14/01/08

Inflation-Expansion characterized by relativistic space-time-velocity

plus the quantum-dimensioning parameters of CMB-elongation
Alfred Bennun
Graduate School of Rutgers University (retired) *
www.alfredobennun.com.ar

Abstract

The results of an empiric simulation by parametric down conversion (PdC) fitted

observational evidence. This data, was plotted in relationship to the radius of the
universe (rU) in Mpc multiplied by Hubble’s constant (H0): rU[Mpc]×H0[Km/s/Mpc]=c
(velocity of light) [Km/s], characterising expansion as subject to c, functioning as a
relativistic causality horizon.

PdC allowed describing expansion as a function of the observable increment of

photon number (∆nγ). This one multiplied by the increment of the quantum dimensional
locus (Compton-volume: ∆Vγ), equals the increment of the universe volume: ∆nγ×∆Vγ
= ∆VU. The nature and frequency of primordial energy differ by much that of its
residual cosmic microwave background (CMB), but the simulation concerns only to
relate their frequency by a mathematical treatment, and hereby both may be refer
indistinctly. The following theoretical treatment, of the proposed quantum and
relativistic parameters, were amalgamated into a single equation and verify by
simulation.

The Einstein’s equation: mPl=EPl/[c×c], allows to introduce c equivalents:

EPl/[rγ/tγloc×rU/tU] and it’s restructuring with Planck’s mass equivalent: mPl=Ñ1/2×c1/2×
G-1/2, results the equality: Ñ1/2×c1/2×G-1/2 = EPl/[rγ/tγloc×rU/tU] ⇒ Ñ1/2×G-1/2=c-1/2×
EPl/[rγ/tγloc×rU/tU]. Introducing recession rate as equivalent to c: Ñ1/2×G-1/2=[rU×H0]-1/2×
EPl/[rγ/tγloc×rU/tU]. Since Planck’s energy: EPl= 2πÑ×vPl, replacing
1/ 2
n
3/ 2 where Planck’s frequency: vPl = vCMB ×2 .
rγCMB× H0 ×rU
2π h×G =
vPl ×tU ×tγ−loc

The plotting of the dimensions of rU and the radius of CMB-photon (rγ) vs. tU, and
time of localization (tγ-loc), shows that all this parameters must increment
simultaneously, in order to preserve the constants. The simulation itself is attached as an
addendum and shows best-fit with known markers. The expansion formula couples
quantum and relativistic parameters, predicting observable: ∆rγCMB and ∆nγ, effect not
accounted by black energy.

A sequential cascade of PdC-cycles which by generating photons of lower and

lowers energy, could maintain “a continuum of decreasing dissipative potential”. Hence,
because the product from a preceding PdC-cycle becomes the substrate for a subsequent
one, accumulation of product is prevented, as if were open thermodynamic systems.
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This state of the system, without any considerable reversibility, would endure until near
extinction of the energy of CMB. The continuum of λCMB and its time of localization
(∆λCMB/∆tλ-loc=c), continuously generate entropy at the level of ∆nγ and ∆Vγ structuring
the arrow of time.

Introduction

The Big-Bang (1) successfully predicted nucleosynthesis and a cosmic

thermodynamic chronology. Friedmann (2) proposed that evaluation of the density of
matter in the universe would allow distinguishing between a close and open geometric
predictions of cosmic evolution.

Albert Einstein and Willem De Sitter (3), contributed the alternative flat model, a
geometry, that allows Euclidian triangles. The NASA observations correspond with a
flat parameter of inflation-expansion.

There is a wide consensus in a Big-Bang, which does not start from a singularity,
a non dimensional point but still could be debated, if the generated velocity of particles,
could overcame their own gravitational attraction to drive expansion. The origin could
correspond to a quantum limit of very high energy density, the Planck mass
(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)
.

An alternative model, could postulate a Big-Bang mechanism based in that a

decrease in the energy of CMB-photons, links a decrease in their energy density to a
quantum dimensional expansion in their space-time locus (11). A mechanism that fits a
gravity-independent requirement would be the splitting of the energy of photons by a
concatenated sequence of PdC processes (12)(13)(14)(15) (16).

The latter allows a cosmic chronology of CMB (17)(18), that only from the Era of
last dispersion to present, a change of temperature of black body emission, from
T=3000 K to T=2.725 K. This, corresponds to a Doppler or shift of frequency spectra of
z =1000 over. Hence, either a wavelength elongation process or the stretching-out of
space became transducers of an increment of λ into and magnification of the space-time
dimensions or vice verse.

However, the relationship which is cause and which effect, becomes clearer by
noticing that expansion it’s coupled (19)(20) to an increment of nγ, which is predicted by
PdC-dependent elongation and not by black energy (21).

The simulation results, predicts that phenomena, like the Casimir effect (22)(23)(24),
which has been attributed to virtual energy, could be alternatively explained by
parametric up conversion (PupC) (25) (26).

The universe has maintained an energy potential allowing expansion and life;
therefore, it is still far a way from equilibrium. However, if the cosmos is self-contained
could not be and open thermodynamic system. This apparent contradiction was solved,
by considering that the universe by photon elongation could be maintained for a long
period of time, as a system away from its equilibrium (15) (27).

Elongation, allows a partial recreation of a non-equilibrium potential (27) by

recycling photons, through the temporal bottleneck of the PdC process. Each PdC cycle

2
results in less-energetic photons, which by reentering in the PdC chain, like quanta of
less and less energetic content; prevent significant reversibility and product
accumulation, conformed a temporal vector the arrow of time.
Results

The quantum dimensional chronology of CMB integrates as an expansionary

space-time continuum

Gravity shapes the geometry of the universe; stellar light is curved by the
gravitational field of the sun, but the expansion parameter has been characterized as
showing cero (or flat) curvature (28)(2)(3). This discrepancy in measurable effects may
indicate different causes.

Thus, gravity may induce a close curvature, without preventing a thermodynamic-

dependent progress of expansion. However, the latter, requires being gravity-
independent as is the case with the experimentally observable PdC. This spontaneous
process, splits one photon into two, each one with half energy. The stretching-out of
space by PdC could occur as a topological change, without affecting by much a
gravitational-dependent curvature of the universe.

However, its may be possible to differentiate between the parameters of expansion

and curvature. If that is the case, a flat curvature may represent a thermodynamic axis
rather than a geometrical one.

These roles may be complementary rather than antagonistic, since the continuum-
quantum elongation of CMB-radiation, would dimensions vacuum and galactic
recession. The non-continuum quantum structure of matter by its gravitational
attractions, could locally overcome uniform CMB-expansion, driving galaxies into
clustering and forming cumulus.

The newly formed CMB-photons, continuously and smoothly, spread their energy
over a stretching-out space-time. However, because of their uniform emergence, would
increase the size of the galactic voids at a greater recession velocity ( vr = H 0 × rr ), than at
the intergalactic distances within clusters.

The energy of Planck particles, as primordial CMB generates matter and a leftover
of residual CMB radiation, which was calculated: 2.35310-10 MeV×3.781087γ = 8.89
×1077 MeV. The simulation checks this value, as a function of 411 CMB-photons per
cm3 multiplied by the present volume of the universe (17)(18).

However, since simulation adopted a critical energy (EC) of two protons per m3,
total residual CMB-energy represents 0.005 % from EC. If black energy would be
detected, the indicated percentage could be decreased, according to a set of more
endurable values.

The cosmos observed coordinates of expansion (rU vs. tU) plotted in fig. 1, fits the
predicted quantum structured-expansion of CMB, calculated by multiplying the ∆nγ by
∆Vγ [cm3] (Compton scattering volume). The CMB-photon enlargement (elongation),
responds to the relationship: radius of the photon over its time of localization, rγ/ tγ loc=
c, velocity of light (11) .

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 Figure 1 shows that expansion, after the formation of galaxies could be measured
by recession velocity (v), for galactic recession-distances: r [Mpc] = v/H0. The summa
of distances of the widening galactic voids plus galactic recessions integrates as a
universe radius, which keeps the relation: rU[Mpc]=c/H0. Calculation shows, that a
galactic void 50 Mpc wide, will increase by a linear recession velocity 50 times greater
than for an inter-galactic distance of 1Mpc.

The figure illustrates by a diagonal intersecting the coordinates of space-time (rU-

tU), that H0 maintains a relativistic relationship of “space-time-velocity”. The latter, is
shown as complementarities to expansion, by a function of the quantum relationship
“space-time-photon-elongation (nγ×Vγ)”. Hence, expansion appears as an energy
continuum, which through photon multiplication-elongation constructs a quantum-
structured vacuum, which is the major contributor to the cosmos grow.

Fig.1: Observation vs. calculated Quantum Integrated Expansion. The figure, shows that the
multiplication: nγ×Vγ[cm3]= VU[cm3], determines the quantum-integrated volume of the
universe in cm3, under the relativistic restriction: radius of the universe in cm over its elapsed
time in seconds: rU[cm]/ tU[s] = c[cm/s]. If the chronological radius of the universe equals
recession distance: r = rr . The velocity of expansion could be measure, after the appearance of
U
galaxies, as a recession velocity: vr = rr[Mpc]× H ∴ rU[Mpc] × H0[km/s/Mpc]=c, as shown in
0
the figure: c[km/s] / rr [Mpc] = H [km/s/Mpc]. Hence, rU= tU× c ∴ tU× c ×H0= c ⇒H0 =1/tU =
U 0
3.086×1019 km/ tU /Mpc, tU[s], example: H0=3.086×1019 km/4.34×1017s /Mpc=71.1 km/s/Mpc.

A after the CMB-radiation, becomes separated from matter, PdC-dependent

photons multiplication of CMB, by emerging uniformly everywhere in the universe,
could have proportionally greater number of photons increment (∆nγ) at larger volumes.

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The relationship of the fundamental constants to the quantum parameters of CMB
elongation

The simulation shows a role of c defining the causality horizon as a function of the
rates of progress of CMB universe radius.

A. Connes (29) describes a universe integrating a continuum and non-continuum

geometries. If these could be thermodynamic differentiable structures, would require
separate energy transduction pathways, for the specific cosmic roles integrating CMB-
radiation with ordinary matter. The model integrates within a quantum-structured
universe a relativistic expansionary continuum.

This model was simulated by keeping track of the energy space-time relation
using the transformation of particle energy into a Compton wavelength:
h . Dimensionally λc is similar to γ, this relationship allows to reach from its
λc =
2 πmc
duality the equivalence of γ in terms of a wavelength λ and frequency v.

These relationships reveal a thermodynamics structure with equivalence to the

Planck mass mPl, and its relationship to the fundamental constants. According to Planck:
mPl=Ñ1/2×c1/2×G-1/2=2.17645×10-5g ∴

Eq.1: Planck’s: m = hc and Eq.2: Einstein’s: E since both share the same
Pl mPl = Pl
G c2
terms mPl, became equalized: Eq.3: hc EPl
=
G c×c

rγ − CMB and rU an becuse: E = 2πh × v (vPl:Planck’s frequency =

=c =c Pl Pl
t γ − loc tU
2.952119155 ×10421/s)

2 πh × v Pl h × H 0 × rU 2πh × v Pl
hc
= = ×⇒
Eq.4: G rU rγ − CMB
introducing c equivalent: rU×H0=c. Eq.5: G rU rγ − CMB
× ×
tU t γ − loc tU tγ − loc

h 2 πh × v Pl 1 h 2π × v Pl 1
= × 1/ 2 1 / 2
⇒ 2 = × 1/ 2
G rU rγ − CMB H 0 × rU h G U γ − CMB H 0 × rU 1 / 2
r r
× ×
tU tγ − loc tU tγ − loc
rU rγ − CMB
Eq.6:
×
Because: v Pl = vCMB × 2n
tU t γ − loc
2π h × G = × H 01 / 2 × rU 1 / 2
v Pl
rU rγ − CMB
×
tU tγ − loc 1/ 2 1/ 2 Eq.7: rγ − CMB × H 01 / 2 × rU 3 / 2
2π h × G = × H 0 × rU ⇒ 2 π h × G = ⇒
vCMB × 2n vCMB × 2n × tU × t γ − loc

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Eq.8: rγ −CMB × rU 3 / 2 H 01/ 2
2π h × G = ×
tU × tγ −loc vCMB × 2n

(The addendum reports results based in Eq.8.)

EPl = EγCMB × 2n “n” could be calculated for present CMB2.725K, predicting a PdC
sequence of 105 cycles: 1.22 × 1022 MeV = 2.353 × 10-10 MeV × 2 n ⇔ n ≈ 105

Fig.2: Plotting merging quantum and relativistic parameters. The quantum dimensions
starting as: rγPl / tγPl = c, are quantum dimensions which interrelate with c a relativistic
parameter. The photon radius rγ as 4/3×π×(rγ)3 adds to the observable universe volume
dimensions, tγ-loc does not, but c links universe radius as a function of the universe time. Total
energy (ET = entropy + enthalpy) for its conservation at the level of CMB, requires a
compensatory mechanism like the spontaneous PdC-process, in which the halving of the energy
of 1 photon generates 2 of twice the original-λ and conservation of momentum. Accordingly,
even if photons are subject to Gravity, a dynamic CMB structured-vacuum could expand by a
PDC-dependent ∆nγ and ∆Vγ, a process independent of Gravity.

The model is concordant with the observed behaviour of vacuum increasing the
distancing between galaxies, but without apparently interfering with their gravity-
dependent mutual approach.

Quantum gravitation would exercise attraction according to cosmic mass

distribution, this leads to greater galactic density along the borders of the enclosed
voids, producing the observed filamentary and laminar galactic structures reported by
the CfA galactic survey.

As the universe expands, the relative contribution to expansion of voids vs.

intergalactic space, leads to the eventually predominance of the former. Voids by
becoming larger over time, changes the distances in-between cumulus which is
participating in the encircling of the voids. This lowers their mutual gravitatory
attractions.

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 The formula predicts that Hubble’s constant, a measure of cosmic expansion,
could also encompass a function of a quantized treatment of critical energy. Thus a
decrease in CMB-photon density, quantum dimensionally relates to a radius and nγ
simultaneous increments with that of the universe time and the time of CMB-
localization.

Quantum-parameters of Inflation
6.0E-33
6.0E-13
5.5E-33
5.0E-13 5.0E-33
Inflationary radius

4.0E-13 4.5E-33

Photon radius
4.0E-33
3.0E-13
3.5E-33
2.0E-13 3.0E-33
1.0E-13 2.5E-33
2.0E-33
1.0E-33
1.5E-33
5.0E-44 2.0E-40 4.0E-40 6.0E-40 8.0E-40 1.0E-39
5.0E-44 2.0E-40 4.0E-40 6.0E-40 8.0E-40 1.0E-39
Inflationary time
Inflationary time

1.9E-43
1.7E-43
Time of localization

1.5E-43
1.3E-43
1.1E-43
9.0E-44
7.0E-44
5.0E-44
5.0E-44 2.0E-40 4.0E-40 6.0E-40 8.0E-40 1.0E-39
Inflationary time

Fig.3: Inflation. Illustrate that the total energy ET (or critical energy Ec) becomes quantized in
the course of inflation as Planck (Pl) particles each one generating by PdC two photons of half
energy. Thus, expanding by 2×8=16 the space-time locus, allowing a chain reaction of
additional Planck photons incoming into the inflationary universe, up to summa of their energy
equals ET.

