Basic Fault Calculation&Analysis of Balanced Fault

Basic Fault Calculations
and Analysis of Balanced Faults
GRID
Technical Institute
This document is the exclusive property of Alstom Grid and shall not be
transmitted by any means, copied, reproduced or modified without the prior
written consent of Alstom Grid Technical Institute. All rights reserved.
Power System Fault Analysis
All Protection Engineers should have an understanding

To:-
► Calculate Power System Currents and Voltages during
Fault Conditions
► Check that Breaking Capacity of Switchgear is Not
Exceeded
► Determine the Quantities which can be used by Relays to
Distinguish Between Healthy (i.e. Loaded) and Fault
Conditions
► Appreciate the Effect of the Method of Earthing on the
Detection of Earth Faults
► Select the Best Relay Characteristics for Fault Detection
2 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Power System Fault Analysis
► Ensure that Load and Short Ratings of Plant are Not

Exceeded
► Select Relay Settings for Fault Detection and
Descrimination
► Understand Principles of Relay Operation
► Conduct Post Fault Analysis
Power System Fault Analysis Also Used To:-
► Consider Stability Conditions

Required Fault Clearance Times
Need for 1 Phase or 3 Phase Auto-Reclose

Computer Fault Calculation Programmes
► Widely available, particularly in large power utilities

► Powerful for large power systems
► Sometimes over-complex for simple circuits
► Not always user friendly
► Sometimes operated by other departments and not
directly available to protection engineers
► Programme calculation methods:- understanding is
important
► Need for ‘by hand’ spot checks of calculations
Pocket Calculator Methods
► Adequate for the majority of simple applications

► Useful when no access is available to computers and
programmes e.g. on site
► Useful for ‘spot checks’ on computer results

Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation Failure
Underground Cables
Diggers
Overloading
Oil Leakage
Ageing
Overhead Lines
Lightning
Kites
Trees
Moisture
Salt
Birds
Broken Conductors
Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation Failure
Machines
Mechanical Damage
Unbalanced Load

Types Of Fault
a a a
Ø/E
b b b
c c c
e e e
a a a
Ø/Ø/E
b b b
c c c
e e e
a a a
b b b
Ø/Ø
c c c
a
a b
b 3Ø/E
c
3Ø
c
e
Types Of Fault
OPEN a
b
CIRCUITS
c
a a'
CROSS
COUNTRY
b b'
FAULT c c'
e e
a
OPEN FAULT
CIRCUIT b
BETWEEN
+ c ADJACENT
Ø/E PARALLEL
e LINES

Types Of Fault
a
CHANGING
FAULT IN
CABLE
b c
Voltage Convention
► In power system analysis it is important to maintain a

consistent approach when relating currents and voltages
► This is achieved by maintaining a VOLTAGE

CONVENTION:
I A
+
EAB ~ Z VAB
-
B
VAB = Voltage of ‘A’ above ‘B’ = + IZ

Vectors
Rotating Vectors can be used to represent

Sinusoidal Electrical Quantities
+V
ωt
V = Vsinωt
-V
Vectors
Vector notation can be used to represent phase

relationship between electrical quantities
Z
V I
V = Vsinωt = V ∠0°
θ
I = I ∠-θ° = Isin(ωt-θ)

Vector Multiplication And Division
A
B
θA
θB
Vector Multiplication
A.B
A.B = A ∠θA . B∠θB
= A.B ∠(θ A + θB)
θA + θB
Vector Multiplication And Division
Vector Division
A
B
=A ∠ θA / B ∠θA A
B
= A ∠ (θ - θ )
B
A B θ A – θB
Example:
V V ∠0 0 V
Z= = 0
= ∠θ = Z∠θ
I I∠ − θ I

j Operator
Rotates vectors by 90° anti-clockwise :
j = 1 ∠90°
90° 90°
j2 = 1 ∠180° 1
= -1
90° 90°
j3 = 1 ∠270°
= -j
Used to express vectors in terms of “real” and

