
chlorides over a number of years. Superposition 2 Fig. 8. Relationship
is valid because in the solution of equation (2),
between cover and
the surface concentration is a multiplying 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 corrosion initiation
factor. It can be shown that the chloride pro®le Cover depth: mm time
for any value of di€usion coecient and time
will be the same for a surface concentration of
1% as it would have been for the sum of two
pro®les each using a surface concentration of
0´5% (for the same values of di€usion coe-
cient and time).
29. The resultant pro®le is based on the
number of individual years of exposure for a 20 No. rebars
®xed rate of increase of surface concentration.
Width of cross-beam

Fig. 7 shows the resultant chloride pro®les for

values of (Tg ÿ T1 ) of up to 13 years.
30. Having identi®ed the point T1 from 200
mm Fig. 9. Calculation of
Fig. 7, the point T2 can now be identi®ed from
maximum section loss
Fig. 8, which is based on the same di€usion Beam edge
Length of cross-beam due to corrosion
parameters and a chloride threshold of 0´4%.
Thus the time of active corrosion (Tnow ÿ T2 )
can be calculated.
31. Corrosion rate. The site measurements 23 24 23 24

of section losses due to corrosion, recorded

K
from the repair contracts, were converted into
Light
corrosion rates by dividing the calculated time corrosion
of active corrosion. For a 200 mm long section –350 mV
of bar, the maximum bar rate of loss of section
was identi®ed. This maximum bar rate of loss L
of section was then converted into an average Significant
–500 mV

sectional rate of loss of section (see Fig. 9). The corrosion –200 mV Fig. 10. Interpretation
maximum bar corrosion rates for each bar in a Plan of cross-beam showing Half-cell potential of half-cell potential
200 mm section length were averaged across the location of corroding reinforcement survey survey results
total number of bars in that section of the
cross-beam width. Thus an average sectional
corrosion rate was identi®ed for that 200 mm 10
length of cross-beam: Mean
95% percentile
Rate: mm2/year per bar

8
99% percentile
maximum section corrosion rate
6
S…maximum bar corrosion rates across section† Fig. 11. Relationship
ˆ between half-cell
total number of bars across section 4
…7† potential (versus
saturated copper
2
32. It is generally accepted that half-cell sulphate electrode)
potential mapping is an e€ective method of and corrosion rate
0
determining the location of active corrosion. –600 –500 –400 –300 –200 –100 used in Midlands
Fig. 10 gives an example of the application of Half-cell potential: mV Links corrosion model
this technique. High negative half-cell potential
measurements are indicative of the location of
anodic reinforcement and a high probability of regression analysis was performed and a linear
active corrosion. correlation plotted representing the best-®t line
33. Half-cell potential mapping was carried through all the data. This line corresponds to
out prior to the repair of the trial beams. The the mean correlation.
average rate of reinforcement bar loss for each 34. The half-cell potential technique may
200 mm sectional length was plotted against the therefore be used to identify the location of
associated average interpolated half-cell value active corrosion and also (from Fig. 11) the rate
for the same section (Fig. 11). A least-squares of reinforcement section loss applied to these
6

