Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

A model of turbocharger radial turbines appropriate to be used in zero- and

one-dimensional gas dynamics codes for internal combustion engines modelling
J.R. Serrano a,*, F.J. Arnau a, V. Dolz a, A. Tiseira a, C. Cervelló b
a
CMT-Motores Térmicos, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
b
Consellerı́a de Cultura, Educación y Deporte, Generalitat Valenciana, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The paper presents a model of fixed and variable geometry turbines. The aim of this model is to provide
Received 6 March 2007 an efficient boundary condition to model turbocharged internal combustion engines with zero- and one-
Received in revised form 26 November 2007 dimensional gas dynamic codes.
Accepted 29 June 2008
The model is based from its very conception on the measured characteristics of the turbine. Neverthe-
Available online 23 August 2008
less, it is capable of extrapolating operating conditions that differ from those included in the turbine
maps, since the engines usually work within these zones.
Keywords:
The presented model has been implemented in a one-dimensional gas dynamic code and has been
Internal combustion engines
Turbochargers
used to calculate unsteady operating conditions for several turbines. The results obtained have been com-
Radial turbines pared with success against pressure–time histories measured upstream and downstream of the turbine
Engine modelling during on-engine operation.
Intake/exhaust processes Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction reasonable cost, and due to problems in achieving the required

Turbocharging increases the power of internal combustion en-
gines and reduces specific fuel consumption [1]. However, the
application of this technique poses coupling problems between
the engine and the turbocharger. For example, at low engine speed
with small mass flow rate, a turbine with high expansion ratio (i.e.,
with a small effective section of the exhaust gas passage) is neces-
sary to supply the power needed to meet the compressor require-
ments. However, for high-speed engine operating points, a turbine
with a larger effective area would be enough to supply the power
required by the compressor. Therefore, a single turbine might fail
to adapt correctly to all the working conditions of an engine. To
solve this problem variable geometry turbines, capable of altering
the effective area of the gas flow passage, can be used. A solution
commonly used is to vary the angle of inclination of the stator
guide blades, thus changing the effective flow area. Variable geom-
etry turbines of this kind are referred to in this study as VGT. An-
other possibility is to change the width of the gas flow passage
by relocating the stator guide blades, with a constant angle, along
an axis parallel to the rotor shaft. Variable geometry turbines of
this second type are referred to in this study as angle fixed turbine
(AFT).
The uptake of variable geometry turbines by engineering firms
has been a slow process, as they are difficult to manufacture at a
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 96 387 96 57; fax: +34 96 387 76 59.
E-mail address: jrserran@mot.upv.es (J.R. Serrano).
reliability of the variable geometry mechanism. However, many
of current high-speed direct-injection Diesel engines and recently
developed downsized petrol engines are being equipped with var-
iable geometry turbines. The reason lies in the wide operating
range of such engines, in which this type of turbine allows (with
the appropriate control) to improve the transient response of the
engine and to reduce the pumping losses in steady operation [2].
Therefore, smoke emissions, NOx emissions (when combined with
EGR) and specific fuel consumption are reduced in comparison
with fixed geometry turbines.
Zero- and one-dimensional models are able to reproduce the
global engine behaviour with reasonable computational costs [3–
6]; therefore, in this context the correct physical modelling of the
variable geometry turbine provides a powerful tool for the design
of the necessary matching between turbocharger and engine plus
the required control strategies. On the one hand, the modelling
of the turbine must take into account the fluid-dynamic behaviour
of the gas, that is, the boundary conditions to be set at the exhaust
manifold end. This is necessary in order to guarantee that the dy-
namic interaction between the cylinders and the turbine, as well
as the flow evolution downstream of the turbine and along the rest
of the exhaust system, are correctly computed. On the other hand,
the modelling of the turbine must take into account the energy
conversion and the irreversibilities generated in the process [7];
that is the production of mechanical energy from the gas expansion
through the turbine stator and rotor. This energy will be available
to the compressor, and a balance between the energy produced by

0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2008.06.031
3730 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745

Nomenclature

Acronyms Greek symbols

AFT angle fixed turbine c adiabatic exponent (cp/cv)
EGR exhaust gas recirculation a stator blades angle (°)
FGT fixed geometry turbine g efficiency
VGT variable geometry turbine with moving stator blades - angular velocity (rad/s)
x Relative velocity (m/s)
Latin symbols
a speed of sound (m/s) Subscripts and superscripts
A amplitude of pressure wave (bar) 0 stagnation conditions (also indicates inlet turbine con-
c gas velocity (m/s) ditions)
cp specific heat at constant pressure (J/kg K) 1 conditions between turbine stator and rotor
cv specific heat at constant volume (J/kg K) 2 turbine outlet conditions
D diameter (m) a axial
Disp displacement (m) eff effective
h specific enthalpy (J/kg) g polytropic coefficient of the expansion in the rotor
M Mach number i incident pressure wave
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s) k polytropic coefficient of the expansion in the stator
N turbocharger speed (rps) pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi limit value for which the stator blades direct the flow tangen-
m_ corrected mass flow rate: m _ T 00 =p00 ðkg=s K0:5 MPaÞ tial to the rotor
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
N *
corrected turbocharger speed: N= T 00 (rps/K0.5) n nut of the wheel
n polytropic index r radial (also indicates reflected pressure wave)
g polytropic coefficient of the expansion in the rotor rot rotor
k polytropic coefficient of the expansion in the stator R relative conditions (also indicates reflected pressure
p, Pr pressure (Pa) wave)
R ideal gas constant (J/kg K) s isentropic process
R reaction degree st stator
rexp ratio of expansion in the turbine t, T transmitted pressure wave
S cross section area (m2) Ts, T/s total to static conditions
T temperature (K)
TQ torque (Nm)
u blade tip velocity (m/s)
W_ work transfer rate (J/s)