A Physical worthless description of an origin preceding the Planck, could be based

in that whereas there is a physical limit for mass, there is not a gravitational limitation
of how high could be the frequency. However, the causality horizon could not be exceed
for the future or the past.

It is widely accepted, than from a source outside the actual parameters of physics,
the universe started at the Planck dimensions, creating a “quantum universe” that could
be defined by: mPl=[Ñc/G]1/2. The Planck limit: 1.22×1022 MeV, could be described as a
theoretical particle, but also corresponds to the minimum dimensions for a black hole,
according to quantum mechanics.

Exceeding the Planck time of localization: tPl-loc=5.39×10-44 s, the particle or black

hole energy, is released (“vaporized”) as a photon(30), which may indicate that the
quantum universe, could be initiated by a single particle opening the space-time to
subsequently incoming particles. An increment in the number of particles, will change
the temporal relationship from an rγ /tγ loc=c, for a single particle to the universe time:
rU/tU=c.

7
 tU increments in relationship to the universe radius, and vaporization time would
exceed that of Planck. Calculation shows, that if all the critical energy would be
incorporated into the quantized universe at once, the resulting increase in mass would
not allow the Big-Bang.

Figure 2: Inflation for a Planck or quantum structured universe, may implicate that
the initial cosmic increment in volume, would be dominated by the dynamics of
increment in the number of Planck particles. This because, even to the end of inflation
the number of Planck particles, which PdC degraded to lower energy levels, would be
smaller than the lastly incorporated as Planck. Hence, at the end of inflation the energy
spread would have frequency dispersion with some similarity to that of a black body
spectrum.

It is in the realm of causality descriptions, to use quantum parameters to

theoretically evaluate inflation. This was done, as shown in the figure by assuming that
the space-time grows as a function of dual dimensional parameters, the simultaneous
incorporation of new photons and their PdC-dependent elongation. Under this condition
of a quanta increasing and expanding universe, energy density would not decrease nor
would increase entropy. Unfortunately, physics could not reveal, if there is any causality
relationship, that could link such a process with a primordial donor.

Entropy and the arrow of time

A flat universe requires some form of smoothly extending space without

significant energy expenditure. The pattern of PdC uniformly spreading the energy of
the CMB system would expand vacuum without an observable influence in preventing
local galactic clustering or any disruptive effects over solar systems. The calculation
shows that the number of newly generated photons, ∆nγ, as a function of time and
volume may require elaborating detection experiments according to following
projection: ∆nγ / ∆V 1.86 × 1087 γ / 8.63 × 1084 cm3 3.95 × 107 γ / Km3
= =
∆t 1.72 × 1017 s year
The surging of new photons may be detected as vacuum fluctuations, if the later
exceed by much this number, may be due to partial reversibility between PdC and PupC
cycles.
The Pl density, δPl, evolves as a dissipative function of PdC incrementing photon
number progressively, but each PdC cycle leading to less and less photon energy
density, δEγ =ET/ VU =Eγ × nγ / Vγ × nγ ∴δEγ =Eγ / Vγ , a quantum relation linking the
increment of γ-volume to the VU chronology.
ET ET ET
∆δ U = = 3
=
VT 4 / 3 × π × ( ∆rU ) 4 / 3 × π × c3 × ( ∆tU )3
ET ET ET
∆δ U = = =
VT Vγ × nγ 4 / 3 × π × ( ∆rγ )3 × nγ

Penrose (8), calculate the entropy of the primordial cosmos to present as 10150.
Gravitational entropy Sgrav=10121 (30).

The entropy based in the disorder increment for the summa of photons and
baryons for the period ∆Sγ+B[nγ=nB/prs] =1088 k. Thermal of relic CMB and gravitational

8
entropies have been considered the main components of the universe entropy, that up to
present volume equals 1088 k (Boltzmann constant’s) units (30).

Fig. 4: Increment of CMB system entropy (∆SCMB). The chronology of CMB density
(∆δγ: nγ /cm3), was used to plot normalized the entropy change from the Era of equal
number of photons and baryons to present, ∆SCMB[nγ=nB/prs].The latter, is illustrated by
vertical lines, which integrate the decreasing enthalpy (∆H: full lines) with its
corresponding entropy increase (∆S: broken lines). The cosmos volume increases from
1.5×1048 cm3 to 9.3×1084 cm3. Photon density decreases according to a geometric
progression 1.25×10-1. The c appears to indicate the presence of a space-time restriction
to expansion. As described: Vγ-RELIC-CMB =2.5×10-3 cm3 × nγprt = total VU-RELIC-CMB or
VU-prt =9.3×1084 cm3.

The quantum-dimensioning entropy gain of the PdC expansionary process, was

specifically evaluated by considering only the contributions of ∆nγ and ∆Vγ.

The mol, a unity of density was used as a function of VU, to assay entropy of the
CMB system, which according to Boltzmann for an x state of a box volume: the
constant: k = 1.38×10 -23 J/K = 8.614×10 -11 MeV/K and entropy ∆S = k×logV.

If the initial number of Planck particles (nγPl) could had remain constant, n that
represents the number of photons should not be included in the equation. For the period
nγ=nB/prs: SCMB[nγ=nB/prs]:

 VU[prs]   9.3 × 1084 cm 3 

( )
3
6
1
0

∆SCMB[ nγ = nB / prs] = k × log   = k × log  48 3

= k × log 6.2 ×
 VU[nγ = nB]  1.5 × 10 cm 
PdC continuously increases “nγ” because each Planck particle spreads its energy
to reach the actual value of CMB.

However, for the Era of equals number of photon and baryons, the increment was
only between nγ=1.9×1078 and nγCMB =3.8×1087, because most of the primordial photons

9
were consumed in the generation of matter. The increment requires introducing this
difference as ∆nγCMB.

V V
 γ ×nγ present   2.46×10− 3 cm3 ×3.78×1087 present 
∆SCMB[ nγ = nB / prs] = k × log 
× nγ
 = k × log 
− 31
(
 = k × log 6.2 ×10
36
)
 γ nγ = nB 

3 78
 8.82×10 cm ×1.7×10 nγ = nB 

R=8.314472 J/mol×K =5.189486×1013MeV/mol×K

∆nγ VU[prs]
∆ SCMB [ nγ = nB / prs ] = 23
× R × log
6.023 × 10 VU[ nγ = n B]

∆SCMB[ nγ = nB / prs] =
(3.78 ×10 87
− 1.9 × 10 78
)× 5.18946 ×1013 MeV × log 6.2 ×1036 = 1.19 ×1079 MeV
6.023 × 10 23 K K

The very low, remaining energy in residual CMB, about only 1/20000 of EC,
reduces its role after having transfer energy for the formation of matter, to only its
elongation. Hence, spontaneous PdC is a process with entropy gain, which as shown in
the preceding equations, is mainly a function of expanding vacuum, and the increment
in nγ.

Evaluation of PdC-entropy

PdC as a spontaneous process does not implicate, at its own quantum

dimensioning level, any significant energy expenditures.

PdC at the cosmos level could magnify its entropy impact by the space-time
changes incrementing quantum disorder over the totality of Ec. This one implicates at
least an energy dimension 20000 times larger, than that of residual CMB. The resulting
quantum disorder is additional, but could be differentiated and separately calculated.

Taken in account the Planck or initial to inflation volume:

V 9.2 × 1084 cm3
SPdC = k × log U = k × log = 183k
VPl 1.768 × 10 −98 cm3
However, quantification of the universe energy leads to nγ=1.51×1060 Planck
particles which requires the aggregated volume =1.14×10-36 cm3.

∆SPdC =
(3.78 ×1087 − 1.51×1060 )× 5.18946 ×1013 MeV × log 9.2 × 1084 cm3
= 3.94 × 1079
MeV
− 36
6.023 × 10 23 K 1.14 × 10 cm 3
K

The space-time parameters for quantum dimensions

The known relationships, between particle radius and time of localization:

λC=h/2πmc, define the minimum localization distance or radius for a particle of mass m
and for De Broglie’s λdeB=h/2πmv, when velocity v=c (11).

It is outside the scope of this work, to advance the understanding of the physical
nature of time, but tU a relativistic parameter and tloc, a quantum parameter appear as
linked as shown by Eq.8. This one, incorporate as a function of G, a constant involved
into the warping of relativistic space, both dimensions of time which also became link
10
as interdependent with simultaneous increments of the CMB-quantum and cosmic
radiuses.

Eq.8: ∆rγ −CMB × ∆rU 3 / 2 ∆H 01 / 2

2π h × G = ×
∆tU × ∆tγ −loc ∆vCMB × 2∆n

tloc results from an inverse relationship of frequency 1/v. This, allows to infer that
tloc encompass an oscillatory relationship to space because c/λ=v ∴ 1/ c/λ= tloc. The
equation: λ/tloc=c, predicts that by increasing tloc would decrease the energy of λ or vice
versa.

Experimentally, the velocity of light-propagation could be slow down until it

stops, becomes in a confinement state (32)(33)(34). The latter, may result from the
uncoupling between energy and its oscillatory characteristics, which define a photon
locus. The energy transfer as vibracional, oscillatory or rotational to a lattice (semi-
crystal) media, may not increase molecular collisions (heat) as could be the case within
a liquid phase.

The sodium atoms in the confinement media respond to the light by entering into
superposition. The atoms may acquire two energy states simultaneously (31), in where
the photons become entangled, transferring into the atoms the light’s characteristics of
shape, amplitude and phase (35). Subsequent excitation of the atoms, returns into emitted
light the original information

Hence, the thermodynamic structure within a confinement locus, allows that the
quantum dimensions and the “energy parameters” of a light pulse, become uncoupled
(19)(20)
, suggesting that their link was mediated by tloc.

Thus, confinement may be one of the phenomena that could be described by

space-time parameters, because suggest reversible time-dependent delocalization, of the
energy and quantum information parameters.

Conclusions

The premise of an earlier universe dominated by radiation was evaluated by a

simulation (36) seeking a better-fit with astronomical observations. These empirical
calculations, became supported by a simulation based in eq. 8 (to see annexed), which
was develop from a framework of quantum mechanics and relativity postulations.

This mathematical treatment allows a cosmic chronology of CMB, which by

decreasing frequency, an equivalent value to the black body emission temperature,
allows a formula to be use as a “quantum-transducer” into a formalized model
mechanism, for describing an expansionary continuum of the dimensions of the space-
time.

The cosmos if self-contained could not be open. This apparent contradiction was
solved, by considering that the universe by photon elongation could be maintained for a
long period of time, as a system away from its equilibrium. Elongation, allows a partial
recreation of the non-equilibrium potential by recycling photons, through the temporal

11
bottleneck of the PdC process, reentering in the PdC chain like quanta of less and less
energetic content.

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Quantum Physics: Dec. 12 (2007).
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36. Addendum simulations to reference 15.

1) Dimensioning of the quantum structure initiating the inflationary Universe.

2) Subsequent dimensioning of the Universe

13
 Annexed

Addendum Simulation for Eq.8: ∆rγ −CMB × ∆rU 3 / 2 ∆H 01 / 2

2π h × G = ×
∆tU × ∆tγ −loc ∆vCMB × 2∆n

Conservation
Universe Hubble's Universe Verification Compton Time of of
dimensional
time constant radius Hubble Wavelength localization ratios:
rU / tU= c H0=3.086E+24/tu ru [rγγ=λc=λλ/2π
π]
tu rU=[VUx3/4π]
1/3
ru× H0= c rγγ=c××h/2πEγγ γ−loc
tγ−
γ− rγ−CMB×rU3/ 2 ×H01/ 2
[s] [Km/s/Mpc] [cm] [km/s] [cm] [s]
tU ×tγ−loc×vCMB×2n
3 3.46E-22 2.89E+21 1.04E-11 3.00E+05 4.520E-32 1.508E-42 5.3E-17
4 8.72E-22 1.15E+21 2.61E-11 3.00E+05 9.039E-32 3.015E-42 5.3E-17
5 2.20E-21 4.55E+20 6.58E-11 3.00E+05 1.808E-31 6.030E-42 5.3E-17
6 5.53E-21 1.81E+20 1.66E-10 3.00E+05 3.616E-31 1.206E-41 5.3E-17
7 1.39E-20 7.17E+19 4.18E-10 3.00E+05 7.232E-31 2.412E-41 5.3E-17
8 3.51E-20 2.85E+19 1.05E-09 3.00E+05 1.446E-30 4.824E-41 5.3E-17
9 8.86E-20 1.13E+19 2.65E-09 3.00E+05 2.893E-30 9.649E-41 5.3E-17
10 2.23E-19 4.48E+18 6.69E-09 3.00E+05 5.785E-30 1.930E-40 5.3E-17
11 5.62E-19 1.78E+18 1.69E-08 3.00E+05 1.157E-29 3.859E-40 5.3E-17
12 1.42E-18 7.06E+17 4.25E-08 3.00E+05 2.314E-29 7.719E-40 5.3E-17
13 3.57E-18 2.80E+17 1.07E-07 3.00E+05 4.628E-29 1.544E-39 5.3E-17
14 9.00E-18 1.11E+17 2.70E-07 3.00E+05 9.256E-29 3.088E-39 5.3E-17
15 2.27E-17 4.41E+16 6.80E-07 3.00E+05 1.851E-28 6.175E-39 5.3E-17
16 5.71E-17 1.75E+16 1.71E-06 3.00E+05 3.703E-28 1.235E-38 5.3E-17
17 1.44E-16 6.95E+15 4.32E-06 3.00E+05 7.405E-28 2.470E-38 5.3E-17
18 3.63E-16 2.76E+15 1.09E-05 3.00E+05 1.481E-27 4.940E-38 5.3E-17
19 9.14E-16 1.09E+15 2.74E-05 3.00E+05 2.962E-27 9.880E-38 5.3E-17
20 2.30E-15 4.34E+14 6.90E-05 3.00E+05 5.924E-27 1.976E-37 5.3E-17
21 5.80E-15 1.72E+14 1.74E-04 3.00E+05 1.185E-26 3.952E-37 5.3E-17
22 1.46E-14 6.84E+13 4.38E-04 3.00E+05 2.370E-26 7.904E-37 5.3E-17
23 3.68E-14 2.71E+13 1.10E-03 3.00E+05 4.739E-26 1.581E-36 5.3E-17
24 9.29E-14 1.08E+13 2.78E-03 3.00E+05 9.478E-26 3.162E-36 5.3E-17
25 2.34E-13 4.27E+12 7.01E-03 3.00E+05 1.896E-25 6.323E-36 5.3E-17
26 5.90E-13 1.70E+12 1.77E-02 3.00E+05 3.791E-25 1.265E-35 5.3E-17
27 1.49E-12 6.73E+11 4.45E-02 3.00E+05 7.583E-25 2.529E-35 5.3E-17
28 3.74E-12 2.67E+11 1.12E-01 3.00E+05 1.517E-24 5.059E-35 5.3E-17
29 9.43E-12 1.06E+11 2.83E-01 3.00E+05 3.033E-24 1.012E-34 5.3E-17
30 2.38E-11 4.21E+10 7.13E-01 3.00E+05 6.066E-24 2.023E-34 5.3E-17
31 5.99E-11 1.67E+10 1.80E+00 3.00E+05 1.213E-23 4.047E-34 5.3E-17
31/32 1.33E-10 7.49E+09 4.00E+00 3.00E+05 1.80E-23 6.00E-34 5.3E-17
32 1.51E-10 6.63E+09 4.52E+00 3.00E+05 2.426E-23 8.094E-34 5.3E-17
33 3.80E-10 2.63E+09 1.14E+01 3.00E+05 4.853E-23 1.619E-33 5.3E-17
34 9.58E-10 1.04E+09 2.87E+01 3.00E+05 9.706E-23 3.238E-33 5.3E-17
35 2.41E-09 4.14E+08 7.24E+01 3.00E+05 1.941E-22 6.475E-33 5.3E-17
36 6.09E-09 1.64E+08 1.82E+02 3.00E+05 3.882E-22 1.295E-32 5.3E-17
37 1.53E-08 6.52E+07 4.60E+02 3.00E+05 7.765E-22 2.590E-32 5.3E-17
38 3.86E-08 2.59E+07 1.16E+03 3.00E+05 1.553E-21 5.180E-32 5.3E-17
39 9.74E-08 1.03E+07 2.92E+03 3.00E+05 3.106E-21 1.036E-31 5.3E-17
40 2.45E-07 4.08E+06 7.36E+03 3.00E+05 6.212E-21 2.072E-31 5.3E-17
41 6.18E-07 1.62E+06 1.85E+04 3.00E+05 1.242E-20 4.144E-31 5.3E-17
42 1.56E-06 6.42E+05 4.67E+04 3.00E+05 2.485E-20 8.288E-31 5.3E-17
43 3.93E-06 2.55E+05 1.18E+05 3.00E+05 4.969E-20 1.658E-30 5.3E-17
44 9.89E-06 1.01E+05 2.97E+05 3.00E+05 9.939E-20 3.315E-30 5.3E-17
45 2.49E-05 4.01E+04 7.47E+05 3.00E+05 1.988E-19 6.631E-30 5.3E-17
46 6.28E-05 1.59E+04 1.88E+06 3.00E+05 3.976E-19 1.326E-29 5.3E-17