areas. This introduces a spatial dimension to
the deterioration model which can improve the
accuracy of application.
35. It should be stressed that the half-cell
potential technique is being used here to
identify the location of active corrosion and
does not provide a direct electrochemical
measurement of actual localized rates of
corrosion.
36. The variability of the data used in the
derivation of the empirical model values was
assessed to develop con®dence limits for the
deterioration model and to allow its implemen-
tation in a structural-reliability assessment.
Values for the standard deviation of half-cell
potential measurements and corrosion rates of
49 mV and 1´25 mm 2 /yr, respectively, have been
observed.
37. Figure 11 shows the relationship
between the half-cell potential measurement
and the mean corrosion rate, as derived in the
Midlands Links corrosion model for main steel.
The 95% and 99% characteristic corrosion
rates are also shown in Fig. 11.
38. Structural assessment in accordance
with limit state methods uses characteristic
values for material and loading parameters.
The characteristic strength of a material is
de®ned to be the strength above which 95% of
material tests would be exceeded. Partial
factors of safety are then applied to the
material and load parameters to take account of
uncertainties in the assessment process. In
accordance with limit state philosophy, the
characteristic corrosion rate was determined.
However, deterioration modelling by its nature
is a stochastic process and therefore additional
uncertainty is inevitably present. As there was
no simple method for assessing this uncertainty
to determine an appropriate partial factor of
safety, the characteristic corrosion rate was
de®ned to be the 99% con®dence limit.
39. The Midlands Links corrosion model
was developed to aid in the prioritization of
repairs as part of the overall maintenance
strategy for the Midlands Links motorway
viaducts. The con®dence level in the predicted
corrosion losses was therefore required to be
suciently conservative.
40. Delamination prediction. As part of
the Midlands Links project, delamination
survey data have been collected from a number
of cross-beams. By comparing the newly
delaminated areas identi®ed from the suc-
cessive delamination surveys with the associ-
ated losses predicted from the Midlands Links
corrosion model, a threshold corrosion loss
level for delamination was derived, thus
enabling delamination to be predicted with
time.
41. From the Midlands Links corrosion
model data, the threshold corrosion loss level
for delamination was determined to be 6 mm 2 .
CORROSION MODEL FOR
REINFORCED CONCRETE
This is a 95% characteristic value and is
applied with respect to the loss of material from
a single longitudinal bar. Thus at the point
where a bar is predicted to have lost 6 mm 2 as a
result of calculations made using the Midlands
Links corrosion model, it is assumed to have
become delaminated. This threshold value is
again a complementary, apparent value
obtained from a best-®t analysis of the Mid-
lands Links data. As such it is speci®c to the
Midlands Links corrosion model data.
The proposed general empirical deterioration
model
42. Time to initiation of corrosion. In
order to simplify the application of the empiri-
cal model the following procedure is proposed.
In reality, the time taken for chlorides to reach
the surface of a section (T1 ) will depend on the
section detailing and the mechanism by which
the chlorides eventually gain access to the
surface of the section. It should therefore be
possible to prescribe a set of approximate
values on the basis of the known service life of
certain bridge deck components.
43. If the mechanism by which chlorides
reach the surface of a section is identi®ed as
vehicle spray, and no surface protection (such
as silane) has been applied during construction,
then it could be assumed that chlorides would
reach that surface at the year zero. Equally, if a
surface was a€ected by spray and a silane
treatment had been applied then the time to
chlorides reaching the surface would be related
to the service life of that silane treatment, and
estimates of this service life could be made.
Table 3 gives example guidelines for use in
estimating the time to the arrival of chlorides at
the surface of a section.
44. The service life of the various bridge
components in¯uencing the time to surface
exposure could be estimated from inspection
report information, which should include
details of the conditions of these components.
Realistic values for these service lives should
be veri®ed, as the values given in Table 3 are
chosen simply for demonstration purposes.
45. After an estimate of the value of the
Table 3. Sample table for identi®cation of time to surface exposure to chlorides
Access mechanism for chlorides Time to surface exposure
Spray 0 (untreated surface)
20 years (surface treated with silane)
Expansion joint 0 (low service life)
5 years (medium service life)
10 years (high service life)
Waterproof membrane 0 (low service life)