the turbine and the energy consumed by the compressor must be
performed. Following this, the operating point can then be ob-
tained and, in turn, the flow boundary conditions at the engine
inlet.
Presumably, the easiest way to attain the proposed objectives is
the introduction of the turbine characteristic curves, as suggested
by Benson [8] and found in the literature [9]. However, these sim-
ulations require a wide range of previous measurements in order
to characterise the turbine. Additionally, only quite recently tur-
bine manufacturers have attempted to test them under pulsating
flow conditions, as those found in real engine operation, and thus
it will usually be necessary to relate the characteristic curves of
the turbine under steady flow to its behaviour when coupled to
the engine. Several authors have studied this difference in turbine
behaviour under steady flow and pulsating flow conditions over
the last few years [10–13]. Moreover, imposing the turbine charac-
teristic curves always implies the need to interpolate and excludes
any option to extrapolate, in addition to assume a totally quasi-
steady behaviour in the turbine, thus making it impossible to take
into account mass accumulation during unsteady operation. Final-
ly, the use of interpolation functions has the drawback of increas-
ing the calculation time.
The simplest model developed for a radial turbine was that pro-
posed for a fixed geometry unit by Watson and Janota [14]. Central
to this model is the representation of the turbine as a nozzle lo-
cated at the exhaust manifold outlet, which reproduces the pres-
sure drop across the turbine for a specific mass flow rate. In the
case of radial turbines with high reaction degrees, in which expan-
sion is produced in two steps, critical flow conditions are reached
for an expansion rate of approximately 3, whereas a nozzle reaches
shock conditions with an expansion rate of approximately 1.89.
Therefore, this model must consider additional solutions for
shocked flow conditions. A further drawback of this model is that
the effective section of the nozzle is assumed to be constant,
whereas it should be a function of the expansion produced, in or-
der to represent accurately the fluid-dynamic behaviour of a radial
turbine.
An alternative to this initial and basic model is that described by
Payri et al. [15] and by Winterbone [16], in which the same ideali-
sation of the turbine as a simple nozzle is considered, but setting
the effective area so that a given mass flow produces half the pres-
sure drop generated in the turbine. Thus, the problem of critical
expansion and that of the non-constant nozzle area can be solved.
However, the nozzle outlet pressure corresponds now to the pres-
sure between the stator and the rotor. This has to be established as
a function of the pressure at the turbine outlet, which is assumed
to be constant. This situation prevents the calculation of the pres-
sure–time histories at the turbine outlet and the calculation of the
possible effect of this variable upon the behaviour of the turbine.
Hribernik et al. [17] proposed a more complete model for dou-
ble entry turbines, based on pipe junctions, in which variable sec-
tion nozzles are introduced to simulate the flow expansion inside
the stator, whereas a predictive model is used to describe the rotor.
The pressure–time histories calculated at the cylinder outlet in a
six-cylinder engine matches the experimental results. However,
results at the rotor outlet were not presented.
In 1991 and further in 1996, Payri et al. [18,19] presented a
model based on two nozzles in series, separated by an intermedi-
 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745
ate reservoir with the same volume than the turbine. A rather sim-
ilar model concerning the inclusion of an intermediate volume up-
stream of the rotor was also proposed by Baines et al. [20]. The
model proposed by Payri et al. [19] is sketched in the diagrams
of Fig. 1. This geometry combined the advantages of the first mod-
els mentioned above and solved the problem of high expansion ra-
tios and the calculation of the instantaneous pressure downstream
of the turbine. Moreover, the model allowed for mass accumula-
tion in the volume and therefore the consideration of unsteady
phenomena. The main hypotheses of this model were that the
behaviour of the turbine was quasi-steady throughout the nozzles
simulating the turbine (from both the fluid dynamics and the ther-
modynamic point of view) and the pressure drop was the same
across the stator than across the rotor. The first hypothesis is com-
mon practice in zero-dimensional models that calculate internal
combustion engines and is common practice to solve the boundary
conditions used in one-dimensional and gas dynamics codes also
used to calculate internal combustion engines. The second hypoth-
esis facilitates the calculation of the effective areas of the nozzles
representing the turbine stator and rotor. Moreover, the second
hypothesis is quite representative of what occurs in a turbine with
a reaction degree (R) of 0.5. This is the case in turbines without
guide blades in the stator and with radial blades in the rotor
[14]. These turbines are normally used in automotive applications.
In order to calculate the effective area of the nozzles, Payri et al.
[19] assumed that the mass flow through each one (Fig. 1) was the
same as that passing through the turbine, as indicated in (1) and
(2):
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  
cRT in0 p
_ 
m ¼ Seff  F out
pin0 pin0
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
" ffi
   1=c u u 2  ðc1Þ=c #
pout pout p
F ¼c t  1  out
pin0 pin0 c1 pin0
where Seff is the effective area of the nozzle equivalent to the stator
or the rotor, and ‘‘in” and ‘‘out” represent the inlet and outlet con-
ditions, respectively. In spite of the flow inlet conditions being
known, i.e. mass flow rate, pressure and temperature at the turbine
inlet, it was necessary to define the pressure drop across the stator
in order to determine the effective area of the equivalent nozzle.
Subsequently, when the turbine outlet conditions of the flow were
known, the pressure drop produced in the rotor had to be also de-
fined in order to calculate the effective area of the nozzle represent-
ing it. Payri et al. [19] calculated the value of the pressure at the
vaneless space (p1 at Fig. 1) imposing the condition of an equal
Fig. 1. Thermodynamic process of the flow traversing a radial turbine and geometry diagram of the turbine model [19].
3731
expansion ratio across the stator and the rotor, as shown in (3). This
is consistent with the second hypothesis of their model:
 
p1 1 p
¼  1þ 2 ð3Þ
p00 2 p00
This model was also applied to fixed geometry radial turbines
with two inlets (twin-scroll). In this case, three nozzles repre-
sented the turbine. Two nozzles were located at the entrance of
the volume and reproduced the pressure drop across the stator.
While the third nozzle, as in the previous case, reproduces the
pressure drop across the rotor. The model was validated for a sin-
gle-inlet turbine with a waste gate in a four-cylinder-in-line en-
gine, and for a twin-scroll turbine in a six-cylinder in-line engine.
In addition, this model allowed easy access to the correct time his-
tories of all the variables that describe the behaviour of the turbine
[19].
In 1996, Chen et al. [21] published the modelling of a mixed
flow turbine under pulsating flow conditions. This was a develop-
ment of the model for a fixed geometry turbine under steady and
pulsating conditions presented by Chen and Winterbone [22].
The proposed model simulated the spiral part of the casing as a
convergent tube of a certain length, as a function of the geometry
of the turbine to be modelled, from the opening of the volute up to
an azimuth angle of 180°. The volume of the casing could be main-
tained by using an appropriate definition for the flow area of the
duct. This hypothesis assigned a length to the volute, which is a
very important issue in non-steady flow studies. The rotor was
simulated using a quasi-steady model, as justified by the fact that
the Strouhal number, which describes the relative importance of
ð1Þ the unsteady flow, was much smaller than unity for the rotor con-
sidered in the study. Finally, the authors added several loss models,
which provided a balanced improvement of the steady flow simu-
ð2Þ lations under conditions far from those used in the design. The pro-
posed model was applied to four cases of turbine operation under
pulsating flow conditions, confirming its ability to predict the
instantaneous mass flow. In addition, an increase in the flow
capacity under pulsating flow conditions is demonstrated, which
would not have been predictable with a model based on interpola-
tions in the turbine map, according to the authors.
Macek et al. [23] presented another relatively recent model for
radial turbines. The model described the passage of the flow
through the turbine as an initial acceleration, at the opening of
the volute, followed by flow acceleration at the turbine volute.
Afterwards, the absolute velocity was transformed into relative
velocity, taking into account the rotor velocity and the incidence
losses. Subsequently, the relative expansion under the influence
3732 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745