“imaginary” parts.
j Operator
Used to express vectors in terms of “real” and

“imaginary” parts
Example :Z = Z ∠θ
Imaginary
Z
ZSinθ
θ
ZCosθ Real
Z = Z ∠ θ = Zcos θ + j Z sin θ
= R + jX
Resistance Reactance

j Operator
LET : V = V sin ω t = V ∠ 0 0
V = V∠0 0
I = I∠ − θ = I sin(ωt − θ)
V V
IMPEDANCE Z = = ∠θ = Z∠θ
I I jX
Z = Z∠θ = Z cosθ + jZ sin θ
θ R
I Lagging V represented by anticlockwise angles on R/jX plane
a = 1 ∠120 °
Rotates vectors by 120° anticlockwise

Used extensively in “Symmetrical Component Analysis”
1 3
a = 1∠120 ° = - + j
2 2
120°
120° 1
120°
1 3
a 2 = 1∠ 240 ° = − − j
2 2
a = 1 ∠120 °
Balanced 3Ø voltages :-
VC = aVA
a2 + a + 1 = 0 VA
VB = a2VA
Balanced (3Ø) Faults
X RARE :- Majority of Faults are Unbalanced

X CAUSES :-
1. System Energisation with Maintenance Earthing
Clamps still connected.
2. 1Ø Faults developing into 3Ø Faults
X 3Ø FAULTS MAY BE REPRESENTED BY 1Ø CIRCUIT

Valid because system is maintained in a BALANCED state
during the fault
Voltages equal and 120° apart
Currents equal and 120° apart
Power System Plant Symmetrical
Phase Impedances Equal
Mutual Impedances Equal
Shunt Admittances Equal

GENERATOR TRANSFORMER
LINE ‘X’ LINE ‘Y’
LOADS
3Ø FAULT
Ea ZG ZT ZLX IaF ZLY
Eb IbF
Ec IcF
ZLOAD

IcF
Ea
IaF
Ec Eb
IbF
Positive Sequence (Single Phase) Circuit :-

Ea
ZG1 ZT1 ZLX1 F1 ZLX2
Ia1 = IaF ZLOAD

N1

Maximum Fault Level
Three Phase Fault Level:

IF(max) = VA Fault level / (√3 x Line voltage)
= (MVA x 1000) / (√3 x kV)
Typical Maximum Fault Levels:
System Voltage kV MVA Fault Level Max. Fault Current

(kA)
400 35 000 50
132 5 000 22
33 1 000 17.5
11 250 13.1
400V 25 55
Single Phase Fault Level:
► Can be higher than 3Ф fault level on solidly-earthed systems;
► Check that switchgear breaking capacity > maximum fault level for
all types
Generator Short Circuit Current

The AC Symmetrical component of the short circuit current varies with time
due to effect of armature reaction.
i
TIME
Magnitude (RMS) of current at any time t after instant of short circuit :
Ι ac = (Ι" - Ι' )e- t/Td" + (Ι' - Ι )e- t/Td' + Ι

where :
I" = Initial Symmetrical S/C Current or Subtransient Current
= E/Xd"
I' = Symmetrical Current a Few Cycles Later or
Transient Current = E/Xd'
I = Symmetrical Steady State Current = E/Xd

Simple Generator Models
Generator model to calculate the initial symmetrical S/C
current or subtransient current
jXd”
Generator model to obtain the S/C current a few cycles later,

IE; the transient current
jXd’
Generator model to obtain the steady state current

jXd
Variation Of Generator Fault Current After Fault

Instant – No Voltage Regulation
CURRENT
0.368 [Id” – Id’]
T” 0.368 [Id’ – Id]

Id ” T’
Id ’
Id
TIME
Iac = (Id”– Id’)e-t/T” + (Id’- Id)e-t/T’ + Id

Effect of Automatic Voltage Regulation On Short
Circuit Current Of Generators
Multiples
Of Rated 6
Current
With AVR
2
Without AVR
1 2 3 4 TIME IN SECS
Parallel Generators
11kV 11kV
XG=0.2pu 11kV
j0.05 j0.1
20MVA
XG=0.2pu
20MVA
X If both generator EMF’s are equal ∴ they can be thought

of as resulting from the same ideal source - thus the
circuit can be simplified.
P.U. Diagram
j0.05 j0.1 j0.05 j0.1
j0.2 j0.2 j0.2 j0.2
IF
⇒ IF
1.0 1.0 1.0
Positive Sequence Impedances of Transformers
2. Winding Transformers
P S ZP = Primary Leakage Reactance

ZS = Secondary Leakage
Reactance
ZM = Magnetising impedance
P1 ZP ZS S1 = Large compared with ZP
and ZS
ZM ZM Æ Infinity ∴ Represented by
an Open Circuit
N1 ZT1 = ZP + ZS = Positive
Sequence Impedance
P1 ZT1 = ZP + ZS S1
ZP and ZS
both expressed
on same voltage
N1 base.