10 years (medium service life)
20 years (high service life)
7
 ROBERTS ET AL.
time to surface exposure had been obtained,
Fig. 8 could be used to estimate the time to
initiation of corrosion, on the basis of the
(measured) cover depth at the section. Thus the
time of active corrosion and the corrosion
losses could be calculated.
46. It is stressed that the di€usion coe-
cients, surface concentrations and empirical
relationships used to derive Figs 8 and 11 are
based on the Midlands Links structures. Di€er-
ent values for the rate of increase in surface
concentration and for the di€usion coecient
would most certainly be obtained if data from
other structures were to be analysed. Di€erent
empirical relationships between half-cell poten-
tial and corrosion rate would also be obtained.
Further studies of other structures are therefore
required in order to obtain comparative values
for the e€ective corrosion parameters for
general application of the empirical corrosion
model. This should facilitate the derivation of
further ®gures similar to Figs 8 and 11, which
would relate the time to initiation to the cover
depth and the half-cell potential to the cor-
rosion rate, for di€erent structures and/or
corrosion environments.
47. Identi®cation of corrosion environment.
For the empirical model, it is proposed that
high, medium and low corrosion environments
could be de®ned from the following set of
parameters.
(a) High. Half-cell potential more negative than
7350 mV and total chloride concentration
at cover depth greater than 1´0% by weight
of cement.
(b) Medium. Half-cell potential between
7350 mV and 7200 mV and total chloride
concentration at cover depth 0´3 to 1´0%
by weight of cement.
(c) Low. Half-cell potential more positive than
7200 mV and total chloride concentration
at cover depth less than 0´3% by weight of
cement.
48. It is generally accepted 13,14 that half-cell
potential measurements give the following
indications of the likelihood of corrosion of
reinforcement.
(a) A half-cell measurement more positive than
7200 mV indicates a 90% probability that
no corrosion is occurring.
(b) A half-cell measurement within the range
7200 to 7350 mV indicates that corrosion
activity is uncertain.
(c) A half-cell measurement more negative
than 7350 mV indicates a greater than
90% chance that corrosion is occurring.
Here all potential values are given with respect
to a saturated copper/copper sulphate electrode.
However, it should also be stressed that there
may be circumstances where these indications
of likelihood will simply not apply. For
8
Table 4. Risk classi®cation for active corrosion12
Chloride concentration: Risk of corrosion
% weight of cement
50´4 Negligible
0´4±1´0 Possible
1´0±2´0 Probable
42´0 Certain
example, in waterlogged situations, a lack of
oxygen can promote cathodically restrained
active conditions and in such cases, half-cell
potential measurements of less than 7600 mV
can occur.
49. There is no theoretical link between the
chloride concentration at a section and the rate
of corrosion. Chloride concentration in¯uences
only the time to initiation of corrosion. Once the
corrosion has started, the rate is dependent on
the supply of water and oxygen and the
temperature at the section. However, previous
authors 4,12,14 have suggested that chloride con-
centration data can be used to indicate the
probability of active corrosion at the section.
Table 4 shows the corrosion risk classi®cations
referred to.
50. The same authors 4,12,14 have also pre-
sented data which suggests some observed
relationships between chloride levels and half-
cell potential measurements, and between
chloride levels and corrosion rates. Thus while
it is stressed that there is no theoretical
relationship between the chloride level and the
corrosion rate, it is probable that high levels of
chloride at a section will coincide with a high
corrosion rate.
51. It is recognized that half-cell potential
and chloride pro®le data may not always be
available for every structure. An alternative
means to obtain an indication of the likely
corrosion environment has therefore been
derived. Data from a study of 200 UK bridge
structures 15 have suggested that the relevant
corrosion environment could be identi®ed from
consideration of parameters such as the loca-
tion of reinforcement within the structure itself
or the reinforcement detailing. A suggested
form for use in the identi®cation of an appro-
priate corrosion environment has been
developed and is presented in Table 5.
52. It might have been assumed that the
geographic location of a structure would have
some in¯uence over the corrosion environment
as structures in certain areas of the country will
be subject to more frequent salting than others.
However, geographic location has not been
considered as a quali®er for the corrosion
environment as data suggest 14 that the level of
salting on a road is not correlated with the
chloride concentration within the structure.
Structure-speci®c details, such as the severity
and duration of any leakage (say), are sug-