14
47 1.58E-04 6.32E+03 4.74E+06 3.00E+05 7.951E-19 2.652E-29 5.3E-17
48 3.99E-04 2.51E+03 1.20E+07 3.00E+05 1.590E-18 5.304E-29 5.3E-17
49 1.00E-03 9.95E+02 3.01E+07 3.00E+05 3.180E-18 1.061E-28 5.3E-17
50 2.53E-03 3.95E+02 7.59E+07 3.00E+05 6.361E-18 2.122E-28 5.3E-17
51 6.38E-03 1.57E+02 1.91E+08 3.00E+05 1.272E-17 4.244E-28 5.3E-17
52 1.61E-02 6.22E+01 4.82E+08 3.00E+05 2.544E-17 8.487E-28 5.3E-17
53 4.05E-02 2.47E+01 1.21E+09 3.00E+05 5.089E-17 1.697E-27 5.3E-17
54 1.02E-01 9.80E+00 3.06E+09 3.00E+05 1.018E-16 3.395E-27 5.3E-17
55 2.57E-01 3.89E+00 7.71E+09 3.00E+05 2.035E-16 6.790E-27 5.3E-17
56 Subsequent ? ? ? 4.071E-16 1.358E-26 ?
57 steps ? ? ? 8.142E-16 2.716E-26 ?
58 (56-68) ? ? ? 1.628E-15 5.432E-26 ?
59 involves formation ? ? ? 3.257E-15 1.086E-25 ?
60 of matter from the ? ? ? 6.514E-15 2.173E-25 ?
61 nγ increment ? ? ? 1.303E-14 4.345E-25 ?
62 Assuming that ? ? ? 2.605E-14 8.691E-25 ?
63 from original ? ? ? 5.211E-14 1.738E-24 ?
64 1.7E+82 MeV ? ? ? 1.042E-13 3.476E-24 ?
65 remains ? ? ? 2.084E-13 6.953E-24 ?
66 8.893E+77 MeV ? ? ? 4.169E-13 1.391E-23 ?
67 as CMB ? ? ? 8.337E-13 2.781E-23 ?
68 only 0.005% ? ? ? 1.667E-12 5.562E-23 ?
69 5.31E+03 1.88E-04 1.59E+14 3.00E+05 3.335E-12 1.112E-22 5.3E-17
70 1.34E+04 7.47E-05 4.01E+14 3.00E+05 6.670E-12 2.225E-22 5.3E-17
71 3.37E+04 2.97E-05 1.01E+15 3.00E+05 1.334E-11 4.450E-22 5.3E-17
72 8.50E+04 1.18E-05 2.55E+15 3.00E+05 2.668E-11 8.899E-22 5.3E-17
73 2.14E+05 4.67E-06 6.42E+15 3.00E+05 5.336E-11 1.780E-21 5.3E-17
74 5.40E+05 1.85E-06 1.62E+16 3.00E+05 1.067E-10 3.560E-21 5.3E-17
75 1.36E+06 7.36E-07 4.08E+16 3.00E+05 2.134E-10 7.119E-21 5.3E-17
76 3.43E+06 2.92E-07 1.03E+17 3.00E+05 4.269E-10 1.424E-20 5.3E-17
77 8.63E+06 1.16E-07 2.59E+17 3.00E+05 8.537E-10 2.848E-20 5.3E-17
78 2.18E+07 4.60E-08 6.52E+17 3.00E+05 1.707E-09 5.696E-20 5.3E-17
79 5.48E+07 1.82E-08 1.64E+18 3.00E+05 3.415E-09 1.139E-19 5.3E-17
80 1.38E+08 7.24E-09 4.14E+18 3.00E+05 6.830E-09 2.278E-19 5.3E-17
81 3.48E+08 2.87E-09 1.04E+19 3.00E+05 1.366E-08 4.556E-19 5.3E-17
82 8.77E+08 1.14E-09 2.63E+19 3.00E+05 2.732E-08 9.113E-19 5.3E-17
83 2.21E+09 4.53E-10 6.62E+19 3.00E+05 5.464E-08 1.823E-18 5.3E-17
84 5.57E+09 1.80E-10 1.67E+20 3.00E+05 1.093E-07 3.645E-18 5.3E-17
85 1.40E+10 7.13E-11 4.21E+20 3.00E+05 2.186E-07 7.290E-18 5.3E-17
86 3.54E+10 2.83E-11 1.06E+21 3.00E+05 4.371E-07 1.458E-17 5.3E-17
87 8.91E+10 1.12E-11 2.67E+21 3.00E+05 8.742E-07 2.916E-17 5.3E-17
88 2.25E+11 4.45E-12 6.73E+21 3.00E+05 1.748E-06 5.832E-17 5.3E-17
89 5.66E+11 1.77E-12 1.70E+22 3.00E+05 3.497E-06 1.166E-16 5.3E-17
90 1.43E+12 7.02E-13 4.27E+22 3.00E+05 6.994E-06 2.333E-16 5.3E-17
91 3.59E+12 2.78E-13 1.08E+23 3.00E+05 1.399E-05 4.666E-16 5.3E-17
92 9.05E+12 1.10E-13 2.71E+23 3.00E+05 2.798E-05 9.332E-16 5.3E-17
93 2.28E+13 4.38E-14 6.84E+23 3.00E+05 5.595E-05 1.866E-15 5.3E-17
94 3.92E+13 2.55E-14 1.18E+24 3.00E+05 7.634E-05 2.546E-15 5.3E-17
95 5.30E+13 1.89E-14 1.59E+24 3.00E+05 8.190E-05 2.732E-15 5.3E-17
96 1.34E+14 7.49E-15 4.00E+24 3.00E+05 1.638E-04 5.464E-15 5.3E-17
97 3.36E+14 2.97E-15 1.01E+25 3.00E+05 3.276E-04 1.093E-14 5.3E-17
98 8.48E+14 1.18E-15 2.54E+25 3.00E+05 6.552E-04 2.185E-14 5.3E-17
99 2.14E+15 4.68E-16 6.41E+25 3.00E+05 1.310E-03 4.371E-14 5.3E-17
100 5.38E+15 1.86E-16 1.61E+26 3.00E+05 2.621E-03 8.742E-14 5.3E-17
101 1.36E+16 7.37E-17 4.07E+26 3.00E+05 5.241E-03 1.748E-13 5.3E-17
102 3.42E+16 2.93E-17 1.02E+27 3.00E+05 1.048E-02 3.497E-13 5.3E-17
103 8.61E+16 1.16E-17 2.58E+27 3.00E+05 2.097E-02 6.993E-13 5.3E-17
104 2.17E+17 4.61E-18 6.51E+27 3.00E+05 4.193E-02 1.399E-12 5.3E-17
Pt 4.34E+17 2.30E-18 1.30E+28 3.00E+05 8.386E-02 2.797E-12 5.3E-17
105 5.47E+17 1.83E-18 1.64E+28 3.00E+05 8.386E-02 2.797E-12 5.3E-17

“E” indicating exponential in base 10x.

The nature and frequency of primordial energy differ by much that of its
residual cosmic microwave background (CMB), but the simulation concerns

15
only to relate their frequency by a mathematical treatment, and hereby both
may be refer indistinctly.

16
 A Model Dimensioning the Space-Time by Parametric-Down Conversion

Alfred Bennun
Graduate School of Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey*
alfr9@hotmail.com

It was assumed that primordial energy could be described as a wave function. A simulation using
parametric down conversion which increments the number of photons, but at a longer wavelength, allows
to show a natural unfolding of the space-time. The process, from the Planck energy limit to the present
Cosmic Microwave Background radiation (CMB), could be described as a gradient or continuum. In this,
the length of the primordial wave, the number of photons and the associated time double 107 times. Thus,
allowing the natural surging of parameters for time and wavelength of localization which could be added
to the usual time-energy or temperature axis. Cosmic volume grows naturally as a function of multiplying
the continuous increments in volume of localization by that of photon number. The end of Inflation
corresponds to the time of localization needed for the change of phase involved in scission of forces.

The simulation initiates at the joint Planck localization volumes instead that at a singularity

The parameters of the changing space-time during the Inflationary Era are described using a
different model than the positive vacuum mechanism of Guth et al (1) (2) (3) (4) and Linde (5) (6) (7) (8) (9). One
of the major objections to the presence of a singularity at the initiation of the Big-Bang (10) (11) is that
conceptually it should be described as a dimensionless point. The problematic resulting from a physical
description of the universe initiated from a non-dimensional geometry with matter at infinite density was
an incentive for the development of alternative hypothesis like String Theory (12). To overcome these
objections it was inferred that primordial energy could be conceptualized as a radiation that even if not yet
characterized its evolution could be described in terms of wave functions.

There is not a theoretical limit to how high could be the frequency of a radiation; the simulation
starts at the initial energy quanta the Planck energy limit 1.22 x 1022 MeV (Mega Electron Volt). This
allows that the number of primordial photons, required to reach the energy equivalent to the critical mass,
could be confined (13) in a very small but still tri-dimensional space. Accordingly, a radiation of ultra-high
frequency could emanate from confinement (14) within space restrictions which would not hold the kinetic
energy required for baryonic particles to reach the temperature needed to start the hot Big-Bang (10) (15).

Anton Zeilinger (16) and Y. S. Lee (17) showed that the ultra-violet laser incidence on a non-lineal
crystal through the process of parametric down conversion from high to lower energy photons, allows
each photon to divide into two of longer wavelengths. The individual photons energy is inversely
proportional to their wavelength. The simulation correlates the evolution of cosmic energy by the increase
in the number of photons and their wavelength increment.

Radiation temperature and radiation energy are equivalents, but the simulation uses units of energy
rather of temperature because the latter, conceptually could be related to the kinetic energy of matter. The
latter plays the initial role in the hot big-bang whereas the simulation assumes that primordial energy
could be regarded as a mass-less intertwined complex of strong, weak and electromagnetic forces. Even if

1
is not fully characterized, primordial energy could fit the description of electromagnetic radiation through
its treatment as a wave function which shows that the possibility to find an energy quanta in a given space-
time parameter is a function of the square of its amplitude.

Accordingly, a time-temperature parameter could configure only a thermodynamic arrow, whereas

a wave function not only provides this arrow, but also allows associating amplitude increases to quantum
mechanics description. The increase in wave amplitude decreases the probability density that could be
attributed to a single energy quantum. However, if the individual wave functions are expressed as
interconnected as a train of continuously decreasing energy and concomitant wave amplitude increment, it
configures a probability arrow. If such thermodynamic entity is described as a continuum (18), it would
have a thermodynamic tendency to irreversibility (19) (20) (21). Hence, if cosmic evolution could be described
as the continuum, individual photons and matter particles would show the characteristic quantum
mechanic behaviour of individual energy quanta. However, the expanding of primordial energy would
create a decreasing probability arrow that would integrate causality into the relationship of coupling
between time-dependent thermodynamic events (22) (23) (24).

Electro-magnetic energy itself subject to gravity, by its elongation from smaller to larger wave
localization dimensions oppose the force of gravity. This propagation will appear as an arrow of time (25)
(26) (27)
and of space expansion. On the other hand, since the volume of localization of particles bearing
mass could not evolve from smaller to larger values, as waves do, would only be able to oppose expansion
through their mutual gravitational attraction.

Simulation parameters

Assuming that primordial energy in the form of energy packets is not subject to interactions at the
initial stages of the cosmos, it could be discussed according to the solution of Schrödinger’s equation for a
harmonic oscillation known as a wave function Ψ(x):

Ψ ( x, t ) = A cos(kx − wt + ϕ )

Where A is the maximum amplitude of the function; k is the number of wave; w is the angular
frequency; φ is the phase of the movement; and x and t are the spatial and the temporary variables.
This approach allows that, independently of the lack of characterization of primordial energy, this
one could be described in terms of frequency evolution.

Hence, time of localization and volume (space) of localization, emerge naturally. Wavelength is
the space or distance for the wave function between two peaks. The wave amplitude could increase as the
wave propagates. A time dependent cosmic relationships with quantum mechanics are reflected in that the
probability to find the particle in an interval x, x+dx is the square of the module of the wave
∞
2 2
function Ψ ( x) dx , which integrated is: ∫ Ψ ( x) dx = 1
−∞
Then, the probability per unit of length (or probability density) to find the particle in x
2
is Ψ (x) and is related to the square of the wave amplitude.

Number of stage (N): shows decreasing by half the Planck energy limit (EPl) according to
progression (1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, etc.) ending at 1/ 2106 = 1/ (8.11 x 1031), or the presently residual energy of
CMB photons after 106 stages plus initial (0) total 107 stages.