of a centrifugal power was simulated and the relative velocity in are available in the turbine maps normally provided by turbo-
relation to the fixed coordinate system was once again trans- charger manufacturers.
formed, taking into account the losses at the outlet. Another noted
feature was the diffuser at the outlet of the turbine, which was rep- 2. Calculation of reaction degree
resented by a flow deceleration. This model, in comparison with
other existing models, included the transformation to relative con- Fig. 2 shows the diagrams of the velocity triangles at the rotor
ditions. Although many adjustment parameters are needed, the inlet and outlet of a radial turbine and the nomenclature that will
model offered an interesting line of research. be used in the paper for the velocity vectors. The calculation of the
Only a few articles are found in the literature referring to the reaction degree of variable geometry turbine is demonstrated as
one-dimensional modelling of radial turbines with variable geom- follow:
etry. An example is the one presented by Kessel et al. [24] in which The definition of R is usually based on the energy transferred,
a turbine model was designed in order to obtain data to train a that is, the ratio between the energy transferred due to the pres-
neural network aiming to simulate the behaviour of a variable sure change in the rotor and the total variation of energy:
geometry turbine. The model was based on a series of thermody-
namic transitions, which represent the processes occurring inside h1  h2 ðh10  c21 =2Þ  ðh20  c22 =2Þ
R¼ ¼ ð4Þ
a radial turbine. These steps were followed by a special treatment h00  h20 h00  h20
for nozzle geometry, vaneless spaces and rotor inlet outside the gi- Since no work is developed at the stator h00 = h01. If the fluid can
ven design conditions in order to fit experimental data from the be regarded as an ideal gas, it can be assumed that
turbine testing. The neural network was used to find the pressure
drop between two given points, by considering a parameter that h10  h20 ¼ cp  ðT 10  T 20 Þ ð5Þ
describes local efficiency. Following this, the corresponding tem- In addition, the energy transfer in the rotor can be represented
perature drop and other variables, such as increases in enthalpy as the product of the torque by the angular velocity, which is
and entropy, were calculated. In 1999, Nasser and Playfoot [25] known as the Euler equation [14]:
presented a model for a radial turbine with moving blades. The
_ ¼ -  TQ ¼ m
W _  ðu1 ch1  u2 ch2 Þ ¼ m
_  cp  ðT 10  T 20 Þ ð6Þ
mass flow rate through the VGT was calculated using the nozzle
Eq. (1) and by taking the cross section of the throat area of the sta- From the previous equation, it is readily obtained that
tor blades as the effective area. As such, there is no distinction be-
tween the geometrical and the effective sections. This model is ðu1 ch1  u2 ch2 Þ
T 10  T 20 ¼ ð7Þ
similar to that presented by Macek et al. [23] for fixed geometry cp
turbines.
If as design hypotheses swirl at the exit is neglected
The thesis of present paper is that, before variable geometry
ðch2 ¼ 0 ! c22 ¼ c2a2 Þ and it is assumed that the radial velocity at
turbines spread, it has been commonplace to use the R = 0.5
the stator outlet (i.e., at the rotor inlet) is equal to the axial velocity
hypothesis to model the behaviour of radial turbines used in turbo-
at the rotor exit (cr1 = ca2 = c1  cosa1), from Eqs. (4)–(6) one has
chargers; as they were mostly designed without guide blades in
the stator and with radial blades in the rotor, thereby being consis- c21  c22 c2 þ c2r1  c2a2
R¼1 ¼ 1  h1 ð8Þ
tent with that hypothesis [14]. When modelling variable geometry 2u1 ch1 2u1 ch1
turbines, with guide blades in the stator, such a hypothesis cannot
Taking into account the aforementioned conditions, and the
be used at every operative condition. Nevertheless, if an alternative
velocity triangles, (Fig. 2), this can be rearranged to give
method were found to calculate the pressure drop across the tur-
bine stator and rotor (instead of assuming R = 0.5), the models sin a1
ca2  cos a1
ch1 c1  sin a1 tan a1 ca2
based on mass accumulation in an intermediate volume (Fig. 1) R¼1 ¼1 ¼1 ¼1  ð9Þ
2u1 2u1 2u1 2 u1
would be a good starting point to calculate the behaviour of a var-
iable geometry turbine. Here, a1 is the gas entry angle to the rotor, which will be deter-
Therefore, this paper proposes a model for calculating R and the mined by the stator guide blades. In the case of a rotor with radial
pressure drop through the stator and rotor. The aim is to extend, up blades (b1 = 0) and without guide blades to direct the flow, then
to variable geometry turbines, the validity of models based on a ch1 = u1 (Fig. 2). Therefore, it is observed from Eq. (9) that R is 0.5.
volume between two nozzles in series (Fig. 1). In this way, once This is the case of most of the fixed geometry turbines without
the pressure drop will be established for each nozzle, it is possible guide blades.
to calculate the effective area and to determine the permeability It is shown that from the definition of R and using two common
across the stator and rotor of the variable geometry turbines. hypotheses at design conditions [14] (radial component of the
An important objective of the proposed model is that the only velocity at rotor inlet equal to axial component at rotor outlet
inputs will be geometrical parameters, the corrected mass flow and no swirl at turbine outlet), R can be expressed as shown in
and speed (m _  and N*) and the total to static expansion ratio, which (10):

Fig. 2. Velocity triangles of a radial turbine at the rotor inlet and outlet.
 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745 3733