Positive Sequence Impedances of Transformers
3. Winding Transformers
P ZP ZS S
P S
ZM ZT
T
T
N1
ZP, ZS, ZT = Leakage reactances of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Windings
T
ZM = Magnetising Impedance = Large Ignored ∴
ZP-S = ZP + ZS = Impedance
P ZP ZS S between Primary (P) and
Secondary (S) where ZP & ZS are
both expressed on same voltage
ZT base
T
Similarly ZP-T = ZP + ZT and ZS-T =
ZS + ZT
N1
Auto-Transformers
H L
T
Equivalent circuit is similar to that of a 3 winding transformer
H ZH1 ZL1 L
ZM1 ZT1
T
N1
ZM = Magnetising Impedance = Large ∴ Ignored
H ZH1 ZL1 L ZHL1 = ZH1 + ZL1 (both referred to

same voltage base)
ZHT1 = ZH1 + ZT1 (both referred to
ZT1 same voltage base)
T ZLT1 = ZL1 + ZT1 (both referred to
same voltage base)
N1

Motors
X Fault current contribution decays with time

X Decay rate of the current depends on the system. From tests,
typical decay rate is 100 - 150ms.
X Typically modelled as a voltage behind an impedance
Xd"
M 1.0
Induction Motors – IEEE Recommendations
Small Motors
Motor load <35kW neglect
Motor load >35kW SCM = 4 x sum of FLCM
Large Motors
SCM ≈ motor full load amps
Xd"
Approximation : SCM = locked rotor amps

SCM = 5 x FLCM ≈ assumes motor
impedance 20%

Synchronous Motors – IEEE Recommendations
Large Synchronous Motors

SCM ≈ 6.7 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 15%
1200 rpm
≈ 5 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 20%

514 - 900 rpm
≈ 3.6 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 28%

450 rpm or less
Overhead Line Impedances

R L
SERIES
C G SHUNT
R = AC RESISTANCE
L = SERIES INDUCTABLE
C = SHUNT CAPACITANCE
G = SHUNT CONDUCTANCE (NEGLIGABLE)
X Series elements are of greatest interest to protection

engineers

Symmetrical Circuit
A
►Carsons Equations
D D ⎧Self Impedance = ZP ⎫
⎪ ⎪
De
⎪ = R + 0.00159f + j 0.00466f log10 (Ω / mile )⎪
⎪ τG ⎪
⎨ ⎬
⎪Mutual Impedance = ZM ⎪
⎪ De ⎪
C B
⎪ = 0.00159f + j0.00466f log10 (Ω / mile ) ⎪
⎩ D ⎭
D
D
Z1 = Z 2 = Z p - Z M = R + j 0.00466f log10 (Ω / mile )
τG
De
Z o = Z p + 2Zm = R + 0.00477f + j 0.01398f. log10 3
(Ω/mile )
τ G .D 2
Where: -
R = Conductor a.c. resistance
τ = Geometric mean radius of a single conductor
G
D = Spacing between parallel conductors
De = Equivalent spacing of the earth return path (ft)
= 2160 √e/f
e = Earth resistivity (ohm – metres)
Positive Sequence
Zp
Ia1
Ea
Ib1 Zp Zm
Eb
Zm
Ic1 Zp Zm
Ec
Ea = Ia1 Zp + Ib1 Zm + Ic1 Zm