2
 Planck energy limit (EPl): the three fundamental constants: G (Newton’s constant=6.67 x 10-11 m3 x
kg x s ), ħ (Planck constant=4,135 x 10-21 MeV x Hz-1) and c (velocity of light = 2,997 x 1010 cm x s-1),
-1 -2

hc 5
EPl= = 1.22 x 1022 MeV, initial energy of primordial photon.
G

CMB photon packets: Best fit thermal distribution of a black-body spectrum: actual mean
temperature (T) of 2.725 Kº converted to 2.35 x 10-10 MeV (Mega Electron Volts). Frequency peak: 1.604
x 1011 Hz; and wavelength peak: 1.9 x 10-1 cm.
To calculate, according to Wien Law, emission peak for a black body:
T=2.897 x 10-3 meter °K /λpeak. For a temperature (T) of 2.73 °K, the wavelength peak: 1.06 x 10-1
cm.

Calculation of critical energy: 2.35 x 10-10 MeV multiplied by the actual number of CMB photons
(3.74 x 1087) equals 8.79 x 1077 MeV, which only represent 0.005 % of the total energy or critical mass for
a self-contained universe (1.702 x 1082 MeV), equivalent to about 2 protons per cubic meter.
Energy of wavelength (Eλ): starts at the value of EPl and each stage decreases by half the energy to
end at the actual value of CMB. This procedure yielded a total number of 107 stages; and allows the
dimensioning of the energy parameter.

In Table 1 denominated for primordial energy: Radiation Wavelength (λ) and a Table 2 average λ
(black body to the photon packets corresponding to each stage), according to the formula [c = f x λ], were
c = velocity of light (2.997 x 1010 cm x s-1).

Time of λ-localization (tλ-loc): corresponding to each wavelength. According to the relationship for
frequency: [tλ-loc= ħ/E=1/f=λ/c] expressed in centimetres.
Time (t) expressed in seconds [t x c = 2r] was used to calculate the time of localization for
photons, calculated considering 2r = λ results in value of localization for EPl energy limit that equals 5.40
x 10-44 s. Similar value could be obtained according to:

hG
tPl = = 5.39 x 10-44 s.
5
c

Photon number (nγ): incrementing according to the progression: initial value x (2)N. The critical
mass divided by the Planck Energy Limit results in the initial value 1.40 x 1060 photons.
The values of energy per photon (Eλ), in accordance to the equation: [Eλ =ħ x f], were used to
obtain the frequency values in Hz, which were calculated but not included in the table.
Volume of λ-localization (Vλc-loc): according to the formula in cm3: [Vλc-loc= 4/3 x π x λc3]. In the
formula of a sphere, r3 was replaced by λc3.

Radius of localization (λc) based in the Compton wavelength of an electron (λc=ħ/mec) value: 2.426
-12
x 10 m. This is considered analogous to a radius of localization (λc) according to λc=λ/2π. The value λc
allows relating of particles to wavelength, and, therefore, Vλc-loc has a similar expression to volumes of
localization for particles [Vp-loc= 4/3 x π x r3], used in Table 2.

Range of values of λc: Table 1: from stage 0: 1.62 x 10-33 cm; duplicating in value until stage 56:
1.17 x 10-16 cm.; Table 3: from stage 96: 8.19 x 10-5 cm; duplicating in value until stage 106: 8.39 x 10-2
cm.

3
 Radius of the Universe (Ur): calculated by compounding the lengthening of photon trains by
simultaneous doubling the number of photons and doubling the wavelength and amplitude according to
Ur= ((Vλc-loc x nγ) x (3/4) x (1/π))1/3 in cm x 1.05805 x 10-18, equivalent in light years as unit of length.

This formula came from the formula for a Universe volume: [UV= Vλc-loc x nγ= (4/3) x π x (Ur)3].
It was assumed that the transversal polarization of the oscillatory axis of the electromagnetic force results
from the scission of the strong force at 1016 MeV, and the weak at 1012 MeV. The separation of these
forces according to the two complementary axis allows volume to increase according to a cubic
exponential associated to the rate of lengthening of each photon train up to stage 33. Up to this stage, was
considerer that the predominant force for Inflation was the increment in time of localization from the
Planck 3.39 x 10-43 s. to the Higgs boson 2.44 x 10-26 s. From stage 56 to 96, in order to obtain a
comparative particle chronology as shown in table 2, it was discontinue this parameter and was included
an energy (temperature)-time axis. In table 3, to describe Expansion after recombination, the parameter
radius of Universe was calculated using the value for stage 96 or 4.03 x 105 light years multiplied by the
progression from (2.84)0 to reach (2.84)10 or the present stage 106.

Time of particle localization (tp-loc): according to the relativistic formula which allows to relate
radius of particles (r), to the velocity of light and time (t) expressed in seconds [t x c = 2r]. The Planck
particle corresponds with the Planck radius of 1 x 10-33 cm, energy equivalent to 1 x 1032 K°. The values
for the radius of localization in centimetres: quark charm: 10-16, pion: 10-12, proton: 10-13 and electron: 3 x
10-10. However, it has been postulated that in the earlier space-time the value of the radius of particles
were smaller than in the present. If so, a proportionality factor, alpha (α), should be used to correct these
t
values: α x r = c .
2
Temperature-time axis (t): could be correlated with Eλ, on the basis that, to decrease energy either
as a wavelength or temperature by half, requires a corresponding doubling of the preceding elapsed time.
This rate of 4 relating the decrease in energy to an expansion of the associated time may reflect a rhythm
for the enlargement of the space time. This may relate to a relationship in which it is required that the time
of localization increase by 2 to allow that the radius of localization could also simultaneously increase by
2.

The relationship between the thermodynamics of wavelength elongation and observation

At temperature equilibriums, photons radiate with the energetic distribution of a black body. The
finding that at 3.79 x 105 light years from the Big-Bang, a surface of “last scattering” with a temperature
equilibrium of 3000 K° originates the CMB photon-packets which could be interpreted as a red shift, z =
3000 K°, to the 2.73 K° observable at present. However, it is commonly accepted that this temperature
gradient is a part of the time-temperature axis correlating the chronology of the Big-Bang (28) (29) (30) (31) (32),
and, furthermore, a shift on a continuum may only displace the values delimiting the gradient.

This correlates with a decreasing progression from 2.59 x 10-7 to 2.35 x 10-10 MeV, halved 10
times or about (1/2)10. The increase in the Universe radius from the time of last scattering to the present
could be expressed as a 3.63 x 104 radius increment or a progression of about (2.84)10. Calculation by
parametric down conversion shows that, during the same period, the number of photons would multiply by
210, which is a partial increment of the total one. Accordingly, the simulation adopted a gradient or
continuum of decreasing energy in terms of frequency, scaled to show that an increment of wavelength not
only decreases energy by half, but also requires the doubling of the associated elapsing time.

This approximation was regarded as acceptable in terms of the simulation requirements, and
astronomical observations were extrapolated to initial conditions according to Planck energy limit, which

4
allow calculating that after 107 stages of decreasing energy by half, it would reach a value concordant
with the present one. The time elapsed from the Era of equal particle to radiation number to the present,
shows that a photon number increase over particles by about 231, suggesting a partial energy conservation
mechanism by parametric down conversion. The discrepancy disappears by taking in account that most of
the energy present as primordial energy was diverted for the formation of ordinary matter and dark matter
and dark energy (33). Hence, preventing that photon number could increase by only accounting their
formation by parametric down conversion, the stages allocated for this process are indicated by the
question marks in Table 2. Thus, allowing that only 1/20,000 of the total initial energy could reach the
frontier of last scattering.

A supercontinuum laser light obtained under laboratory conditions (34) (35) shows a progressive
wavelength elongation, but it would require conditions no leading to entropy or ideal, to show energy
conservation as a number of photons increment. A model, taking in account parametric down conversion
allows an elegant solution for energy conservation. The mathematical artefact of dividing by two the
energy levels was adopted because it was assumed to help to pinpoint the levels of CMB energy within
time and space parameters. This process allows showing that the dissipative potential created by
wavelength elongation could be the transducer into a cumulative potential (19) of increasing photon
number. The model adopted reference values shown in bold characters from observationally and
theoretically accepted concepts to determine best-fitting of the several treated simulations. This coupling
not only allows a dissipative potential in a self-contained Universe, but also brakes time symmetry. This
effect not only results from a thermo dynamic down flow, but also from the fact that the vector direction
for a single packet of energy generating two or more packets is kinetically the favourable direction.
Consequently, the multiple interactions required for more than one energy packet to regenerate a previous
single stage of the continuum, would be a much less probable event.

Time and volume of wavelength localization are additional limits to the energy axis

The velocity of the changes of phase of a sinusoidal wave generated by a laser pulse in a cell of
caesium gas exceeded by 300 times the velocity of propagation of light in a vacuum (36). Therefore, the
primordial radiation changes of phase resulting from the continuous decrease in its frequency and the
dissociation of strong, weak and electromagnetic forces and/or transition between a virtual and ordinary
time and space of localization could be assumed to occur within the time parameters of the Inflationary
Era (28) (37) (38). The time lapse of inflation has to include the time of localization for wavelengths at the
energy level characterizing the events. Therefore, it may better define the time limits of Inflation. The
latter could not to be limited by the velocity of light propagation in space because its contribution during
the Inflationary period would be non significant. Accordingly, the rate of increase of cosmic radius and
that of the number of photons formed by the multiplication chain during the Inflationary period were
assumed not to be influenced by the insignificant distance travelled by light during this period.

Table 1: Simulation defining Inflation as a function of time of λ-localization and space by wavelength
elongation and photon increment by parametric down conversion Initial (in.).N equals 57 stages in
progression. 7 reported. In bold: Energy for scissions of strong (1 x 1016 MeV) and weak forces (1 x 1012
MeV), and for Higgs boson (1.6 x 105 MeV). Time of λ-localization: 2.91 x 10-33 sec. end of Rapid
Inflationary Period. The Universe Radius (Ur) = (Vλc-loc x nγ x (3/4) x (1/ π))1/3 was calculated from the
Universal volume (UV) = Vλc-loc x nγ, assumed to be spherical: UV= (4/3) x π x (Ur)3.

5
 # of Energy of Radiation Time of λ Photon Vol. λc-loc. Universe
Stage Wavelength Wavelength Localization Number (Vλ-loc) Radius
(N) (Eλ) (λ) (tλ-loc) (n γ) (Ur)
in. x (1/2)N-1 ħc/E λ /c in. x (2)N-1 (4/3) x π x λc3
(MeV) (cm) (s) (photons) (cm3) (Light years)
0 1,2x1022 1,0x10-32 3,4x10-43 1,4x1060 1,8x10-98 1,9x10-31
1 6,1x1021 2,0x10-32 6,8x10-43 2,8x1060 1,4x10-97 4,8x10-31
4 7,6x1020 1,6x10-31 5,4x10-42 2,2x1061 7,3x10-95 7,7x10-30
19 2,3x1016 5,3x10-27 1,8x10-37 7,3x1065 2,5x10-81 8,1x10-24
33 1,4x1012 8,7x10-23 2,9x10-33 1,2x1070 1,1x10-68 3,4x10-18
49 2,2x1007 5,7x10-18 1,9x10-28 7,9x1074 3,2x10-54 8,9x10-12
56 1,7x1005 7,3x10-16 2,4x10-26 ? 6,6x10-48 ?

The emerging from confinement of primordial radiation into a continuously unfolding space-time
indicates the convenience to relate the decrease in frequency to a time of wave localization rather than to
relate directly energy evolution to an ordinary time scale. Accordingly, in Table 1, this parameter allows
not to ignore that the theoretical meaning of time of localization provides, as a function of its energy, a
physical lower limit for the cosmos existential time required for a wave dimensioning into or within the
space-time. Example: If a shutter timer allows only the emission of a single violet photon, the same timing
would not allow the emission of a red photon, which would occur only, if the timer is set to the time
dimension of the latter photon.

The Planck energy limit (EPl) is the same quantity for an energy packet either particle or wave
(1.22 x 1022 MeV). However, it could be assumed based in that duality as either photon or wave allows
description in terms of different space-time conformations, but could be useful to only differentiate by
assigning the denomination time of λ-localization for waves (tλ-loc) and in the equation refers 2r as equal to
λ, and for particles or photons, the time of particles localization (tp-loc) referring 2r as equal to the
diameter. Table 1, in order to emphasize the mass-less primordial energy condition, equates EPl in terms of
time of λ-localization as 3.39 x 10-43 s.

The dispersion of trains of increasing number of photons would conforms an arrow of time
according to the increment in time of localization and would inflate space by the increase in their number
and volume of photon localization. In Table 1 the scission of strong force at 1016 MeV and weak at 1012
MeV relates to a change of phase that would occur at much greater velocity than that allowed by the
celerity of light. Table 1 emphasizes the role of time localization in generating the Inflationary time and its
ending at the time of the scission of the weak force.

At stage 33, the energy per photon corresponds to a tλ-loc of 2.91 x 10-33 s., a time usually assumed
to end Inflation. At the end of inflation the initial number CMB photons (1.40 x 1060 photons) multiplied
by 233 (or 8.59 x 109) have increased to 1.20 x 1070 photons, but since the radius has increased according
to (4) N-1 x rλc to 2.35 x 1020 cm. the Universe radius has reached 249 light years. Also it could be
calculated that the number of photon density decreases to 2.21 x 108 photons per cm3. At stage 56, the
energy of wavelength (Eλ) has decreased to 1.69 x 105 MeV, which, according to Connes mathematical
treatment (39), is the value that allows the appearance of the Higgs boson.

When the dimensions of the cosmic time axis exceed that required for tλ-loc for a single wave, the
tendency to further expansion becomes less dependent of subsequent tλ-loc increment and more of the
incremental volume of photons localization and their increase in number. During the Expansionary time
the velocity of light propagation in space could make a substantial contribution to the rate of increase in

6
 the value of the cosmic radius. Table 2 shows that at the moment of the Higgs boson formation
corresponds to a value 2.5 x 10-11 s. in the time-temperature axis. This value greatly exceeds the tp-loc
required for localization of all the listed particles, which indicates that particle formation is not limited by
time requirements and will mainly depend of the cosmic energy level.

Table 1 also shows that matter particles could not have occupied ordinary three-dimensional space
during most of the Inflationary Era but only at its ending. The generation of mass would thereafter oppose
the expansionary tendency of radiation.

Table 2: N equals 41 stages in progression. 11 reported. Symbol (?): not extrapolated. In bold: nγ
at time of equality between radiation to particle (p); t p-loc : t x c = 2r, radius (r), velocity of light
(c) and time (t). The time-temperature axis shows a space time rhythm of 4, compounding a time
of localization incrementing by 2 to a simultaneously increase by 2 of the radius of localization.