tan a1 ca2 By substituting this value into (20), the following is obtained:
R¼1  ð10Þ
2 u1   2  ccþ1
T 00 Rðc  1Þ m
_ T 00 1
Considering that mass flow rate at the rotor outlet is a function ¼1þ ð22Þ
T0 2c S0 T0
of the geometric area at its exit (S2) and the gas conditions at the
turbine outlet (10) can be rewritten as An iterative process can solve Eq. (22), giving an initial value of
tan a1 mRT
_ 1 to the temperatures ratios, (22) easily converge to a value slightly
2
R¼1  ð11Þ higher than one. Introducing this result in Eq. (19) and rewriting it
2  u1 S2 p2
as a function of corrected variables yields
The velocity u1 and the rotor exit area S2 can be written as  
2R m_   tan a1 p2
R¼1   f _  ; S0 ; gTs
;m
u1 ¼ pND1 ð12Þ p 2 D ðD2
1 2  D2n Þ N p00
p    1 " 1  c1=c !#
S2 ¼ ðD22  D2n Þ ð13Þ p2 p2 T 00 p2
4 f _  ; S0 ; gTs ¼
;m  gTs 1 
p00 p00 T0 p00
where D1 and D2 are the external and internal diameters of the tur-
bine rotor, respectively (see Fig. 1) and Dn is the rotor nut diameter. ð23Þ
Substituting (12) and (13) into (11) gives Therefore, once some measurable geometric parameters of the
tan a1 4m _ RT 2 turbine (a1, D1, D2, Dn and S0) and the turbine map for each position
R¼1   ð14Þ of the variable geometry mechanism are known, it is possible to
2pD1 N pðD22  D2n Þ p2
calculate R for each operating point.
On the other hand, if cp is assumed constant, the isentropic Nevertheless, in the case of a VGT (Fig. 3), it is not always pos-
behaviour of the variable geometry turbine can be expressed in sible to use the Eqs. (4)–(9) to calculate R. Indeed, the pictures at
terms of temperatures as the top of Fig. 3 show that there will be an intermediate position
between ‘‘VGT open” and ‘‘VGT closed” for which the chord of each
T 00  T 20
gTs ¼ ð15Þ blade is tangential to the turbine rotor. For values of a1 (Fig. 2)
T 00  T 2s
higher than this intermediate position the flow exiting the stator
Taking into account the previous stated hypothesis of no swirl is no longer directed towards the rotor but to the intermediate vol-
at the turbine outlet and assuming that c0  c2, the following ume between the stator and the rotor; like the ‘‘VGT closed” pic-
approximate expression can be established. ture shows in Fig. 3. Thus, the direction of the rotor inlet velocity
is not dependent upon the angle of the stator blades (a1) but upon
T 00  T 20 T0  T2 the angle of the rotor blades (b1). Therefore, the turbine can be con-
gTs ¼  ð16Þ
T 00  T 2s T 00  T 2s sidered without guide blades in the stator. Taking into account that
radial rotor blades are generally used and the remaining compo-
It is worth noting that the approximation of (16) (based on both
nents of the design hypothesis, R can be supposed equal to 0.5,
hypothesis stated in previous paragraph) is quite consistent. More-
as it has been demonstrated from Eqs. (4)–(9).
over, if the low values of gas kinetic energy at turbine inlet and
In order to apply the previous model, several tests were carried
outlet sections are compared with the gas enthalpy values. Follow-
out on a VGT turbine (Table 1). From the data obtained during the
ing, solving (16) for the exit gas temperature and considering that
tests R was calculated using (23). The tests consisted on measuring
 ðc1=cÞ
p2 the performance maps for the VGT using a specific test rig for tur-
T 2s ¼ T 00  ð17Þ bochargers. This is fully described in [26,27]. Measurements were
p00
carried out for seven constant positions of the VGT, and for each
the value of T2 is obtained as a function of the turbine inlet position, several operating speeds and expansion ratios were
conditions: tested. The specifications of the transducers used in the turbo-
"  ðc1=cÞ !#   charger testing are shown in Table 2.
T0 p2 p2 T 0 Since the angle of the blades in the VGT stator is directly related
T 2 ¼ T 00  gTs 1  ¼ T 00  f 0 ; ; gTs
T 00 p00 p00 T 00 to the movement of the rack from the variable geometry mecha-
ð18Þ nism, the blades angle can be clearly determined once the rack po-
sition is established. An angle of the stator blades of 42°
When taking into account (18) (obtained from (15)), R can be corresponds to the open VGT and an angle of the stator blades of
expressed as 86° corresponds to the closed VGT. The results obtained are shown
  at the bottom of Fig. 3, where it can be observed that R increases
0 p2 T 0
2 _  tan a1 R  T 00  f p00 ; T 00 ; gTs
m when the VGT opens. In addition, Fig. 3 shows that R tends to 0.5
R¼1   ð19Þ
p2 D1 ðD22  D2n Þ N p2 when the blades angle tends to a1  68°. This is the a1 value at
which the axis of each blade is tangential to the turbine rotor
The relationship between the turbine inlet temperature (T0) and
external circumference.
the inlet stagnation temperature (T00) has to be also obtained from
Additionally, an AFT, whose blades always have a constant a1
the corrected variables, which are available in turbine maps. In-
angle (Fig. 4) was tested coupled to an engine on a test bench
deed, considering that
(whose scheme is shown in Fig. 11). This turbine consists of a mov-
T 00 c1 2 ing rod to which the stator blades are attached and a vacuum
¼1þ M0 ð20Þ
T0 2 pump which controls the position of the rod. More characteristics
of this variable geometry turbine with fixed angle are shown in
The Mach number for the turbine inlet conditions can be rewrit-
Table 1. In this case, for a given opening and turbine speed, only
ten as
one point was measured, and then R was calculated from Eq.
sffiffiffiffi  cþ1
_
c0 mRT 1 _
m R T 00 2ðc1Þ (14) by using the average values of pressure and temperature mea-
0
M0 ¼ ¼  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ ð21Þ sured downstream the turbine on engine tests. Information about
a0 p0 S0 cRT 0 S 0 c T0
the precision and range of the transducers used in the tests are
3734 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745

Fig. 3. Different blade positions of a VGT and R obtained for the different measured points.

Table 1 Table 2
Characteristics of the turbochargers used to validate the model Characteristics of the sensor used in the experimental measurements

Comp.VGT VGT Comp.AFT AFT Comp.FGT FGT Pressure Temperature Mass flow
Inlet diameter (mm) 39 33 41 40 95 58 Type Piezo- Piezo- Thermo- Thermo- Hot- Hot-
Outlet diameter (mm) 38 38 35 50 63 66 resistive electric couple resistance wire wire
Number of rotor blades 6 9 6 11 7 12 Model Kistler Kistler K type Pt100 Sensyflow
Number of stator blades – 11 – 11 – – 4045 A5 7031
A/R 0.42 0.61 0.42 0.62 0.77 0.83 Range 0–5 0–5 273–1533 73–663 0–720 80–2400
(bar) (bar) (K) (K) (kg/h) (kg/h)
Precision 0.1% 0.7% 0.3% 0.033% 1.5% 1.5%
(at 273 K)

Fig. 4. Diagram and view of an AFT. Variation of R versus the displacement of the turbine shaft and versus the turbine mass flow rate.
 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745 3735

shown in Table 2. The results obtained are shown at the bottom of 1.33 would imply a decrease of entropy in the final state when
Fig. 4. They clearly show that R is dependent on the motion of the compared with the initial state.
turbine axis. In contrast to what occurs in the VGT, R increases If the gas traversing the turbine undergoes a polytropic process
when the turbine closes. The cause of this behaviour can be the with a constant polytropic index n, Eq. (28) can be proposed to cal-
particular way in which the AFT reduces the stator effective section culate the polytropic index n, after taking logarithmics and
(AFT_Disp = 0 corresponds with the drawing showed at top of rearranging:
Fig. 4). It can be presumed that a lamination process is produced  n=n1 c
p2 T2 n ln pp002 þ c1 ln TT000
in the stator when the AFT is closed and therefore R is increased. ¼ ) ¼ ð28Þ
Both Figs. 3 and 4 show also a dependency with other turbine p0 T0 n1 ln TT 2 þ ln TT00
00 0
variables; for example, R generally decreases when the exhaust
gas flow increases. The results plotted in Fig. 3 show this trend where n is a function of corrected variables from the turbine maps
for each position and each turbine speed. The exception is the case by combining (28) with (18) and (22), respectively.
of VGT closed, where R = 0.5 has been imposed as previously ex- However, the polytropic process through the stator is generally
plained. It is worth noting that when the AFT is closed (AFT_ quite different from the process through the rotor. Therefore, it
Disp = 0) R remains also virtually constant, since the flow rate in seems convenient to assume the hypothesis that the process across
the AFT is almost constant for the different expansion ratios con- the stator and the process across the rotor have different (but con-
sidered (Fig. 4). Fig. 4 also shows that R varies between 0.25 and stant) polytropic exponents. Thus, for the total process from the
0.1 when the AFT is open (AFT_Disp = 10). Consequently, the turbine inlet to the turbine outlet, it can be established that
change of relative speed in the rotor should be lower when R de-  g=g1  k=k1  n=n1
p2 p2 p1 T2 T1 T2
creases and this would account for the very low efficiency that is ¼  ¼  ¼ ð29Þ
p0 p1 p0 T1 T0 T0
usually observed for a completely open AFT.
Since in the turbine maps there are not available data of pres-
3. Calculation of pressure at the stator outlet sure and temperature at the vaneless space the polytropic expo-
nents (k and g) cannot be directly obtained. However, it is
Once R has been calculated as a function of the corrected tur- possible to relate them taking logarithmics and rearranging (29),
bine variables and of some easily measurable geometric parame- as shown in (30):
ters, it is necessary to establish its relation with the intermediate   T2
k g n g ln T 00 þ ln TT000
pressure between turbine stator and rotor in order to apply the ¼ þ  ð30Þ
chosen model of two nozzles plus an intermediate volume.
k1 g1 n1 g1 ln TT 1 0