= Ia1 {Zp – Zm}
Ea
Z1 = = Zp – Zm
Ia1

Zero Sequence
Zp
I
Zp Zm
I
E
Zm
Zp Zm
I
E = I Zp + 2 I Zm
Single
= I { Zp + 2 Zm } Circuit
Ea
Z0 = = Zp + 2Zm
I
Double
ZO = Zp + 2 Zm + ZOM Circuit Line (Single Circuit)
Non – Symmetrical Circuits
DAB B
A
DCA DBC
Transposed Line:-
A C B
B A C
C B A

Non – Symmetrical Circuits
D
Z 1 = Z 2 = R + j 0.00466f. log 10 ( Ω /mile)
τG
D
= R + j 0.0029f. log 10 ( Ω / Km )
τG
De
Z O = R + 0.00477f + j 0.01398f. log 10 3
( Ω / mile )
2
τ G .D
De
= R + 0.00296f + j 0.00869f. log 10 3
( Ω / Km )
2
τ G .D
where :
D = Geometric mean distance between conductors

3
= DAB.DBC.DC A
Typical GMD Values For 3Ø Overhead Lines
GMD
(Metres)
16
14
12 l
o nta
10 riz
Ho
al
8 ertic
V
6
lta
4 De
2
100 200 300 400 500
System Operating Voltage (kV Ø-Ø)

Positive Sequence Induction Of Overhead
Transmission Lines – Typical Values
1.5
D
x α log
τG
10
mH
km
1
‘D’ Increasing τ‘ G’ Increasing Faster Than ‘D’

τ
‘ G’ ~ Constant
0 100 200 300 400

System Voltage kV
Different Voltages – How Do We Analyse?
11kV 11/132kV 132/33kV

20MVA 50MVA 50MVA
O/H Line Feeder
ZG=0.3pu ZL=40Ω ZL=8Ω

ZT=10% ZT=10%

Referring Impedances
X1 R2 X2
R1
N : 1
Ideal
Transformer
Consider the equivalent CCT referred to :-
Primary Secondary
R1 + N2R2 X1 + N2X2 X1/N2 + X2
R1/N2 + R2
Per Unit System
Used to simplify calculations on systems with

more than 2 voltages.
Definition:
P.U. Value Actual Value

=
of a Quantity Base Value in the Same Units

Base Quantities and Per Unit Values
11 kV 11/132 kV 132/33 kV
20 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA
O/H LINE FEEDER
ZG = 0.3 p.u. ZL = 40Ω ZL = 8Ω

ZT = 10% ZT = 10%
X Particularly useful when analysing large systems with

several voltage levels
X All system parameters referred to common base quantities
X Base quantities fixed in one part of system
X Base quantities at other parts at different voltage levels
depend on ratio of intervening transformers
Base Quantities Normally Used :-
BASE MVA = MVAb = 3∅ MVA

Constant at all voltage levels
Value ~ MVA rating of largest item
of plant or 100MVA
BASE VOLTAGE = KVb = ∅/∅ voltage in kV
Fixed in one part of system

This value is referred through
transformers to obtain base
voltages on other parts of system
Base voltages on each side of
transformer are in same ratio as
voltage ratio

Other Base Quantities :-
(kVb )2
Base Impedance = Z b = in Ohms
MVA b
MVA b
Base Current = Ιb = in kA
3 . kVb
Per Unit Values = Actual Value

Base Value
MVA a
Per Unit MVA = MVAp.u. =
MVAb
KVa
Per Unit Voltage = kVp.u. =
KVb
Za MVAb
Per Unit Impedance = Zp.u. = = Za .
Zb (kVb )2
Ιa
Per Unit Current = Ιp.u. =
Ιb

Per Unit Values = Actual Value/ Base Value
► The base or reference value is generally related to the

equipment rating
E.g. Current rating = 600A

∴
►
600A = 1.0 pu
► Sometimes specified in percentage, where 1 pu = 100%
For Impedances
Per unit value = Ohmic value / Base value
Base Value = (kV2) / MVA

∴
If a 11kV / 440V transformer is rated at 500kVA, with an
impedance 0.1 pu (10%) :
Ohmic value = Per unit value x Base value

= 0.10 x (0.4402 / 0.500)
= 0.10 x 0.387
= 0.039 Ω Viewed from the LV side
= 24.2 Ω Viewed from the HV side