gested 15 as being more important than the level
of salting in governing the chloride concentra-
tion levels within a structure.
53. Corrosion rates. Within the Midlands
Links corrosion model, empirical relationships
between half-cell potential and corrosion rate
were derived separately for main steel and
shear links. However, it can be shown that the
relationship derived for the main steel can be
applied conservatively to shear links. For the
empirical model proposed herein, the relation-
ship between half-cell potential and corrosion
rate derived for the main steel has therefore
been adopted for all reinforcement.
54. For the proposed empirical corrosion
model the mean corrosion rates have been
assumed to be appropriate, as the model is
intended for use in strategic decision-making
only. If the corrosion model were to be used
for actual assessment purposes then the
characteristic corrosion rates would have to be
implemented.
55. From the mean rates calculated from the
Midlands Links corrosion model data, three
rates of corrosion are proposed, as listed below.
These rates would be applied in the corre-
sponding corrosion environments.
(a) HighÐ3 mm 2 /year loss of cross-sectional
area.
(b) MediumÐ2 mm 2 /year loss of cross-
sectional area.
(c) LowÐ1 mm 2 /year loss of cross-sectional
area.
These rates of material loss would be applied to
main bars and shear links, regardless of the bar
size, and in any section.
56. While the above corrosion rates are
based on the relationship between half-cell
potential and corrosion rate derived for the
Midlands Links motorway viaducts, other rela-
tionships would almost certainly be found for
other structures. Thus prior to the implementa-
tion of the proposed empirical model it is
essential that additional work to establish a
range of data for the relationship between half-
cell potential and corrosion rate for other
structures is obtained. It may be possible to
categorize this relationship by type of structure
or by type of materials in order that the
appropriate relationship for a structure under-
going assessment can be easily identi®ed.
57. Delamination. The spatial variation
of delamination can be taken into account
by means of the fact that the delamination
threshold is related to the corrosion loss, which
is related to the half-cell potential by the
empirical model. Thus contour plots of half-cell
potential can be used to generate contour plots
of corrosion rates and localized values of
corrosion loss. However, it is assumed that
what will actually happen in the application of
the empirical corrosion model will be that the
CORROSION MODEL FOR
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Table 5. Proposed form for identi®cation of appropriate corrosion environment
where no site-speci®c data are available
Quali®er Corrosion
environment
Section of bridge deck at leaking expansion joint or gutter, High
e.g. deck end or crosshead
Top surfaces of decks where resurfacing has occurred or top High
surfaces of older (before approx. 1964), unwaterproofed
bridge decks
Areas where spalling of surface concrete has occurred High
Roadside bridge abutment, parapet upstand or deck edge High
beam subject to vehicle spray from salted road
Bottom of roadside bridge pier subject to vehicle spray from Medium
salted road
Top of roadside bridge pier subject to vehicle spray from Low
salted road
Bridge sot subject to vehicle spray from salted road below Low
worst corrosion environment will simply be
applied to the whole section or element being
assessed. This will be a more conservative
approach; however, it is undoubtedly a more
practical method of implementation for the
empirical model.
58. Once an area of delamination has been
identi®ed, it is up to the engineer to decide how
he/she is going to use this information in their
analysis. Some engineering judgement will be
required in order that the e€ect of delamination
at a certain section or region of a slab is taken
into account.
59. The di€erences between the Midlands
Links corrosion model and the proposed
empirical model are small. It is therefore
proposed that the same threshold value for
delamination could be adopted for the empirical
model also.
Comparison of theoretical and empirical
corrosion models
60. In the Midlands Links corrosion model,
a critical chloride concentration of 0´4% by
weight of cement has been used. This limit is
slightly higher than the 0´3% obtained from an
extensive literature review and proposed for
use in the theoretical model. For consistency
with the results of the literature review, a
critical chloride level of 0´3% has been adopted
for the empirical model proposed herein. This
decision marks a singular change from the
Midlands Links corrosion model.
61. As mentioned previously, the Midlands
Links model was derived from a best-®t analy-
sis of measured data. Thus the model parameter
values derived for the Midlands Links model
are complementary to each other. If a 0´3%
threshold level for initiation of corrosion had
been used for the Midlands Links model then
the time of active corrosion would have been
9
 ROBERTS ET AL.