If R is defined according to Eq. (4), and considering the gas to be

and further by substituting (28) in (30) as shown in (31):
a perfect gas, one may write h i
  
c
T 1 T 00 T2 T 20 g
k
k1
ln TT 10  ln pp002 þ c1 ln TT000
¼ þR 1 ð24Þ ¼ h i ð31Þ
T0 T0 T 00 T 00 g1 ln TT 10  ln TT002 þ ln TT000
where the ratio T00/T0 can be calculated using (22); the ratio T2/T00
where the ratio of logarithms can be calculated as a function of cor-
can be calculated using (18) and the ratio T20/T00 can be calculated
rected variables from the turbine maps by using (18), (22) and (26),
from gTs definition like (25) shows
respectively. Nevertheless, there are still two unknown values in
"  c1 #
T 20 p2 c (31), k and g. Therefore, it is necessary to consider an additional
¼ 1  gTs 1  ð25Þ hypothesis. The behaviour of the VGT and the AFT under different
T 00 p00
operative conditions are going to be analysed in the following para-
Substituting (25) and (18) in (24), the following is obtained: graphs in order to stablish the additional hypothesis.
"  c1 # With respect to the VGT, the operative conditions with the low-
T1 T 00 p2 c est isentropic efficiency are when the VGT is closed or fully open. In
¼1þ ðR  1ÞgTs 1  ð26Þ
T0 T0 p00 the case of the VGT described in Table 1, Fig. 5 shows the isentropic
efficiency versus VGT opening for several turbocharger speeds. Fig.
If the thermodynamic process of the gas traversing the turbine 6 shows the thermodynamic evolutions in such opening condi-
is known, it is possible to relate the intermediate pressure to the tions. On the one hand, in the left part of Fig. 6, the hypothesis that
temperature and (with the help of (26)) to R, as (27) shows R is 0.5 when the VGT is closed has been used. In this case, the tur-
" #!k=k1 bine efficiency is lower than at intermedium openings and the
 c1
p1 T 00 p2 c thermodynamic process should be similar to the k–g process
¼ 1þ ðR  1ÞgTs 1  ð27Þ shown in the left part of Fig. 6. That is, when the VGT is closed
p0 T0 p00
and the passage area of the stator is very small, the irreversibilities
where k is the polytropic exponent that defines process in the sta- caused by friction are very significant and the entropy increment is
tor. In the following paragraphs, the thermodynamic processes in going to be higher in the stator than in the rotor. Being the objec-
the turbine will be discussed in order to calculate the k coefficient. tive to calculate the pressure between stator and rotor, a satisfac-
Taking into account that in any thermodynamic process of a tory hypothesis would be to assume the polytropic process in the
flow traversing the turbine, it may start from certain initial condi- stator with lower slope than the process in the rotor. Therefore,
tions (p0, T0) and it may achieve certain final conditions (p2, T2), in the polytropic process in the stator will have a polytropic exponent
such a way that p0 > p2 and T0 > T2. Therefore, the polytropic expo- between n and 1. An equivalent but more accurate statement will
nent of the process takes values between 1, for the extreme case in be that the polytropic exponent in the rotor (g) will be limited be-
which T0 = T2, and 1.33 in the case of isentropic process for ex- tween n and c. On the other hand, for a VGT fully open also the tur-
haust gases. Assuming that the process undergone by the gas in bine isentropic efficiency is lower than at intermedium openings;
the turbine is adiabatic but irreversible, it is physically impossible due to there is not and optimum angle of incidence at the stator in-
for the polytropic exponent to take values below 1, since that let. Therefore, the thermodynamic process is going to be as the k–g
would imply a temperature increase. Likewise, any value above process shown in the right part of Fig. 6. This means again with
3736 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745

0.85
Isentropic
Efficiency
0.75

0.65

0.55

120 rps/√ K 110 rps/ √K 100 rps/√ K

0.45
90 rps/√ K 80 rps/√ K 70 rps/√ K
60 rps/√ K 50 rps/√ K 40 rps/ √K VGT opening (%)
0.35
0 20 40 60 80 100

0.85
Isentropic
efficiency
0.75

0.65

y = 2.9159x - 2.8182
0.55 2
R = 0.9829

0.45

"n" polytropic exponent

0.35
1.1 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24

Fig. 5. Relation between isentropic efficiency, VGT opening and polytropic exponent n.

p0 p0
Υ Υ
k-g k-g
h (J/kg) h (J/kg)
n n p1n
( +1)/2 p1n p ( +1)/2 p1
1

0 p1γ 0
p1γ
Δhs
Δ hs 1s 1s
Δht 1n 1γ
Δht 1k-g
1n 1k-g
1γ Δhr
Δhr
p2 p2
2 2
2s
2s

s (J/kgK) s (J/kgK)