Transformer Percentage Impedance
X If ZT = 5%
with Secondary S/C
5% V (RATED) produces I (RATED) in Secondary.
∴ V (RATED) produces 100 x I (RATED)
5
= 20 x I (RATED)
X If Source Impedance ZS = 0
Fault current = 20 x I (RATED)
Fault Power = 20 x kVA (RATED)
X ZT is based on I (RATED) & V (RATED)

i.e. Based on MVA (RATED) & kV (RATED)
∴ is same value viewed from either side of transformer
Example (1)
Per unit impedance of transformer is same on each side of

the transformer.
Consider transformer of ratio kV1 / kV2
1 2
MVA
kVb = kV1 kVb = kV2
Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 1 = Za1
Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 2 = Za2

Example (2)
Base voltage on each side of a transformer must be in the

same ratio as voltage ratio of transformer
11.8kV 11.8/141kV 132/11kV
OHL Distribution
System
Incorrect selection
of kVb 11.8kV 132kV 11kV
Correct selection 132x11.8 132kV 11kV

of kVb 141
= 11.05kV
Alternative correct 11.8kV 141kV 141x11 = 11.75kV

selection of kVb 132
Conversion of Per Unit Values from One Set of

Quantities to Another
Z p.u.1 Z p.u. 2
Zb1 Zb2
MVAb1 MVAb2
kVb1 kVb2
Actual Z = Za
Za
Z p.u.1 =
Z b1
Za Z b1
Z p.u.2 = = Z p.u.1 x
Z b2 Z b2
(kV b1 ) 2 MVA b2
= Z p.u.1 x x
MVA b1 (kV b2 ) 2
MVA (kV )2
= Z p.u.1 x b2
x b1
MVA b1 (kV b2 )2
Conversion of Per Unit Values from One Set of
Quantities to Another
11 kV 11/132 kV 132/33 kV
20 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA
0.3p.u. 10% 40Ω 10% 8Ω

3∅
11 132 FAULT
kVb 33
MVAb 50 50 50
Zb 2.42Ω 349 Ω 21.8 Ω
= kVb2
MVAb
Ib 2625 A 219 A 874 A
= MVAb
√3kV b
Zp.u. 0.3 x 50 40 = 0.115 8 = 0.367
20 0.1p.u. 349
p.u. 0.1
p.u. 21.8 p.u.
= 0.75p.u.
1.432p.u.
∴ I11 kV = 0.698 x Ib =
0.698 x 2625 = 1833A
V 1p.u. IF = 1 = 0.698p.u. I132 kV = 0.698 x 219 = 153A
1.432
I33 kV = 0.698 x 874 = 610A
Circuit Laws
Three laws from which all circuit theorems have been derived: -
Ohms Laws I Z
V = IZ
V
Kirchoff’s Junction Law
I1
I2
ΣI = 0
I3 I1 + I2 + I3 = 0
Kirchoff’s Mesh Law Z1 Z2
E1 Z3 E2
1 2
i1 i2
Round Any Mesh ΣE = ΣIZ

e.g. E1 = i1Z1 + i1Z3 – i2Z3 etc.
Thevenin’s Theorem (1)
Useful for replacing part of a system which is not of particular interest
by a single equivalent voltage and series impedance
For Example: -
Replacement of power system supplying an industrial network
Z1 Z2
E1 ~ Z3 ~ E2
Z1
E1 ~ Z3 E1’ = Open Circuit Voltage

= Z3 . E1
Z1 + Z3
Thevenin’s Theorem (2)
Z1
Z’ = Impedance with E1 S/C

Z3
= Z1 Z3
Z1 + Z3
Thevenin equivalent circuit :-

Z’ Z2
E1’ ~ ~ E2

Star/Delta & Delta/Star Transform Theorem (1)
Useful when reducing overall system equivalent impedance to

a single value
~
~ ~
ZEQUIV
~
Star/Delta & Delta/Star Transform Theorem (2)
1
1
Z10
Z31 Z12
Z30
Z20
Z23
3 2
3 2
Z12 . Z 31
Z10 = Z10 . Z 20
Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31 Z12 = Z10 + Z 20 +
Z 30
Z12 . Z 23 Z 20 . Z 30
Z 20 = Z 23 = Z 20 + Z 30 +
Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31 Z10
Z 23 . Z 31 Z 30 . Z10
Z 30 = Z 31 = Z 30 + Z10 +
Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31 Z 20
Superposition Theorem
Z1 Z2
I3
E1 ~
Z3
~ E2 I3 = I31 + I32
Z1 Z2
I31
E1 ~
Z3
Z1 + Z2
I32
Z3 ~ E2
Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex = EY)
Healthy Loaded System
F1
~ EX ~ EY
N1
Faulted System (3Ø Fault):-
F1
~ EX IF ~ EY
N1

Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex = EY)
If EX = EY = E
F1
E ~ IF
N1
Ignore Load:-
F1
E ~ IF
N1
Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex ≠ EY)
Healthy Loaded System:-
F1
EX ~ VPF = E ~ EY
N1
Thevenise between F1 and N1:-

F1
~ E
N1
Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex ≠ EY)
Fault Between F1 and N1:-

F1
IF
~ E
N1
Ignore Load:-
F1
IF
~ E
N1
Pre-Fault Load Conditions (1)
Z1 Z2 Z4 Z6
I6L
IIL I3L I4L
P1
Ex
~ Z2 VPF Z5 ~ EY
N1
I2L I5(L)
Pre-Fault Load Conditions: -
►For a fault at P
Pre-fault voltage = VPF
Pre-fault Load Currents = I. (L)

Pre-Fault Load Conditions (2)
P1 IF
Z1 Z3 Z4 Z6 I6(F)
II(F) I3(F) I4(F)
EX ~ Z2 Z5 ~ EY
I2(F) I5(F)
N1
Three Phase Fault At P: -

Using exact values of EX and EY
Total current in each branch = I(F)
Three Phase Fault At P

IT = IF
P1
Z1 Z3 Z4 Z6 I6(T)
I3(T) I4(T)
Z2 Z5
I1(T)
I2(T) I5(T)
~ VPF
N1
Thevenised Circuit Used To Calculate Fault

Current IF
Current in each branch of system is not necessarily the total
current in the branch
Current in branches = I-(T)
I-(T) ≠ I-(F)
Pre – Fault Load Circuit
Z1 I3(L) Z3 I4(L) Z4 Z6
II(L) I6(L)
P1
EX ~ Z2 VPF Z5 ~ EY
I2(L) N1 I5(L)
This can be represented by:-
Z6
Z1 I3(L) Z3 I4(L) Z4 I6(L)
II(L) P1
EX ~ Z2 Z5 ~ EY
~ VPF
I2(L) N1 I5(L)
Theoretical generator VPF does not affect the current distribution
Calculate load current followed by pre-fault voltage using superposition
Example Calculation
Power System
A B
~ ~
O
3Ø FAULT
LOAD
A 2.5Ω B
1.6Ω 0.45Ω
0.75Ω 0.45Ω
O
E’
~ ~ E’’
18.85Ω
VPF
N1

Example Calculation
A 2.5Ω B
1.6Ω 0.45Ω
0.75Ω 0.45Ω
O
E’
~ ~ E’’
18.85Ω
VPF
N1
Convert impedances A0, B0 + N10 to equivalent Δ impedances
Z A0 .Z N10
ZAN1 = ZA0 + ZN10 +
Z B0
0.75 x 18.85
= 0.75 + 18.85 + = 51Ω
0.45
This gives :-
Example Calculation
Circuit with equivalent Δ impedances:
A 2.5Ω B
1.6Ω 0.4Ω
ZAB = 1.22Ω
E’
~ ZAN1 = 51Ω ~ E’’
VPF ZBN1 = 30.6Ω
N1
By Thevenins Theorem the network can be represented by:-
A 2.5Ω B
1.6Ω 0.4Ω
1.22Ω
N1
VPF 51Ω 30.6Ω

Example Calculation
Reducing the network to a single voltage and impedance
A 0.82Ω
N1
1.55Ω 0.345Ω
VPF ~
A
N1
VPF 1.55Ω 1.215Ω