increased and so the mean corrosion rate would 160

Low
have been reduced. Therefore, in adopting a 140 theoretical

Time to initiation: years

critical chloride level of 0´3% for the proposed 120
empirical model, it has been necessary to derive Medium
100
complementary values for the mean corrosion theoretical
80
rate, to take account of the e€ective increase in High
time of active corrosion. The e€ect of this 60 theoretical Fig. 12. Comparison
change is small, however, and can be shown to 40 of theoretical and
reduce the mean corrosion rate in the empirical 20
proposed empirical
corrosion model by 6% relative to the Midlands Empirical corrosion models for
0
Links model. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 time to corrosion
62. The Midlands Links model predictions Cover: mm initiation
of section loss have been veri®ed against more
recent repair contracts and the data were in
good agreement. The 0´4% threshold was 1·0
Low
therefore suitable for the Midlands Links. 0·95
However, as stated above, the 0´3% threshold 0·9 Medium
Low
value was obtained as a result of a comprehen- 0·85
A (t )/A (0)
High
sive literature review of data and is therefore 0·8
the value proposed for use within the empirical 0·75 Theoretical Medium
Empirical
model. 0·7 Fig. 13. Comparison
0·65
of theoretical and
Time to corrosion initiation High empirical corrosion
0·6
63. Figure 12 shows a comparison of calcu- 0 50 100 150 models for active
lated values for the time to corrosion initiation Time: years corrosion
obtained from the theoretical model and the
proposed general empirical model. The values
of e€ective surface concentration, critical chlor- able to very poor. It is therefore seen as the
ide concentration and apparent di€usion coe- most reliable model available for the estimation
cient were taken from Table 1. It can be seen of corrosion losses at the present time. Until
that the empirical corrosion model predicts such time as veri®cation of the proposed
shorter times to initiation of corrosion. empirical corrosion rates can be obtained, the
proposed empirical model should only be used
Loss of cross-sectional area to compare the relative risk of corrosion
64. Figure 13 shows comparisons of the between di€erent structures.
theoretical and (proposed) empirical corrosion
models, applied to a 40 mm bar for low, medium Conclusions
and high corrosion environments. The proposed 66. An empirical corrosion model has been
empirical model appears highly conservative developed from measured data taken from the
when compared with the theoretical models. Midlands Links motorway viaducts. This model
That is to say, Fig. 13 shows that, for a given has been used to form the basis of a proposed
bar size subject to a given corrosion environ- empirical corrosion model which could have
ment, the proposed empirical model predicts wider application and therefore provide infor-
greater corrosion levels than the theoretical mation on the relative risk from corrosion in a
model. However, the Midlands Links data population of concrete structures.
represent the most comprehensive study of 67. Comparisons between the proposed
actual corrosion data from a UK structure empirical corrosion model and existing theor-
known to the authors. While the empirical etical corrosion models suggest that the pro-
model may appear conservative when compared posed empirical model is suciently
with the theoretical model described above, it conservative. However, it is noted that the
represents real corrosion measurements taken theoretical corrosion models have not been
from a real structure and as such it is con- validated against real data, whereas the pro-
sidered more reliable than the theoretical model posed empirical model is based on measured
for use in estimating the behaviour of UK data taken from real structures. The proposed
structures. empirical model is therefore seen to o€er a
65. It is stressed that veri®cation of the working solution to the problems of predicting
proposed corrosion rates is seen as essential corrosion losses in the ageing bridge stock in
prior to the widespread application of the the UK.
general empirical corrosion model to structural
elements other than cross-beams. However, it is Acknowledgements
reiterated that the empirical model is based on 68. The authors wish to acknowledge the
data taken from a real structure, where the contribution of the Highways Agency and W. S.
condition of that structure varied from reason- Atkins to the development of the deterioration
10

model used in the Midland Links risk-based
strategy, on which the general methodology
presented here is based.
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Please email, fax or post your discussion contributions to the Secretary:
email: Wilson_l@ice.org.uk; fax: +44 (0)20 7799 1325; or post to Lesley Wilson,
Journals Department, Institution of Civil Engineers, 1±7 Great George Street,
London SW1P 3AA.
CORROSION MODEL FOR
REINFORCED CONCRETE
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11