Fig. 6. h–s diagrams for low efficiency conditions. VGT closed (left) with R = 0.5, and VGT 100% open (right) with R > 0.5.
 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745 3737

higher increase of entropy in the stator than in the rotor; and pondered are chosen to impose that the lower is the isentropic effi-
therefore, with a polytropic exponent between n and c in the rotor ciency (i.e. the lower is the distance between n and the unity) the
process. In this second case R is higher than 0.5 (Fig. 3), which im- closer is the g polytropic exponent to c. Once g is calculated, k
plies a low level of expansion at the stator. can be obtained from (30).
In the case of a variable geometry turbine of the AFT type, when  1
it is fully closed or fully open (and turbine isentropic efficiency is cþ1 n n  cþ1
2
þ cðc  nÞ1
very small), the same hypothesis previously exposed for the VGT if 6n<c!k¼  1 ð32Þ
2
can be assumed. In the AFT case, it has to be considered that R n  cþ1
2
þ ðc  nÞ1
takes values in accordance with those showed in Fig. 4, instead  1
of Fig. 3. cþ1 cðn  1Þ1 þ n cþ1 2
n
if 1 < n 6 !g¼  1 ð33Þ
Finally, at intermedium openings of a VGT, the incidence angle 2
ðn  1Þ1 þ cþ1 2
n
in the stator blades is closer to the optimum and this is why the
efficiency is higher (Fig. 5). Therefore, the thermodynamic process
should be as the k–g process shown in Fig. 7, with lower increase of
4. Synthesis of the proposed VGT model
entropy in the stator than in the rotor. Consequently, the stator
polytropic exponent (k) is in these cases always between n and c.
In summary, the calculation of the intermediate pressure may
Similar hypothesis can be done for AFT maximum efficiency
be formally expressed as
openings.
In summary, based on previous paragraphs analysis and in or-
"  c1 #!k=k1
p1 T 00 p2 c
der to calculate the k polytropic exponent (necessary to solve ¼ 1þ ðR  1ÞgTs 1  ð34Þ
p0 T0 p00
(27)) it will be assumed the following hypotheses:
where
1. On the one hand, if the turbine efficiency is high enough the (
polytropic exponent of the process in the stator is between c R ¼ 0:5 if a1 > alimit
 
_  tan a1
m p2
and n (c > k > n). R¼1 2R
 f _ ; S0 ; gTs
;m 
if a1 6 alimit
p2 D1 ðD22 D2n Þ N p00
2. On the other hand, if the turbine efficiency is not high enough,
the process in the rotor is the one between c and n (c > g > n). ð35Þ
and k is calculated at any turbine position as a function of the n (28)
The polytropic exponent n will be used to discriminate between polytropic exponent by using (32) or (33). If (33) is used, remaining
both situations, due to the linear relation between n and turbine k polytropic exponents can be further calculated using (30).
efficiency (as Fig. 5 shows). Indeed, if n polytropic exponent is Once the pressure drop across the stator (p1/p0) is calculated,
higher than the average between isothermal and isentropic process the effective areas of the nozzles equivalent to the stator and the
(n > (c + 1)/2) the turbine efficiency will be considered high enough rotor can be obtained from the nozzle Eq. (1). For the stator, one
to assume the first hypothesis (c > k > n) and viceversa. These situ- has
ations are also exemplified at Fig. 6 and at Fig. 7. In both cases n is pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  
calculated using (28). RcT 00 1 p00 1=c
Seff st _T
¼m  
Once the boundaries for k and g have been established, they will p00 c p1
be calculated as a pondered addition of these limits. This is shown 0vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
" ffi1
u
u 2  ðc1Þ=c # 1
in (32) and (33). In the case of (32), the weights used to pondered p
 @t 1 1 A ð36Þ
are chosen to impose that the higher is the isentropic efficiency c1 p00
(i.e. the lower is the distance between n and c) the closer is the k
polytropic exponent to c. In the case of (33), the weights used to and for the rotor

Υ p0
Υ p0
h (J/kg) k-g
k-g
h (J/kg) n p1
n p1s
(Υ+1)/2
(Υ +1)/2 p1n
p 1s p 1
0 0
p 1n
Δ hs

p2 1n p2
Δ hs
1s 1k-g
Δ ht 1s Δ ht
Δ hr 1k-g 1n Δ hr

2 2

2s 2s
s (J/kgK) s (J/kgK)

Fig. 7. h–s diagrams for high efficiency conditions. VGT 20% open (left) with R = 0.5 and VGT 60% open (right) with R > 0.5.
3738 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  
RcT 10 1 p10R 1=c Considering the nomenclature of Fig. 2, the Mach number for
Seff rot _
¼ mT   
p10 c p2 the relative conditions at the turbine inlet (M1R) can be rewritten
0v ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 1 as
u
u !ðc1Þ=c 3 1
Bu 2 4 p2 x1
 @t 1 5C A ð37Þ M 1R ¼ ð40Þ
c1 p10R a1
In addition, from (4)–(9) was demonstrated that with radial
where p10r is the relative stagnation conditions at the rotor inlet. blades in the rotor (b1 = 0) the following identities can be obtained
Considering the relation between pressure and temperature in cr1 = x1 = c0 (Fig. 2). Therefore, Eq. (40) may be rewritten as
an isentropic expansion can be easily demonstrated Eq. (38): sffiffiffiffi  cþ1 !sffiffiffiffiffi
 c=c1
x1 c0 _
m R T 00 2ðc1Þ T0
p10R M 1R ¼ ¼ ¼ ð41Þ
p T 10r a1 a1 S0 c T0 T1
¼ 1 ð38Þ
p2 p2 T1
Considering Eqs. (41), (39) can be rewritten as
The relationship between stator inlet temperature (T1) and the "   2  ccþ1 #
relative stagnation temperature (T10R) has to be obtained from T 10R Rðc  1Þ m
_ T 00 1 T 0
¼1þ  ð42Þ
the corrected variables, which are available in turbine maps. In- T1 2c S0 T0 T1
deed, considering that
Considering (22), Eq. (42) can be rewritten as
 
T 10R c1 2 T 10R T 00 T0
¼1þ M 1R ð39Þ ¼1þ 1  ð43Þ
T1 2 T1 T0 T1

Fig. 8. Correlations obtained for the effective areas of the nozzles equivalent to the AFT and VGT stators.

Fig. 9. Correlations obtained for the effective areas of the nozzles equivalent to the AFT and VGT rotors.
 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745 3739

Fig. 10. Effective areas of the nozzles equivalent to stator and rotor for an FGT.