# of Energy per Photon Time Time of Volume of Time-T°

Stage Event Wavelength Number p-loc λ-loc (λc) loc. Axis
(N) (Eλ) (nγ) (tp-loc) (tλ-loc) (Vλc-loc) (t)
(MeV) (photons) (sec.) (sec.) (cm3) (sec.)
56 Higgs boson 1,7x10+05 ? 2,4x10-26 6,6x10-48 2,5x10-11
-27
61 Quarks: Charm 5,3x10+03 ? 6,7x10 7,8x10-25 2,2x10-43 2,6x10-08
62 Bottom 2,6x10+03 ? 6,7x10-25 1,6x10-24 1,7x10-42 1,0x10-07
63 Proton 1,3x10+03 ? 6,7x10-24 3,1x10-24 1,4x10-41 4,1x10-07
66 Up, Down, Strange 1,7x10+02 ? 6,7x10-27 2,5x10-23 7,1x10-39 2,6x10-05
67 Pion 8,3x10+01 ? 3,3 x10-22 5,0x10-23 5,7x10-38 1,1x10-04
68 Strongly interacting 4,1x10+01 ? 1,0x10-22 4,6x10-37 4,2x10-04
74 Electron (?) 6,5x10-01 8,1x10+77 2,0x10-20 6,4x10-21 1,2x10-31 1,7x10+00
75 3,2x10-01 1,6x10+78 1,3x10-20 9,6x10-31 7,2x10+00
93 Nuclei formation 1,2x10-06 4,2x10+83 3,4x10-15 1,7x10-14 9,9x10+11
95 Formation of Atoms 3,1x10-07 1,7x10+84 1,3x10-14 1,1x10-12 1,7x10+13

Table 2 takes into account that, after formation of ordinary matter and dark matter and energy,
only 1/20,000 of the total initial energy would reach the frontier of last scattering. Therefore,
transformation of an energy gradient of radiating wave packets into dark energy and matter, and ordinary
matter, may have followed a sequence of stages. At these stages, photons still would be duplicating, but
also disappearing by converting their energy into the equivalent resting mass of particles. The
corresponding extrapolation for the number of photons column was not done because it could have been
less than accurate. This was resolved bypassing stages 56 to 70 by using the question mark symbols.

Table 2 shows that at the stage 60 the energy level still exceeds that required to create the masses
corresponding to quarks (according to E=mc2) expressed in MeV, which are: charm: 5 x 103, bottom: 1.6
x 103 and up, down and strange below 1.5 x 102. Quantum physics assigns to each particle a minimum
volume of localization which corresponds to the radius of 3 x 102 Fermis for an electron and 1/10th of
Fermis or 10-14 cm for a more massive proton.

Table 3: The final 11 stages from 96 plus an unnumbered initial one, at the frontier of last
scattering, to present are shown under the premise that the value of critical or initial energy:
1.71 x 10 82 MeV have decreased, after formation of ordinary matter, dark energy and dark
matter, to a total remnant energy of 8.89 x 10 77 MeV. The remnant energy emerges from the
frontier of last scattering as the radiation spectra from a black body at 3,000K. Elongating of

7
this radiation spectra ends at that of a black body at 2.725K, the presently detectable
temperature of relic CMB. Energy conservation at all 11 stages in table 3 could be shown by
multiplying the energy of the respective wavelength by the number of photons: Eλ x nγ. Some of
the obtained values could be correlated with astronomically observable ones which are shown in
bold characters.

# of Energy of Average λ Volume of Number of Universe

Stage Wavelength (black body) Localization Photons Radius
(N) (Eλ) (λ) (Vλc-loc) (nγ) (Ur)
(MeV) (cm) (cm3) (photons) (light years)
2,59x10-07 4,79x10-04 1,86x10-12 3,44x1084 3,79x10+05
96 2,41x10-07 5,14x10-04 2,30x10-12 3,69x1084 4,03x10+05
97 1,20x10-07 1,03x10-03 1,84x10-11 7,38x1084 1,15x10+06
98 6,02x10-08 2,06x10-03 1,47x10-10 1,48x1085 3,25x10+06
99 3,01x10-08 4,12x10-03 1,18x10-09 2,95x1085 9,23x10+06
100 1,51x10-08 8,23x10-03 9,43x10-09 5,91x1085 2,62x10+07
101 7,53x10-09 1,65x10-02 7,54x10-08 1,18x1086 7,45x10+07
102 3,76x10-09 3,29x10-02 6,03x10-07 2,36x1086 2,12x10+08
103 1,88x10-09 6,58x10-02 4,83x10-06 4,73x1086 6,01x10+08
104 9,41x10-10 1,32x10-01 3,86x10-05 9,45x1086 1,71x10+09
105 4,71x10-10 2,63x10-01 3,09x10-04 1,89x1087 4,85x10+09
106 2,35x10-10 5,27x10-01 2,47x10-03 3,78x1087 1,38x10+10

Table 2 and 3 shows that, from the era in where radiation and particles were in equal proportion (2
78
x 10 ) to the present, the photon number increased as illustrated from about stage 75 to the present by a
factor close to the one reported in the literature of 1.9 x 109 CMB photons per each baryonic particle.

Table 3 includes observational values obtained by the astronomical survey of CMB, within the
parameter from the era of last scattering to the present, which shows these photons as decreasing in
energy, but, as we assumed increasing in number. At the CMB emerging from recombination temperature
of 3,000 Kº, the corresponding number of photons would be 3.44 x 1084, which will progressively
increment from stage 97 to 107 to reach a photon number of 3.78 x 1087, which closely corresponds to the
observed one.

These 10 stages of halving energy were related to the exponential increase of Universe Radius
according to the exponential 2.84. Hence, from the actual age of the universe, 13.76 x 109 light years,
were subtracted first 8.92 x 109 light years to obtain the initial time framing of the last division. To the
resulting number 4.85 x 109 was thereafter subtracted 3.14 x 109 light years. The ten-stage subtractions
ended at 3.79 x 105 light years which is regarded as the time of recombination at the end of last scattering.
This is one of the relationships that allow extrapolating astronomically observable values with those
obtained by simulation. The Radius in light years corresponds to the chronometric scale of time based in
the velocity of light.

Dividing the actual Universe volume (9.34 x 1084 cm3) by the CMB packets photon number (3.78
x 1087), it obtained a volume of λ-localization of about 2.43 x 10-3 cm3 similar to the one calculated using
the mean value of the CMB wavelength packet.

Obviously, it is unlikely, that the present time could correspond to the end of the last division.
Therefore, Table 3 partial simulation of a period of the expansionary time, should be regarded as only an
8
illustrative draft. However, it may provide a theoretical framework for a more rigorous computational
analysis plotting the elongation and cooling down of CMB radiation to characterize the Expansionary Era.

Conclusions

The purpose of the simulation is to illustrate that there are energy-space-time relationships, which
are physically ingrained in wavelength elongation as described by the model and may be verifiable by
concordance with astronomical observation. The NASA, COBE and WASP space probes (29) (30) (31) (32)
show a flat cosmic geometry that, if not to require a very exact critical mass, indicates that at the Universe
origin, a mass-less primordial energy describable by a wave function could have preceded the formation
of matter.

The concept of frequency leads to the conclusion that elongation of a wavelength would allow to
develop a chronology in which time naturally appears as a function of changes in the Eλ of expanding
space. The latter process could be characterized as resulting from simultaneous increments in the intrinsic
time of λ-localization (∆ tλ-loc), in the volume of λc-localization (∆Vλc), and in the photon number ∆ nγ by
parametric down conversion. Hence, Inflation at much greater velocity than light may be explained as a
phase transition for the increasing time, volume of localization and photon number decompressing the
space-time dimensions. Starting from the Planck time, the dynamics of the increment of the wave
amplitude would continuously decrease probability at the quantum level of the thermodynamic structure,
but, summing up to integrate from past to future a causality arrow within the cosmic energy field.

The model suggests that by describing primordial energy not shaped as particles, but as if it had
the frequency property of photons, their energy dissipative potential when surging from confinement by
increasing in number and dispersing in unfolding space evolve as expected according to the dynamics of
an Einstein universe (18) (40). In this one, the continuous nature of the space-time requires that time and
space could expand simultaneously. The linkage to time dilation would not surge naturally from the
description of a universe emerging by the inflow of particles to conform space according to the prevalent
mechanistic description of Inflation (4). The Expansionary tendency of a radiation, subject to gravity,
could be explained because the process of elongation itself is not subject to the centripetal tendency of
gravity, which results from the events of creation of dark and ordinary matter.

Hence, the time-dependent CMB-elongation process which corresponds by spontaneous

parametric down conversion to a continuous increment in the sizes of the photons and their numbers could
dynamically dimension the vacuum, to spread in opposition to gravity, to separate the galaxies. Therefore,
acting as a quintessence or Einstein’s cosmological constant, but at a rate related to an expanding time
metric. The latter may explain the recently observed reacceleration of the Universe expansion.

These observations appear to suggest that astronomical verification could be used to analyse the
validity of the model on the basis of the included partial Table 3 of the Expansionary Era simulation. The
expansionary time scale required for inflation associated to the time of quantum localization, responds to
the equation λ / tλ-loc = c. The scaling of universe radius from 1.9 x 10-31 to 1.38 x 1010 light years could be
made to correspond with an equation for a universe time of localization: Ut-loc = λc x (nγ)1/3/ c. The
obtained as corresponding values, from 6.04 x 10-24 to 4.36 x 1017 seconds.

The complementation between continuum and non continuum geometries, described by Connes
(39), requires additional characterizations. One may surge from Schrödinger’s equation, which shows that
probability density is a function of the square of the amplitude module of the wave. According to the

9
Heisenberg principle, a continuum of wavelength increments with concomitant increments in amplitude
would yield a gradient of increasing uncertainty. However, this is a cause-effect relationship. Therefore,
the evolution of primordial energy into relic CMB and, maybe, dark energy, may have a thermodynamic
structure describable as a continuum with predictability equivalent to a causality vector. The non-
continuous geometry would be describable in terms of quantum properties of ordinary and, maybe, dark
matter. Hence, either could show time dependent energy arrows which link within cosmic evolution
relativity and quantum mechanics.

Evolution of cosmic energy as a wave function of primordial energy packets could be simulated by
treatment as a continuum, linking uncertainty with causality. A Universe inflated by matter, in which the
modification of the kinetic energy of particles occurs without that of their resting mass eludes the concept
of a continuum. Hence, matter particles that disperse according to temperature-gravitation equilibriums
will rather reflect properties that fit within the non-continuum description of the Universe by Connes (39).
Both geometries could be differentiated in terms of how they structure the space time interrelationships.
The continuum surges from the thermodynamic structuring of primordial radiation and relic CMB without
time-reversibility. The non continuum surges from the quantum structuring of matter, which allow time
symmetry restricted to the particle and atomic levels. At the molecular or higher levels, apparent
violations of microscopic reversibility may be observable, but, this could be explained by synchronized
coupling between downhill and uphill energy flows. Therefore, the simulation by treating the evolution of
primordial energy as a radiation focalizes into the characterization of the continuum and shows some of its
interrelationships with the non-continuum as constituents of a single self-contained Universe.

References and Notes:

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21. A. B. Rufin et al., IEEE J. Quant. Electron., 38, 1110 (2002).
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30. G. F. Smoot et al., Astrophys. J. 396, L1 (1992).
31. G. Smoot, COBE Observations and Results, <arXiv:astro-ph/9902027> (1999).
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(2001).
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*Retired, www.alfredobennun.com.ar
To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: alfr9@hotmail.com

11
 1

Cambios en la configuración del Espacio- Tiempo del CMB para su papel

en las fluctuaciones del vacío.

Alfredo Bennun.
Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey.
alfr9@hotmail.com
www.alfredobennun.com.ar

Abstract

Análisis que introduce, desde la teoría de la relatividad, una relación

temporal entre energía de radiación y sus coordenadas espaciales. Esta, puede
ser correlacionado con la configuración dual foton-longitud de onda. Conversión
Parametrica a la alta (PUpC, por sus siglas en ingles), en la cual, dos fotones
generan uno de la mitad de longitud de onda, podría permitir a los fotones de la
Radiación Cósmica de fondo de Microondas (CMB, por sus siglas en ingles),
encogerse dentro de su configuración espacio-temporal (Efecto Casimir).
Conversiones Parametricas a la alta y a la baja del CMB, ambos procesos
espontáneos, podrían permitir, en el vacío, fluctuaciones de las longitudes de
onda del CMB. Estas, pueden ser difíciles de detectar porque, pueden ocurrir
dentro del rango de su espectro de cuerpo negro (entre 5 × 10-1 cm. y 2 × 10-1
cm.). Los fotones reliquia del CMB, tanto por numero (411 cm3), como por su
escasa energía (2.71 Kelvin), alcanzan una larga dimensión espacio-temporal,
por lo que podrían, no solamente estar dimensionando el vacío, sino que
además, mostrar cambios de tal magnitud, que podrían generan las
fluctuaciones del vacío.

Resultados

Una simulación, aplicando un tratamiento de longitud de onda a la energía

límite de Planck, Epl, dio como resultado una descripción del Big-Bang, en la cual
la evolución del espacio-tiempo surge naturalmente análogamente de un
continuo decrecimiento de la frecuencia (ν) (Fig. 1). El concepto de dualidad de
De Broglie puede ser enriquecido por los parámetros obtenidos de la teoría
relativista. Estos, como el tiempo de localización (t-loc), describen la dualidad en
términos de diferencias dimensionales del espacio-tiempo, sugiriendo dos
configuraciones de igual energía. A partir de este tratamiento se puede verificar,
como se demuestra a continuación, que la radiación electromagnética toma
diferentes valores para la localización de su energía cuando se dimensiona en
una longitud de onda (λ) o en un foton (γ).
 2

Entonces, aplicando a la Energía Limite de Planck (Epl) = 1.22 x 1022 MeV.

Ecuación 1: λ/ t-λ-loc = velocidad de la luz en el vacío (c) = 2.997x1010 cm/seg

∴ λ/ c = t-λ-loc = 3.389x10-43 seg, que también resulta de: 1/ ν

Ecuación 2: Para una partícula (t-p-loc) o γ: 2r / t-γ-loc = c y

2r / c =5.39121x10-44 seg. El mismo valor resulta de: (hG/2πc5)1/2
(G= constante gravitacional).

Para Epl: λ/γ =3.389x10-43 seg / 5.39x10-44 seg = 2π ∴ t-λ-loc / 2π = t-λ-loc

Reemplazando en la ecuación 2: 2r / t-λ-loc / 2π = c

Los términos en las ecuaciones 1y 2 = c ∴

λ / t-λ-loc = 2r / t-λ-loc / 2π y entonces λ= 2r x 2π ∴ teóricamente:
λ / 4π = r

Ecuación 3: Años luz puede ser expresados mediante la unidad luz en cm/seg,
la relación es igual a la velocidad de la luz, por lo tanto, el radio del universo en
cm (rU), dividido por su tiempo en segundos (tU), es igual a c, la velocidad de la
luz.

rU / t U = c

Ecuación 4: Las tres constantes fundamentales (G=1.0692068×1013 cm5 /

MeV.s4, Ñ =4.1356674×10-21
MeV.s/2π y c =2.9979246×1010 cm/s, 3.40528×10-12 MeV s2 cm-2) están
relacionadas con la masa Planck como se demuestra:

hc -5
= mP =2.17645×10 g Reemplazando en la ecuación de Einstein,
G

hc EP
=
G c2

hc EP
Y asignando a E el valor de EP ∴ = y reemplazando una de las c
G c×c
por 2r / t-γ-loc = c y la otra por rU / tU = c ∴
 3

Ecuación 5:
hc EP
=
G rγ rU
×

t
γ − loc tU

La ecuación muestra que, la energía primordial se cuantifica en el nivel

Planck, como una función de las tres constantes fundamentales. Predice que,
desde ahí en adelante, la energía, el espacio y el tiempo, estarán inter-
dimensionadamente relacionados acorde con el valor de c. Este definirá
también, como una constante de inter-relación entre las dimensiones de
espacio-tiempo de los fotones, con el radio versus el tiempo del universo.