~
A
N1
0.682Ω
VPF ~
Example Calculation
Assuming IF = 1
A
IF=1.0
N1
0.682Ω
VPF ~
1.0
N1
VPF 1.55Ω 1.215Ω

~
1.215
= 0.44
2.765 0.56
A
A 0.82Ω
1.0
N1
VPF 1.55Ω 0.345Ω This gives :-
~
0.44 0.56

Example Calculation
A 0.82Ω
1.0
N1
1.55Ω 0.345Ω
VPF ~
0.44 0.56
A 2.5Ω
B
1.6Ω 0.56-0.376 0.4Ω
=0.184
1.22Ω
0.44 x 51 1.0
52.6 0.56 x 30.6
0.56 x 2.5
= 0.376 31
51Ω 3.72 30.6Ω
= 0.427 VPF = 0.553
0.44-0.427 0.56-0.553
=0.013 =0.007
N1
Now convert Δ impedances AN1, BN1, and AB

back to equivalent impedances:
Example Calculation
Positive Sequence
Distribution Factors
A 2.5Ω B
0.184
1.6Ω 0.4Ω
0.427 0.75Ω 0.45Ω 0.553

O
0.553 - 0.184
E’
~ 1.0 – (0.427+0.184)
= 1.0 – 0.611 =0.369 ~ E’’
= 0.389 18.85Ω
1.0
VPF 0.389 – 0.369
=0.02
N1

D.C. Transients & Offsets
Fault Applied
Z∠Ø
iF
R + jωL
~ id.c.
VM sin (ωt + α)
iF
ia.c.
iF = Id.c. + I a.c.
- VM V
= sin (α - φ) e - Rt/L + M sin (wt + α - φ)
Z Z
D.C. Transient Symmetrical A.C.

Component Component
π 3π
Max. value when (α – Ø) = - or
2 2
If Ø = 90°, this occurs when α = 0 or 180°, i.r. when the fault occurs at
voltage zero.

Basic Fault Calculation&amp;Analysis of Balanced Fault

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Basic Fault Calculation&amp;Analysis of Balanced Fault

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Basic Fault Calculations

and Analysis of Balanced Faults

Power System Fault Analysis

All Protection Engineers should have an understanding

2 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

► Ensure that Load and Short Ratings of Plant are Not

3 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Power System Fault Analysis Also Used To:-

► Consider Stability Conditions

4 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

► Widely available, particularly in large power utilities

5 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Pocket Calculator Methods

► Adequate for the majority of simple applications

6 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

7 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation Failure

8 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

10 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

11 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

► In power system analysis it is important to maintain a

► This is achieved by maintaining a VOLTAGE

VAB = Voltage of ‘A’ above ‘B’ = + IZ

12 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Rotating Vectors can be used to represent

13 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Vector notation can be used to represent phase

14 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

= A.B ∠(θ A + θB)

15 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Vector Multiplication And Division

16 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Rotates vectors by 90° anti-clockwise :

Used to express vectors in terms of “real” and

17 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Used to express vectors in terms of “real” and

18 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Z = Z∠θ = Z cosθ + jZ sin θ

I Lagging V represented by anticlockwise angles on R/jX plane

19 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Rotates vectors by 120° anticlockwise

21 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Balanced (3Ø) Faults

X RARE :- Majority of Faults are Unbalanced

X 3Ø FAULTS MAY BE REPRESENTED BY 1Ø CIRCUIT

22 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Ea ZG ZT ZLX IaF ZLY

23 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Balanced (3Ø) Faults

Positive Sequence (Single Phase) Circuit :-

Ia1 = IaF ZLOAD

24 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Three Phase Fault Level:

System Voltage kV MVA Fault Level Max. Fault Current

25 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Generator Short Circuit Current

Magnitude (RMS) of current at any time t after instant of short circuit :

Ι ac = (Ι" - Ι' )e- t/Td" + (Ι' - Ι )e- t/Td' + Ι

26 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Generator model to obtain the S/C current a few cycles later,

Generator model to obtain the steady state current

27 > Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults

Variation Of Generator Fault Current After Fault

T” 0.368 [Id’ – Id]

Basic Fault Calculation&Analysis of Balanced Fault

Basic Fault Calculation&Analysis of Balanced Fault