Considering Eqs. (43), (38) can be rewritten as 0.5 (see equations between (4)–(9)) and using the data from the
   c=c1 turbine maps provided by the turbocharger manufacturer. The re-
p10R p T 00 T0
¼ 1 1þ 1  ð44Þ sults obtained are plotted in Fig. 10, where it can be observed the
p2 p2 T0 T1 excellent level of correlation obtained with respect to the turbine
In addition, considering (45) and substituting in (44), (46) is operative variables. Fig. 10 shows that the stator effective area
obtained: (36) increases, albeit slightly, when the flow rate is increased and
the corrected operating speed is decreased. In addition, Fig. 8
 c
p1 p1 p00 T 00 1c showed that in spite of the variable geometry mechanism position
¼   ð45Þ
p2 p0 p2 T0 explains most of the stator effective area variation; it should de-
 c1c    c pend on mass flow rate too. Conversely, the effective area of the
p10R p1 p00 T0 T 00 T 0 c1
¼    1þ 1  ð46Þ nozzle equivalent to the rotor correlates linearly with corrected
p2 p0 p2 T 00 T0 T1 mass flow rate and expansion ratio.
Eq. (46) shows that the relative total to static expansion ratio
(p10R/p2) can be calculated as a function of total to static expansion 5. Comparison between measured and modelled data
ratio (p00/p2) and corrected variables (considering also (22) and
(26)). It is worth noting that usually T0/T00 is close to one, therefore, Once the turbines were characterised, the correlations obtained
(46) shows that p10R  p1. for the nozzle effective area representing the stator and the rotor
The calculation of the effective areas has been carried out for were implemented in a global gas dynamic code for engine model-
three single entry turbines: a VGT, an AFT turbine and a fixed ling developed at CMT-Motores Térmicos TM and called wave action
geometry turbine without guide stator blades (FGT). Their charac- model (WAM). WAM is one-dimensional, non-homoentropic and
teristics are also shown in Table 1. unsteady; more details can be found in the works referred from
Fig. 8 shows in the case of an AFT the relationship between sta- [28–36]. WAM supplies the inputs required by the obtained corre-
tor effective area and stator displacement and in the case of a VGT lations in order to calculate the effective areas.
the relationship between stator effective area and stator blades an- The turbine model has been validated using tests conducted in
gle. In both cases, the effective area clearly increases when the tur- engine test bed, so that the turbines were coupled to compression
bine trends to open. Fig. 9 shows that it is possible to correlate the ignition engines. The AFT is part of the turbocharging group of a
effective area of the nozzle equivalent to the turbine rotor (37) as a 2.2 L displacement engine, the VGT is part of a 1.9 L engine and
function of the flow rate and the operation speed both corrected the FGT is coupled to a 10.8 L engine. The features of these engines
using the gas conditions at the rotor inlet. Fig. 9 shows that for a are shown in Table 3.
specific turbocharger speed, this effective area increases when The engines have been installed in test benches with all the
the gas mass flow (and therefore the expansion ratio) increases. equipment and instrumentation necessary to control their perfor-
In addition, for a specific flow rate, the effective area of the equiv- mance and measure their operational variables. In each test, the
alent nozzle at the rotor decreases when the speed increases. This most significant parameters related to the operative conditions of
can be accounted for by considering that, as the speed increases, the turbine have been measured; such as the pressure and temper-
the centrifugal forces produced when the rotor turns also increase ature at the inlet and outlet of the turbine, the flow rate passing
and the passage of the exhaust gas is obstructed. through the engine, the operating speed of the turbo and the posi-
Obviously, the model developed is also useful for fixed geome- tions of the VGT and AFT stators. Information about the precision
try turbines with or without guide stator blades. The effective areas and range of the transducers used in the tests are shown in Table
of the nozzles equivalent to the stator and the rotor of the FGT 2. The results obtained from the turbine model (within the
without guide stator blades were calculated assuming that R is WAM) have been compared to the measurements for checking if
3740 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745

Table 3 [37]. Arrays of three ‘‘Kistler 7031” piezoelectric transducers with

Characteristics of the engines used to validate the model water cooled adaptors were used at each measurement position
Engine with VGT Engine with AFT Engine with FGT (upstream and downstream of compressors), with a distance be-
Type of injection Direct Direct Direct tween two consecutive sensors of 0.05 m, in order to get a suitable
Number of 4 4 6 compromise between the assumption of linear propagation be-
cylinders tween transducers and measurement precision [38,39]. Transducer
Displacement 1.9 L 2.2 L 10.8 L signals were calibrated at each test case, the precision reported by
Compression 18.3:1 18:1 16:1
ratio
the pressure transducer manufacturer is 0.7% of the full scale.
Rated power 88 kW/4000 rpm 98 kW/4000 rpm 340 kW/1800 rpm Simultaneously, instantaneous pressure versus time and versus
Rated torque 300 Nm/2000 rpm 314 Nm/2000 rpm 2200 Nm/1200 rpm crank angle was measured. Using a Yokogawa high frequency
Rated speed 4500 rpm 4500 rpm 1800 rpm (maximum 100 kHz) acquisition system, 40,000 records (three
Bore 80 mm 85 mm 123 mm
instantaneous pressure upstream and three downstream for each
Stroke 93 mm 96 mm 152 mm
Connecting 139 mm 152 mm 225 mm measurement) were acquired in time with an acquisition fre-
rod length quency of 20 kHz and 14,400 measurements were made versus
crank angle, each 0.5 crank angle degrees, comprising 10 engine
cycles. Beam-forming techniques were used for wave decomposi-
tion [38] in order to obtain the pressure wave components from
it reproduces properly the fluid-dynamic behaviour of the three the measured pressure–time histories. In the engine scheme of
different radial turbines. Fig. 11 are also shown the most important elements than modify
Fig. 11 shows a scheme of the 2.2 L Diesel engine at which was the wave dynamics of the system around turbine and compressor.
tested the AFT. At each measurement position, a straight duct was It is well known that the wave dynamics of the system where tur-
designed (diameter and length) according to inlet and outlet com- bine or compressor are located influence their performance [40].
pressor cross section area to ensure an essentially one-dimensional More details about the described experimental technique and
flow, without any complex features originated by singularities. In other tests performed with the same arrangement can be found
addition, was taken into account that the position of any of the in [38,41]. The mass flow through the AFT was calculated by
transducers did not coincide with, or lie close to, any of the pres- imposing to the turbine model the instantaneous pressure traces
sure nodes associated with the standing-wave pattern established measured upstream and downstream the AFT. The mass flow er-

AFT TURBINE

Error_CD Stator (%) Error_CD Rotor (%) Error_Mass Flow (%)

10.0

5.0
Error %

0.0

-5.0

-10.0
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60
Pr (T/s)

Fig. 11. Scheme of engine experimental test and error in mass flow prediction for the AFT.
 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745 3741

Ai
At
Ar
Ar2

EXCITATION RESPONSE
AT
AR 0.02
0. 1
0.01
Pressure (bar)

Pressure (bar)
0.02
0
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 0 120 240 360 480 600 720
-0.0 6
-0.01

-0.1 4 -0.02
Crank Angle (º) Crank Angle (º)

AR AT
200 160

175
140
dBl

150
dBl

120
125

100 100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Fc. (Hz) Fc. (Hz)

PUPSTREAM PDOWNSTREAM
3 1. 13

2.8 1. 11
Pressure (bar)

Pressure (bar)

2.6 1. 09

2.4 1. 07

2.2 1. 05
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 0 120 240 360 480 600 720
Crank Angle (º) Crank Angle (º)

Modelled Measured
Fig. 12. Wave decomposition in time and frequency domain for measured and modelled signals. Comparison with an AFT. 10% opening and 120,000 rpm.