Bajo la figura 1, se muestra que el radio de Compton (rc), definido

mediante la observación de la interacción entre los electrones y los fotones (γ),
se puede aplicar para obtener el valor Compton o lambda para fotones (λγ) = λ /
2π.

Entonces, λγ para el valor de λ de Epl = 1.016x10-32 y dividiendo por 2π =

1.616x10-33 cm o Largo de Planck.

Lo que precede indica que ∆t-λ-loc y el volumen de localización (∆vol-λ-

loc), se puede utilizar para determinar cambios del espacio-tiempo en la
configuración de los fotones (1).

Entonces, se aduce que las últimas mediciones, originadas en la teoría

relativista, son utilizables como una descripción complementaria a la originada
por la mecánica quántica.

Además, de la ultima emerge la ecuación 4: ∆E x ∆t-λ-loc = Constante de

Planck: h = 4.135701x10-21 MeVxHz-1

Se puede mostrar que -∆E, resulta una métrica expandida de incremento

continuo en el tiempo de localización, para el proceso de elongación de la
longitud de onda. También, las relaciones que se pueden establecer entre la
velocidad de la luz (c) y la constante de Planck (h) probablemente sirvan para
definir mejor la evolución de la energía del espacio-tiempo.

Los cambios, en la configuración del espacio-tiempo de los fotones,

fueron aplicados a continuidad relativista que surge de la descripción de la
evolución de la energía desde Epl hasta la radiación cósmica de fondo de
microondas (CMB) (Fig. 1). La ausencia de materia en el vacío, no significa la
ausencia de energía debido a la presencia de CMB. Las manifestaciones del
vacío deben incluir las dinámicas del CMB.

La intra-conversión de la configuración de la energía del CMB, tanto por la

dualidad o por la Conversión Parametrica Espontánea a la baja (PDC) (2,3), se
 4

puede esperar que produzca cambios en t-λ-loc y en vol-λ-loc. Luego, CMB

debería ser evaluado por su papel en las modificaciones del espacio-tiempo, que
puede incluir, o no, la presencia de energía virtual u oscura (4). Los experimentos
en el vacío libre de CMB, pueden ser requeridos para excluir la posibilidad de
interferencia del CMB en la medición de los efectos de la energía virtual en las
fluctuaciones de vacío (5). La capacidad del CMB para reaccionar en la dirección
de la Conversión Parametrica a la baja, (PUpC), fue estimada por el efecto
Casimir. La integración de dos fotones CMB dentro de uno con en doble de
energía, reduce el volumen inicial por un factor grande. Como demostrado para
un foton inicial como λc-volumen: de dos fotones, cada uno con
Vλc-loc = 2.47x10-3 cm3 para un volumen total de 4.92x10-3 cm3 puede llegar a uno
de Vλc-loc = 3x10-4 cm3 contrayendo el espacio y llevando a la contracción entre
los platos. Es sugerido un sistema, para evaluar el fenómeno en presencia y
ausencia de CMB, a través de condiciones experimentales usadas comúnmente
para evaluar el efecto Casimir.

La técnica consistiría en que, a través de juntar dos platos que son

transparentes al CMB, se puede esperar de tener el efecto de excluir el CMB del
espacio entre los platos. Luego, pegando platos opacos a los transparentes se
prevendría la reentrada del CMB al espacio delimitado por los platos. Esta
metodología podría resultar en un vacío libre de CMB.

El control podría ser que, separando los platos opacos, se podría

reanudar el experimento, en ausencia de CMB. Midiendo si hay un remanente
de una energía capaz de sostener nuevamente el efecto Casimir de atracción
entre platos, entonces se podría asumir que el efecto Casimir no es debido al
CMB, sino que seria debido a una energía virtual u oscura (4). Una metodología
similar se podría utilizar, también, para medir la velocidad de propagación de la
luz en un vacío libre de CMB.

La velocidad de la luz cambia cuando se propaga a través de distintos

solventes, y mediante adiciones de sal, puede ser decrecida progresivamente,
hasta alcanzar su confinamiento (6,7,8). Acorde a la ecuación 1, un decrecimiento
en la velocidad de la luz tiene que implicar un decrecimiento concomitante de λ
y/o un incremento en t-λ-loc. Luego, un decrecimiento de λ debe excluirse, ya
que implica un incremento de la emergía, el efecto dominante seria un gran
incremento de t-λ-loc. La estructura termodinámica dentro del experimento del
confinamiento, puede argüir que, la energía del foton, no podría sostener su
localización espacio-temporal, aduciendo el tiempo de localización de la energía
de los fotones dentro del ambiente del confinamiento.

El muy bajo valor para la energía promedio de la distribución de los

fotones CMB de cuerpo negro en el vacío = 2.35 x 10-4 eV, predice efectos
mínimos sobre átomos, pero del mismo orden que los obtenidos cuando se mide
efectos del vacío sobre átomos (9). PDC y PUpC, cambiando nγ y los valores
dimensionales del CMB, pueden ser una fuente para las fluctuaciones de vacío.
 5

Discusión

Los valores standard del numero de fotones del CMB (nγ) = 3.79 x 1087
multiplicado por su Vλc-loc = 2.47x10-3 cm3 = 9.3 x 1084 cm3 o el volumen actual
del universo.

Los fotones del CMB, incluso representando solamente el 0.04% de la

energía cósmica total, debido a su creciente numero y volumen, parecen estar
estrechamente llenando y dimensionando el vacío dentro del espacio-tiempo.

El efecto de la gravedad sobre el CMB, puede ser sobrellevado por la

PDC, ya que, incrementando el número de fotones y la elongación de la longitud
de onda, se manifiestan efectos no sujetos a la atracción gravitatoria. Además, la
propagación espacial del CMB, aparece como un efecto antigravitatorio,
expandiendo el espacio-tiempo en un papel similar al propuesto para la emergía
oscura. También, el CMB puede ser considerado como liderando, o participando,
del proceso expansivo del vacío, incrementando continuamente las distancias
entre galaxias.

La energía oscura, actualmente contiene mas de dos tercios de la energía

cósmica total, y ha sido predicha como llenando el vacío. En cambio, en
términos de dimensionar el vacío, tanto por volumen o por su detectado numero
de 411 fotones CMB cada cm3, este puede tener el efecto dominante.

Experimentalmente, han sido reportadas 160 veces de intra-conversiones

espontáneas (2,3) entre conversiones parametricas a la baja y a la alta.

Si PDC y PUpC llegan al equilibrio en las intra-conversiones del CMB,

puede ser muy difícil de detectar cambios significativos en el espectro del CMB
de la distribución de la energía de cuerpo oscuro (longitudes de onda desde
aproximadamente 5 x 10-1 cm hasta menores a 2 x 10-1 cm). En cambio, estas
fluctuaciones en las longitudes de onda, podrían ser detectadas como fuertes
fluctuaciones en la estructura del vacío del espacio.

La conversión a la baja, incrementa numero y volumen de los fotones del

(2,3)
CMB , estrechando el espacio, mientras que la conversión a la alta, estaría
contrayéndolo. Estas fluctuaciones del espacio, podrían ser detectadas y,
presumiblemente identificadas, como relacionadas con el CMB, ya que no
implicarían grandes cambios en la energía.
 6

Fig 1: Una simulación del Big-Bang a través de un desdoblamiento fotonico

del espacio-tiempo.

t-λλ-Loc

λin)) n-1
PDC: ((nγγin ×2) × (2λ

Los valores usados son aproximaciones: Para la emergía total de un

universo auto-contenido=1.7 x 1082 MeV dividido por Epl = numero inicial de
fotones (nγin) = 1.4 x 1060. Las coordenadas espacio-temporales de Epl por la
ecuación 1: λ/ t-λ-loc, o 1 x 10-32cm / 3.39 x 10-43 seg. Aplicando PDC ((nγ γin ×2)
n-1
× (2λλin)) indica que, un foton genera dos de la mitad de energía, además,
también dobla sus valores de λ y t-λ-loc en orden de mantener un cociente
constante que es igual a c. Un tratamiento iterativo a través de PDC 106 veces
(estados), significa que, desde las coordenadas espacio-temporales de Epl, se
puede llegar a los valores de las coordenadas del CMB: 5.27 x 10-1 cm/ 1.76 x
10-11 seg. El volumen Compton para la localización de λc (Vλc-loc)= (4/3) π (λc)3
para Epl = 1.772 x 10-98 cm3, que multiplicado por, nγin1.4 x 1060 = 2.48 x 10-38
cm3, o el volumen cósmico inicial fotonico. Luego de la separación de fuerzas, el
periodo inflacionario tiene que ser calculado desde Epl t-λ-loc de 3.39 x 10-43 seg
hasta t-λ-loc= 1.456 x 10-33 seg, que es el mismo tiempo propuesto por la teoría
inflacionaria. Esto sugiere que, el desdoblamiento cósmico, pudo solamente
proceder, si la escala del tiempo, permite la localización de energía hacia los
fotones. Para 10-33 seg, corresponden a una localización de energía hacia
fotones de no menos energía que aproximadamente 2.84 x 1012 MeV. Sobre el
final de la era inflacionaria, el desdoblamiento cósmico, a través del numero y
dimensión de estos fotones, llevo a un universo de radio 2.33 x 1019 cm. La
restricción teórica sobre cuan chica puede ser una partícula, esta restringida por
el largo de Planck. Sin embargo, esta restricción no se aplica a longitudes de
onda, y, entonces, el modelo fotonico puede proveer simulaciones basadas en
diferentes valores. La transferencia de fotones para la generación de energía
oscura y materia ordinaria, mantiene constante nγ desde el 56 hasta el 70,
donde crece hasta el presente nγ del CMB= 3.7 x 1087.
 7

Referencias:

1. Bennun, A., Photonic parameters describing the space-time continuum,

manuscript available upon request.
2. Marshall et al., Journal of Modern Optics, Vol. 47, 1273 (2000)
3. Brida, G., Genovese, M., Novero, C., “Experimental limit on spontaneous
parametric up conversion”, Journal of Modern Optics, Vol. 50, N° 11, pp. 1757-
1762 (6) (2003)
4. Djorgovski, S. and Gurzadyan, V., “Dark Energy from Vacuum Fluctuations”, in
Cline, D. et al, Nuclear Physics B, (2006)
5. Padmanabhan, T., “Vacuum Fluctuations of Energy Density can Lead to the
Observed Cosmological Constant”, arXiv:hep-th/0406060 v1, 7 Jun (2004)
6. Kramper, P., Kafesaki, M., Soukoulis, C., Birner, A., Müller, F., Gösele, U.,
Wehrspohn, R., Mylnek, J., Sandoghdar, V., “Near-field visualization of light
confinement in a photonic crystal micro-resonator”, Optics Letters, Vol. 29, N° 2,
pp. 174-176 (2004)
7. Cao, H., Xu, J., Zhang, D., Chang, S., Ho, S., Seelig, E., Liu, X., Chang, R.,
“Spatial Confinement of a Laser Light in Active Random Media”, Physical Review
Letters, Vol. 84, N° 24, pp. 5584-5587 (2000)
8. Fedotov, A., Bugar, I., Naumov, A., Chorvat, D., Sidorov-Biryukov, D., Chorvat,
D. and Zheltikov, A., “Light confinement and supercontinuum generation
switching in photonic-molecule modes of a microstructure fiber”, JETP Letters,
Vol 75, N° 7, pp. 304-308 (2002)
9. Barrow, John D. and Silk, Joseph, “The Left Hand of Creation”, London: J.M.
Dent and Sons (1993)
 8

Tabla de simulaciones por Alfredo Bennun

La restricción teórica de cuan pequeña puede ser una partícula, esta delimitada
por el largo de Planck. Sin embargo, esta restricción no se aplica a longitudes de onda y,
consecuentemente, el modelo permite utilizar simulaciones basadas en diferentes valores.

# of Cosmic evolution Energy of Photon number Time of γ Compton

Stage Planck particle as a wave function λ or γ ET/Eγ=nγinitial localization Wavelength
(N) tλ-loc/2π=tλc=tγ-loc wavelength ET=1.7E+82 MeV tγ-loc λc
Particle: (-∆E).(∆tγ-loc)=h/2π Eλ=Eγ Eγ=1.22E+22MeV λc=λ/2π
Eγ=
[] Wave: (-∆E).(∆tλ-loc)=h initial*(1/2)
N
nγ= nγinitial×(2)n [s] [cm]
Expansion: -∆(E)/2.∆(tγ-loc),2=h/2π [MeV] [photons] Factor:2 Factor:2
0 Planck Time: (tp) = 5,394E-44s 1.220E+22 1.400E+60 5.394E-44 1.617E-33
1 Planck Wave: tλ-loc=3.389E-43s 6.100E+21 2.800E+60 1.079E-43 3.233E-33
2 3.050E+21 5.600E+60 2.158E-43 6.467E-33
3 1.525E+21 1.120E+61 4.315E-43 1.293E-32
4 7.625E+20 2.240E+61 8.631E-43 2.587E-32
5 3.813E+20 4.480E+61 1.726E-42 5.173E-32
6 1.906E+20 8.960E+61 3.452E-42 1.035E-31
7 Electro-Strong-Weak force 9.531E+19 1.792E+62 6.905E-42 2.069E-31
8 4.766E+19 3.584E+62 1.381E-41 4.139E-31
9 2.383E+19 7.168E+62 2.762E-41 8.277E-31
10 1.191E+19 1.434E+63 5.524E-41 1.655E-30
11 5.957E+18 2.867E+63 1.105E-40 3.311E-30
12 2.979E+18 5.734E+63 2.210E-40 6.622E-30
13 1.489E+18 1.147E+64 4.419E-40 1.324E-29
14 7.446E+17 2.294E+64 8.838E-40 2.649E-29
15 3.723E+17 4.588E+64 1.768E-39 5.298E-29
16 1.862E+17 9.175E+64 3.535E-39 1.060E-28
17 9.308E+16 1.835E+65 7.070E-39 2.119E-28
18 4.654E+16 3.670E+65 1.414E-38 4.238E-28
19 Strong force dissociate 2.327E+16 7.340E+65 2.828E-38 8.476E-28
20 1.163E+16 1.468E+66 5.656E-38 1.695E-27
21 5.817E+15 2.936E+66 1.131E-37 3.390E-27
22 2.909E+15 5.872E+66 2.263E-37 6.781E-27
23 1.454E+15 1.174E+67 4.525E-37 1.356E-26
24 7.272E+14 2.349E+67 9.050E-37 2.712E-26
25 3.636E+14 4.698E+67 1.810E-36 5.425E-26
26 1.818E+14 9.395E+67 3.620E-36 1.085E-25
27 9.090E+13 1.879E+68 7.240E-36 2.170E-25
28 4.545E+13 3.758E+68 1.448E-35 4.340E-25
29 2.272E+13 7.516E+68 2.896E-35 8.679E-25
30 1.136E+13 1.503E+69 5.792E-35 1.736E-24
31 5.681E+12 3.006E+69 1.158E-34 3.472E-24
32 2.841E+12 6.013E+69 2.317E-34 6.944E-24
33 Weak force dissociate 1.420E+12 1.203E+70 4.634E-34 1.389E-23
 9

34 7.101E+11 2.405E+70 5.823E-33 2.777E-23

35 3.551E+11 4.810E+70 1.165E-32 5.555E-23
36 1.775E+11 9.621E+70 2.329E-32 1.111E-22
37 8.877E+10 1.924E+71 4.658E-32 2.222E-22
38 4.438E+10 3.848E+71 9.317E-32 4.444E-22
39 2.219E+10 7.697E+71 1.863E-31 8.888E-22
40 1.110E+10 1.539E+72 3.727E-31 1.778E-21
41 5.548E+09 3.079E+72 7.453E-31 3.555E-21
42 2.774E+09 6.157E+72 1.491E-30 7.110E-21
43 1.387E+09 1.231E+73 2.981E-30 1.422E-20
44 6.935E+08 2.463E+73 5.963E-30 2.844E-20
45 3.467E+08 4.926E+73 1.193E-29 5.688E-20
46 1.734E+08 9.852E+73 2.385E-29 1.138E-19
47 8.669E+07 1.970E+74 4.770E-29 2.275E-19
48 4.334E+07 3.941E+74 9.540E-29 4.551E-19
49 2.167E+07 7.881E+74 1.908E-28 9.101E-19
50 1.084E+07 1.576E+75 3.816E-28 1.820E-18
51 5.418E+06 3.153E+75 7.632E-28 3.640E-18
52 2.709E+06 6.305E+75 1.526E-27 7.281E-18
53 1.354E+06 1.261E+76 3.053E-27 1.456E-17
# of Cosmic evolution Energy of Photon number Time of λγ Compton
stage Planck particle as a wave function wavelength ET/Eγ=nγinitial localization Wavelength
(N) tλ-loc/2π=tλc=tγ-loc (Eλ) nγ tγ-loc λc
Eλ=
Particle: (-∆E).(∆tγ-loc)=h/2π initial*(1/2)
N
nγ= nγinitial×(2)n t=λγ/c λc=λ/2π
[] Wave: (-∆E).(∆tλ-loc)=h [MeV] [photons] [s] [cm]
Expansion: -∆(E)/2.∆(tγ-loc),2=h/2π
54 6.772E+05 2.522E+76 6.106E-27 2.912E-17
55 3.386E+05 5.044E+76 1.221E-26 5.825E-17
56 Higgs boson 1.693E+05 ? 2.442E-26 1.165E-16
57 8.465E+04 ? 4.885E-26 2.330E-16
58 4.233E+04 ? 9.769E-26 4.660E-16
59 2.116E+04 ? 1.954E-25 9.319E-16
60 1.058E+04 ? 3.908E-25 1.864E-15
61 Quarks: Charm 5.291E+03 ? 7.815E-25 3.728E-15
62 Botton 2.645E+03 ? 1.563E-24 7.456E-15
63 Proton 1.323E+03 ? 3.126E-24 1.491E-14
64 6.614E+02 ? 6.252E-24 2.982E-14
65 3.307E+02 ? 1.250E-23 5.964E-14
66 Up, Down, Strage 1.653E+02 ? 2.501E-23 1.193E-13
67 Pion 8.267E+01 ? 5.002E-23 2.386E-13
68 (Strongly 4.134E+01 ? 1.000E-22 4.772E-13
69 interactive particles) 2.067E+01 ? 2.001E-22 9.543E-13
70 1.033E+01 ? 4.001E-22 1.909E-12
71 5.167E+00 1.009E+77 8.003E-22 3.817E-12
72 2.583E+00 2.018E+77 1.601E-21 7.635E-12
73 1.292E+00 4.035E+77 3.201E-21 1.527E-11
74 Electron 6.459E-01 8.070E+77 6.402E-21 3.054E-11
 10

75 3.229E-01 1.614E+78 1.280E-20 6.108E-11

76 1.615E-01 3.228E+78 2.561E-20 1.222E-10
77 8.073E-02 6.456E+78 5.122E-20 2.443E-10
78 4.037E-02 1.291E+79 1.024E-19 4.886E-10
79 2.018E-02 2.583E+79 2.049E-19 9.772E-10
80 1.009E-02 5.165E+79 4.097E-19 1.954E-09
81 5.046E-03 1.033E+80 8.195E-19 3.909E-09
82 2.523E-03 2.066E+80 1.639E-18 7.818E-09
83 1.261E-03 4.132E+80 3.278E-18 1.564E-08
84 6.307E-04 8.264E+80 6.556E-18 3.127E-08
85 3.154E-04 1.653E+81 1.311E-17 6.254E-08
86 1.577E-04 3.306E+81 2.622E-17 1.251E-07
87 7.884E-05 6.611E+81 5.245E-17 2.502E-07
88 3.942E-05 1.322E+82 1.049E-16 5.003E-07
89 1.971E-05 2.645E+82 2.098E-16 1.001E-06
90 9.855E-06 5.289E+82 4.196E-16 2.001E-06
91 4.928E-06 1.058E+83 8.392E-16 4.003E-06
92 2.464E-06 2.116E+83 1.678E-15 8.005E-06
93 Nuclei formation 1.232E-06 4.231E+83 3.357E-15 1.601E-05
94 6.159E-07 8.462E+83 6.713E-15 3.202E-05
95 Formation of Atoms 3.080E-07 1.692E+84 1.343E-14 6.404E-05
Frontier of last dispersion 2.585E-07 3.440E+84 1.599E-14 7.629E-05
96 2.409E-07 3.691E+84 1.716E-14 8.187E-05
97 1.204E-07 7.383E+84 3.433E-14 1.637E-04
98 6.022E-08 1.477E+85 6.866E-14 3.275E-04
99 3.011E-08 2.953E+85 1.373E-13 6.550E-04
100 1.506E-08 5.906E+85 2.746E-13 1.310E-03
101 7.528E-09 1.181E+86 5.493E-13 2.620E-03
102 3.764E-09 2.363E+86 1.099E-12 5.240E-03
103 1.882E-09 4.725E+86 2.197E-12 1.048E-02
104 9.410E-10 9.450E+86 4.394E-12 2.096E-02
105 4.705E-10 1.890E+87 8.788E-12 4.192E-02
106 Present Era 2.353E-10 3.780E+87 1.758E-11 8.384E-02

Universe Space- Total

# of Volume of λc Universe Universe time time Energy
stage localization Volume radius Ratio
(N) Vλc VU rU tU (Et)
Vλc=4/3×π×λc
3
VU=Vλc×nγ rU=(VU×3/4π)1/3 tU=rU/c rU/tU=c
[]
3
[cm ]
3
[cm ] [cm] tU [s] [cm/s] [MeV]
Factor: 8 Factor:16 Factor:2.52 Factor:2.5
0 1.770E-98 2.478E-38 1.809E-13 6.033E-24 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
1 1.416E-97 3.965E-37 4.557E-13 1.520E-23 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
2 1.133E-96 6.343E-36 1.148E-12 3.831E-23 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
3 9.062E-96 1.015E-34 2.894E-12 9.652E-23 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
4 7.250E-95 1.624E-33 7.292E-12 2.432E-22 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
 11

5 5.800E-94 2.598E-32 1.837E-11 6.129E-22 3.00E+10 1.708E+82

6 4.640E-93 4.157E-31 4.630E-11 1.544E-21 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
7 3.712E-92 6.652E-30 1.167E-10 3.892E-21 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
8 2.969E-91 1.064E-28 2.940E-10 9.806E-21 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
9 2.376E-90 1.703E-27 7.408E-10 2.471E-20 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
10 1.900E-89 2.724E-26 1.867E-09 6.227E-20 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
11 1.520E-88 4.359E-25 4.704E-09 1.569E-19 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
12 1.216E-87 6.975E-24 1.185E-08 3.954E-19 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
13 9.730E-87 1.116E-22 2.987E-08 9.962E-19 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
14 7.784E-86 1.786E-21 7.526E-08 2.510E-18 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
15 6.227E-85 2.857E-20 1.896E-07 6.326E-18 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
16 4.982E-84 4.571E-19 4.779E-07 1.594E-17 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
17 3.986E-83 7.313E-18 1.204E-06 4.017E-17 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
18 3.188E-82 1.170E-16 3.034E-06 1.012E-16 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
19 2.551E-81 1.872E-15 7.646E-06 2.550E-16 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
20 2.041E-80 2.996E-14 1.927E-05 6.427E-16 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
21 1.632E-79 4.793E-13 4.855E-05 1.619E-15 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
22 1.306E-78 7.669E-12 1.223E-04 4.081E-15 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
23 1.045E-77 1.227E-10 3.083E-04 1.028E-14 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
24 8.358E-77 1.963E-09 7.768E-04 2.591E-14 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
25 6.687E-76 3.141E-08 1.957E-03 6.529E-14 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
26 5.349E-75 5.026E-07 4.932E-03 1.645E-13 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
27 4.279E-74 8.041E-06 1.243E-02 4.146E-13 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
28 3.424E-73 1.287E-04 3.132E-02 1.045E-12 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
29 2.739E-72 2.059E-03 7.891E-02 2.632E-12 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
30 2.191E-71 3.294E-02 1.989E-01 6.633E-12 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
31 1.753E-70 5.270E-01 5.011E-01 1.671E-11 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
32 1.402E-69 8.432E+00 1.263E+00 4.212E-11 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
33 1.122E-68 1.349E+02 3.182E+00 1.061E-10 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
34 8.975E-68 2.159E+03 8.017E+00 2.674E-10 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
35 7.180E-67 3.454E+04 2.020E+01 6.739E-10 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
36 5.744E-66 5.526E+05 5.091E+01 1.698E-09 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
37 4.595E-65 8.841E+06 1.283E+02 4.279E-09 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
38 3.676E-64 1.415E+08 3.232E+02 1.078E-08 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
39 2.941E-63 2.263E+09 8.145E+02 2.717E-08 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
40 2.353E-62 3.621E+10 2.052E+03 6.846E-08 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
41 1.882E-61 5.794E+11 5.172E+03 1.725E-07 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
42 1.506E-60 9.271E+12 1.303E+04 4.347E-07 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
43 1.205E-59 1.483E+14 3.284E+04 1.095E-06 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
44 9.636E-59 2.373E+15 8.275E+04 2.760E-06 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
45 7.709E-58 3.797E+16 2.085E+05 6.955E-06 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
46 6.167E-57 6.076E+17 5.254E+05 1.753E-05 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
47 4.934E-56 9.721E+18 1.324E+06 4.416E-05 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
48 3.947E-55 1.555E+20 3.336E+06 1.113E-04 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
49 3.158E-54 2.489E+21 8.407E+06 2.804E-04 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
50 2.526E-53 3.982E+22 2.118E+07 7.066E-04 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
51 2.021E-52 6.371E+23 5.338E+07 1.781E-03 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
52 1.617E-51 1.019E+25 1.345E+08 4.487E-03 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
53 1.293E-50 1.631E+26 3.389E+08 1.131E-02 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
 12

Universe Space- Total

# of Volume of λc Universe Universe time time Energy
stage localization Volume radius Ratio
(N) Vλc VU rU tU (Et)
Vλc=4/3×π×λc
3
VU=Vλc×nγ rU=(VU×3/4π) 1/3
tU=rU/c rU/tU=c
[]
3
[cm ]
3
[cm ] [cm] tU [s] [cm/s] [MeV]

54 1.035E-49 2.610E+27 8.541E+08 2.849E-02 3.00E+10 1.708E+82

55 8.278E-49 4.175E+28 2.152E+09 7.179E-02 3.00E+10 1.708E+82
56 6.622E-48 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
57 5.298E-47 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
58 4.238E-46 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
59 3.391E-45 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
60 2.712E-44 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
61 2.170E-43 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
62 1.736E-42 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
63 1.389E-41 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
64 1.111E-40 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
65 8.888E-40 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
66 7.110E-39 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
67 5.688E-38 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
68 4.551E-37 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
69 3.641E-36 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
70 2.912E-35 #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! #¡VALOR! ?
71 2.330E-34 2.350E+43 1.777E+14 5.927E+03 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
72 1.864E-33 3.761E+44 4.478E+14 1.494E+04 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
73 1.491E-32 6.017E+45 1.128E+15 3.764E+04 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
74 1.193E-31 9.627E+46 2.843E+15 9.484E+04 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
75 9.543E-31 1.540E+48 7.164E+15 2.390E+05 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
76 7.635E-30 2.465E+49 1.805E+16 6.022E+05 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
77 6.108E-29 3.943E+50 4.549E+16 1.517E+06 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
78 4.886E-28 6.309E+51 1.146E+17 3.824E+06 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
79 3.909E-27 1.010E+53 2.889E+17 9.635E+06 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
80 3.127E-26 1.615E+54 7.279E+17 2.428E+07 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
81 2.502E-25 2.584E+55 1.834E+18 6.118E+07 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
82 2.001E-24 4.135E+56 4.622E+18 1.542E+08 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
83 1.601E-23 6.616E+57 1.165E+19 3.885E+08 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
84 1.281E-22 1.059E+59 2.935E+19 9.789E+08 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
85 1.025E-21 1.694E+60 7.395E+19 2.467E+09 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
86 8.198E-21 2.710E+61 1.863E+20 6.215E+09 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
87 6.558E-20 4.336E+62 4.695E+20 1.566E+10 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
88 5.247E-19 6.937E+63 1.183E+21 3.947E+10 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
89 4.197E-18 1.110E+65 2.981E+21 9.945E+10 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
90 3.358E-17 1.776E+66 7.512E+21 2.506E+11 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
91 2.686E-16 2.842E+67 1.893E+22 6.314E+11 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
92 2.149E-15 4.546E+68 4.770E+22 1.591E+12 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
93 1.719E-14 7.274E+69 1.202E+23 4.009E+12 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
94 1.375E-13 1.164E+71 3.029E+23 1.010E+13 3.00E+10 5.212E+77
 13

95 1.100E-12 1.862E+72 7.632E+23 2.546E+13 3.00E+10 5.212E+77

1.860E-12 6.399E+72 1.152E+24 3.842E+13 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
96 2.299E-12 8.486E+72 1.265E+24 4.221E+13 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
97 1.839E-11 1.358E+74 3.188E+24 1.064E+14 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
98 1.471E-10 2.172E+75 8.034E+24 2.680E+14 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
99 1.177E-09 3.476E+76 2.025E+25 6.753E+14 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
100 9.416E-09 5.562E+77 5.102E+25 1.702E+15 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
101 7.533E-08 8.899E+78 1.286E+26 4.288E+15 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
102 6.027E-07 1.424E+80 3.239E+26 1.081E+16 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
103 4.821E-06 2.278E+81 8.163E+26 2.723E+16 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
104 3.857E-05 3.645E+82 2.057E+27 6.861E+16 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
105 3.086E-04 5.832E+83 5.183E+27 1.729E+17 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
106 2.468E-03 9.331E+84 1.306E+28 4.356E+17 3.00E+10 8.893E+77
 Astrophysics 18/12/07 Updated: 20/12/07
A SIMULATION SHOWS THE DISTINCT ROLES OF MATTER CURVING
AND CMB EXPANDING SPACE

Alfred Bennun
Graduate School of Rutgers University (retired) *
www.alfredobennun.com.ar

Abstract

The premise of an earlier universe, dominated by radiation, lead to a simulation

based in that a decrease in energy of primordial-quanta, eventually yielding matter and
a residual Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), of 0.012% from total energy.