rors obtained for all the points, measured at different speed at AFT
positions, were always lower than 5%, as Fig. 11 shows. The lines
showed in Fig. 11 join the points that correspond to the same
AFT opening. In an equivalent way, Fig. 11 shows (also in the form
of errors) how much should be reduced with respect to the unity a
given stator and rotor coefficients of discharge (CD), which multi-
ply the effective areas provided by the turbine model, in order to
provide zero mass flow error when imposing the expansion ratio.
As expected, also in this case the errors are mainly below 5%.
Fig. 12 shows an example of the instantaneous results obtained
for the case of the AFT at 10% opening and 120,000 rpm. The inci-
dent pressure pulse (Ai) obtained from the pressure measured up-
stream of the turbine and the reflected pressure pulse (Ar2)
obtained from the pressure measured downstream of the turbine
are the excitations used as input variables for the model. In Fig.
12 reflected (AR) and transmitted (AT) pulses, obtained also from
pressure wave decomposition (from PUPSTREAM and PDOWNSTREAM)
have been compared with the corresponding modelled results in
the time and the frequency domains (without considering the
average value). In addition, Fig. 12 shows the comparison of the
measured pressure signal upstream and downstream of the AFT,
including also the average value. The flow lamination through
3742 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745

Piezo-resistive transducer
temperature
mass flow rate

VGT TURBINE
Error_CD Stator (%) Error_CD Rotor (%) Error_Mass Flow (%)

10.0

5.0
Error %

0.0

-5.0

-10.0
1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80
Pr (T/s)

FGT TURBINE
Error_CD Stator (%) Error_CD Rotor (%) Error_Mass Flow (%)

5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
Error %

0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0
1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 1.90 2.00 2.10 2.20 2.30 2.40 2.50 2.60 2.70 2.80
Pr (T/s)

Fig. 13. Schemes of engines used for testing and errors of mass flow prediction for the VGT and FGT.

the AFT at 10% opening is evidenced by the very small amplitude of
the pressure waves downstream the turbine (PDOWNSTREAM and AT)
compared with those upstream turbine (PUPSTREAM and AR). Indeed,
this is consistent with the hypotheses previously discussed in Sec-
tion 3.
It is worth noting that the good prediction obtained in the fre-
quency domain up to quite high frequencies (600 Hz) especially in
the reflected pressure wave (AR). These good results, also obtained
in many other operative conditions, qualify the turbine model for
being used in noise prediction tasks.
 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745 3743

Fig. 14. Comparison of measured and modelled pressures in a VGT for different blade angles and operating points.

800 rpm 1200 rpm

5
3
Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

4
2.5

3
2
2
1.5
1
1 0 180 360 540 720
0 180 360 540 720
Crank Angle (º)
Crank Angle (º)
Experimental Turbine Inlet
Turbine Outlet Compressor Outlet

1500 rpm 1800 rpm

7
7
6
6
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]

5 5
4 4
3 3

2 2

1 1
0 180 360 540 720 0 180 360 540 720
Crank angle (º) Crank Angle (º)

Fig. 15. Comparison of measured and modelled pressures in an FGT for different operating points.
3744 J.R. Serrano et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 3729–3745
The validation of the model for the VGT and the FGT was per-
formed without modifying either the intake or the exhaust mani-
fold of the used engines. The engines schemes and the location of
the transducers are shown in Fig. 13. Information about the preci-
sion and range of the transducers used in the tests are shown in
Table 2. In addition, Fig. 13 shows a validation of the mean values
provided by the turbine model through the plotting of the errors
obtained when calculating the average mass flow through the
VGT and through the FGT. Fig. 13 shows that all the errors are be-
low ±5%, except for quite low expansion ratios at a certain opening
of the VGT. As in the case of Fig. 11, the lines join the points with
the same VGT opening and the error of the discharge coefficients
(which would be necessaries to obtained zero mass flow error)
are generally of the same order but opposite sign than the mass
flow errors.
The measured-modelled comparison for the VGT results was
carried out using steady tests of the 1.9 L engine described above.
Fig. 14 shows an example of the results obtained for different an-
gles of VGT stator blades, different turbine speeds and different en-
gine operative conditions. Fig. 14 shows the comparison between
the modelled and measured pressure–time histories at the turbine
inlet, at the turbine outlet and also at the compressor outlet. Fig. 14
shows a good agreement between the experimental values and
those obtained from the modelling.
Finally, in the case of the FGT, Fig. 15 shows the comparison be-
tween measured and modelled pressure histories for four full load
conditions at different engine speeds (800, 1200, 1500 and
1800 rpm) of the 10.8 L displacement engine. These results cover
a wide operating range for a heavy-duty engine, and allow observ-
ing the good agreement achieved between the measured and mod-
elled values. Fig. 15 shows that the model is able to reproduce even
the asymmetric behaviour of the instantaneous pressure caused by
the divided exhaust manifold typical of truck engines; due to the
instantaneous piezo-resistive transducer was placed in one of the
branches of the exhaust manifold.
6. Conclusions
A new model for variable geometry turbines suitable to be used
in either zero or one-dimensional engine codes has been devel-
oped. This model is a natural evolution of a previous one for fixed
geometry turbines in which the turbine is represented by two ideal
nozzles, which reproduce the pressure drops across the stator and
the rotor, and at an intermediate cavity, which reproduces mass
accumulation in the system.
The structure of the new model presented is the following.
Firstly, the reaction degree R of the variable geometry turbine un-
der the desired performance conditions is calculated. A methodol-
ogy has been proposed in which geometrical parameters and the
corrected variables, obtained from the maps supplied by the man-
ufacturer, are used as the only inputs for R calculation. Once R is
established, it is possible to calculate the pressure drops produced
at the stator and at the rotor taking into account: the turbine effi-
ciency (represented by n exponent) the type and the position of the
stator blades. Once these pressure drops are known, it is possible to
calculate the effective areas of the equivalent nozzles representing
the turbine stator and rotor.
Concerning the VGT and the AFT, it was concluded that R has a
high level of correlation with the opening and with the flow rate
passing through the turbine. In addition, the effective area of the
stator correlates with the position of the turbine, and that of the ro-
tor with the corrected mass flow rate, the corrected speed or the
expansion ratio. Thus, it was shown that the effective area of the
nozzle equivalent to the rotor, for a specific rotating speed, in-
creases as the gas flow or the expansion ratio increases. However,
for a given flow rate, the effective area of the nozzle equivalent to
the rotor diminishes when rotating speed increases. This is caused
by the centrifugal forces produced when the turbine rotor turns
and by the obstruction imposed to the passage of exhaust gases.
To validate the turbine model, it has been introduced into a glo-
bal engine model based on a one-dimensional gas dynamic code.
Results were compared to tests performed on an engine bench,
and it was concluded that for both VGT and AFT, this model is able
to reproduce the fluid-dynamic behaviour of the turbine with good
accuracy in both time and frequency domains.
Finally, the model was applied to a FGT using the maps supplied
by the manufacturer as the only input data, as stated in the project
objectives. As a result, it has been possible to achieve, over a wide
operative range, a highly precise reproduction of the turbine fluid
dynamics coupled to an internal combustion engine.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Antonio Torregrosa for his
helpful suggestions and Mr. Daniel del Valle for the equations
supervision.
The authors thank Renault SA and Generalitat Valenciana
(Grant GV06/057-20060547) for the material and financial support
of this study.
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