Characterization of the latter, in terms of a continuum of energy-space-time

quantum dimensioning dynamics, shows that a decrease in energy density of photons,
with an increase in the relationship of radius vs. time of localization equals c. This
relationship corresponds, with the increment of the cosmic space radius vs. universe
time similarly conforming to c, the velocity of light.

Parametric down conversion (PdC), fits as energy conservation mechanism, which

allows a continuous renewal of a dissipative potential, by splitting a photon into two of
twice the original wavelength. The newly created photons emerge uniformly stretching-
out space. Calculation shows, that the number of emerging CMB-photons per second
per Mpc when linearly aligned, correspond to the value of the Hubble constant (H0).
Recession velocity vr = H 0 × rr as a function of the radius and time of the universe when
r = rU in Mpc units equals velocity of light over H0: rU [Mpc] = c / H 0 .

Accordingly, the model could by denominated: Energy Space-TIme Relativistic

Expansion (E.S.TI.R.E., Spanish) or S.T.R.E.T.C.H.: Space-Time Relativistic
Expansion Cosmological Hypothesis.

PdC photon-splitting by magnification of the space-time locus of photons

dominates over the scarce response of CMB to gravitational attraction. Moreover, since
their mass in terms of the cosmos total mass is rather insignificant, the curvature of the
cosmos could be regarded as CMB-independent near-independent mechanism.

The plotting of the PdC continuum of CMB quanta elongation, when scaled vs.
the expansionary universe volume, shows a straight line curve. This one represents a
continuous thermodynamic-expansionary relationship, in which one photon entering
into a PdC cycle, distributes its original energy over a space-time locus incremented 16
times. By analogy, this may be considered a thermodynamic prediction equivalent to
“flat”, because any other numerical relationship, curves out of the observed relationship
between increments in number of photons and volume of the universe The particle and
radiation roles, may be complementary because CMB would dimension vacuum and

1
galactic recession, whereas the non-continuum quantum structure of matter, would be
the dominant effect over the geometric configuration of the universe curvature.

Hence, matter by its gravitational attraction, could overcome galactic recession by

a uniform CMB-vacuum expansion, and would be driving galaxies into forming
cumulus. However, expansion incrementing distances, would decrease the intensity of
gravitational attraction over CMB, and could predict the observable accelerations of the
rate of expansion.

Inflation, in a self-contained universe, may correspond to the time required for

quantification of an unknown energy-space-time, progressing from a single Planck-
particle, to reach a Planck quanta-constituted critical mass, and the emergence of the
associated fundamental constants: mPl = [(ħ×c)/G]1/2.

The universe has maintained an energy potential, allowing expansion and life;
therefore, it is still far away from equilibrium. However, if the cosmos is self-contained
could not be open. This apparent contradiction was solved, by considering that photon
elongation could play an operator role, continuously restructuring the cosmic
thermodynamic dissipative potential.

A steady state away from equilibrium, which resembles an open-system, could be

obtained by recycling through the PdC temporal bottleneck, the generated lower energy
photon. These, would reenter into the PdC splitting chain, again and again like quanta of
less and less energetic content.

Introduction

Parameters for the chronology of space changes, during the inflationary Era of
the hot Big-Bang, had been develop based in the positive vacuum mechanism of Guth et
al (1) (2) (3) (4) and Linde (5) (6) (7) (8) (9). The hot Big-Bang hypothesis develops, a particle-
based thermodynamic chronology, with successful predictions like nucleosyntesis.

The simulation goal was to further characterize the Big-Bang, by seeking to

uncover space-time energy relationships, between the thermodynamic structures of
radiation quanta from Planck to present CMB (10).

Evolution of radiation quanta, have been inferred as the dynamics constitutive

expansive bricks of the space-time, and of its intrinsic thermodynamic restructuring
driving inflation and expansion (11).

The simulation parameters were developed, in order to fit or to test theoretical

frameworks, which could be subject to verification by observational data. Accordingly,
multi-universe propositions were avoided. Instead, it was assumed that, a Big-Bang
chronology, could be developed by assuming a non-identifiable transition, from a non-
quantum primordial structure, leading into the appearance of a cosmic quantum
structure of energy, and locus of space-time (12) (13).

Energy, and matter inflow and outflow, through thermodynamic systems, allow
maintaining energy potentials, without reaching equilibrium. Primordial energy, could

2
be characterized as a matter precursor; therefore, Planck particles influx during
inflation, would be able to maintain the increasingly quantized-universe as open.

However, after becoming totally quantized, and reaching critical total energy,
its density should suddenly decrease, allowing entropy to increase and inflation to end.

PdC and parametric up conversion (PupC), had been experimentally observed as

spontaneous energy conservation processes, the former could increase cosmic entropy
by decreasing energy density.

Results

The transition from a non-quantified state, preceding the Big-Bang, initiates

physically describable relationships, between energy and space-time. This results, in the
appearance of time-associated phenomena, resulted in a chronology that delimits the
relationships between fundamental constants, by their equivalence to the Planck mass:
mPl = [(ħ × c)/G]1/2 = 2.17645×10-5g, G = gravitational constant = 1.0692068×10-13 cm5
/ MeV.s4. Planck length, would be the one for an arc circumference of 2πr = λ and r =
λ / 2π, therefore, r = 1.61624×10-33 cm. Time of localization for a Planck particle: tp-loc =
r / c =5.39121×10-44 s, same value is obtained: tp-loc= [hG / 2πc5]1/2.
2
t 2 × c5 h × c 2 2 h
G = Pl = 2 t Pl × mPl = 4
h mPl c

The dynamics of the wave function of primordial energy, was characterized

thermodynamically, as a decreasing frequency associated to an increase of its intrinsic
space-time locus -∆ν = - (∆E / h). Since 1 / ν = tλ-loc, time of wave localization. The
latter, could be illustrated by the fact that if a diaphragm is set to remain open, only for
the tλ-loc of a violet photon (400 nm ≈ 1.33×10-15 s), allows its transit. Hence,
conceptually λ define not only length but also the time required to become localized
outside the diaphragm. The time required for the smaller violet photon, would be to
short for the appearance of the larger red photon (700 nm ≈ 2.33×10-15 s).

Relativistic dimensional relationships of the duality wave-photon

The following equations emphasize that for the same energy, the duality wave-
photon allows space-time dimensional differences.

Eq. 1: E= h ×ν ∧ tλ-loc =1/ν ⇒ E× tλ-loc= h, tλ-loc time of wave localization, ν is

frequency and h = 4.1356674335 × 10-21 MeV.s. For the photon: E×tγ =ħ, tγ-loc = 1/2πν
=1/ω, ω= angular frequency and ħ =h/2π=6.5821191503×10-22 MeV.s.

cm
6.58 × 10−22 MeV .s × 2.99 × 1010
hc s = 13.585 MeV
=
G cm 5 cm 2
1.069 × 10−13
MeV .s 4 s2

3
Eq. 2. a) λ / tλ-loc = c (velocity of light) = 2.99792458×1010 cm/s.
Eq. 2. b) According to Compton scattering measurements the relationship λCMB/2π = rγ,
relationship between photon radius and time of localization: rγ / t γ -loc = c

Hence, c is not only the value for velocity of light propagation in vacuum, but
also restricts at a quanta level the inter-dependence between space dimensions as a
radius vs. time.

Eq. 2. c): ∆rU / ∆tru-loc= c. The relationship shows that the constant c, also determines
the cosmic relation that applies to vacuum, as if corresponding to the summa of its
constitutive quanta.

In eq. 2. a) y 2. b), terms are equal to c, and, therefore, equal within them.

λ / tλ-loc =r / t γ -loc. Time of localization = tλ-loc /2π = tγ-loc.

Eq. 3: Of the relation [ħ c/G]1/2 = mP = Planck mass = 2.17645×10-5g. mass can be

replaced in the Einstein’s equation m=E/c2 (15) (16), if EP is assigned to E∴ [ħ c/G]1/2
=E/c2.

It can be replaced c2=c×c substituting each c by their equivalents 2. b) ó 2. c) and the

other by 2. d).
EP
Eq. 4: m Pl = r rU
γ
×


γ − loc tU

Hence, the formula h / 2π = E × tγ-loc, shows that, to maintain invariant h, the

Planck constant, a decrease in photon energy, have to be compensated by an increase in
the time of photon localization, that can be calculated ∴ c / rγ = 1/ t-γ-loc = ν ∴ c = ν
× rγ. Hence, to maintain invariant c a decrease in the frequency or photon energy Eγ,
has to be compensated with an increase in the Compton-rγ.

Inflation

The constants, Planck and velocity of light, delimits a quantum chronology of

photons, coupling a decrease in energy density to an expansionary increase of their
space-time locus. The surging of the space-time, delimited by the fundamental
constants, dimensions the initial state of the cosmos as that required for a single Planck
quantum. The cosmos would grow as a function of the primordial transition of the
inflationary era, adding Planck particles until reaching critical or total energy.

The first phase of inflation could, therefore, be characterized as a tetra

dimensional growing cosmos, which in spite of its very rapid increment in volume by
increasing the contained number of Planck quanta, remains at constant energy density,
without increasing entropy.

4
 Inflation could, therefore, operate temporarily like an open system (14). An
isolated system, like a self contained universe, can exists as an open system, for as long
a bottleneck does not allow its energy potential to become dissipated by reaching
equilibrium. The Planck limits, prevents instantaneous events, allowing c to configure a
bottleneck by linking the stretching of a quantum space with its time of localization.

The value of this link is c, which remains invariable along inflationary and
expansionary Eras.

Fig.1: Inflationary influx of Planck Quanta; an invariant entropy phase, would remain constant even
when the quantum structured universe dramatically expands, provided continuous increment in the
number of Planck photons. The plotted values result from assuming that the influx of one Planck quantum
expands its locus space volume for another 15 quanta, which in turn undergo PdC-splitting. The process
end into the total energy contained in the universe quantized, with its radiation spectrum resembling that
of black body emission.

Fig. 1: The inflationary phase (1) (2) (3) could be described as occurring at a larger
velocity than that of light, because the initial space-time for a single Planck particle
would be growing exponentially as a function of the incoming Planck plus PdC quanta
multiplication. A uniform popping-out of photons allows an all directional growing of
the quanta structure of the space-time. Hence, velocity as the time required for
incrementing the universe radius could be larger than c, even when any reached radius
divided by its localization time equals c, the constant.

Fig. 2: Scheme for PDC-splitting photons that increase their number and dimensions, at multiple sites
uniformly incrementing space.

Fig. 2: in the bases of parametric down conversion (17): 1 γ→2γ each 8 times greater:
initial Vγ × 2γ = total 16× initial Vγ per event of the PDC sequence.

5
The number of photons progression illustrates that effect of splitting a single photon by
PdC yields two photons, each one increasing by 8 its volume and expanding quantum
space by 16, as shown bellow in two cycle’s space expands by a factor of 256:
γPl,(EPl)VγPl=1.76×10-98cm3→first PdC cycle→2γ(E/2)2Vγ2×8=2.82×10-97cm3→ second
PdC cycle→4γ(EPl/4)=4Vγ×82=4.51×10-96cm3.

Fig.3: Radius of the universe (rU: cm) during inflation-expansion vs. universe time (tU: s).
Intersections showing that the ratio between present universe radius and present universe time 1.3×1028
cm / 4.351×1017s = c, the velocity of light.
Resulting curve is shown correlated with the corresponding wavelength increment (according to
Compton reactive radius: λ/2π= rγ: cm) universe time (tU: s) and vs. time γ-localization (tγ-loc) curve
intersections showing: rγ / tγ= c.

Fig. 3: shows a correlation between the elongation curve for CMB calculated as
a Compton radius (λc) and the photon decrease in energy (Eγ) (18). The present volume
of the universe (VU) corresponds to the cosmic number of photons (nγ) multiplied by the
volume of λ-localization (Vλc-loc). The latter, calculated according to the Compton
wavelength (λc) measured by experimental collision interaction between an electron and
a photon: Vλc-loc = 4/3× π× λc3.

6
Fig.4: CMB elongation dependent-expansionary vacuum. The figure illustrates that the simulation fits
observation values from the Era of equal number of photons and baryons to present CMB. It shows a
continuum of radiation quanta of decreasing energy, with increasing photon number and volume.

Fig.4: The values (nγ) were scaled to show its time-dependent increase from Era
of equal number of photons and baryons t(nγ=nB), nγ = nB= 1.9×1078 at 2.391×105s to
t(109nγ>nB), nγpres. = 3.8×1087 at the present Era. The initial photon volume at t(nγ=nB)
Vγ(nγ=nB)= 9.5×10-31 cm3 × nγ equals the volume of the universe VU(nγ=nB)= 1.5×1048 cm3.
The PdC-dependent volume increase measured by the ratio of VU-pres. /VU(nγ=nB)=
6.2×1036 requires a sequence of 31 PDC-cycle γ-duplicating events. This sequence
generates a curve of value 16 responding to a thermodynamic tendency relating a PdC-γ
splitting 16 increments of γ volume with a 16 increments in the volume of universe
(flat?). The upper curve of value 17 predicts a larger universe volume (1.3×1089 cm3)
and the lower predicts a smaller universe (2.8×1081cm3).

Accordingly a description of vacuum as identical to empty space is far from

accurate and instead could be inferred, that CMB-photons constitute a quantum
structure denominated vacuum (11).

Parametric Down-Conversion divides a photon into two of twice the

wavelength, conserving energy and momentum. Thus, by being spontaneous, neither
raises a thermodynamic barrier for direction reversal, nor increases by much entropy at
the photon level. However, an increase in entropy occurs at the system level as a result
of that energy density decreases, as a function of cosmic volume increment. The Down-
Conversion constitute the favored vector direction, because the splitting of one into two
photons is a kinetic more favored process, than the up-Conversion which requires a
second order reaction or, in other words, a collision between two photons to merge into
an upper level of energy.

However, it could be predicted, that along the parameters of space and time,
fluctuations between Up and Down Conversions, would settle into a relationship of
rates that could show in the Casimir effect appearance and disappearance of photons
with higher energy than CMB. These shorter λ photons are generated from CMB-
containing (constituted?) vacuum, and therefore, could be inconsistently attributed as
coming out of nothingness an assumption reserved to virtual energy, in accordance to
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Relativistic dimensional relationships of Hubble’s constant

PdC continuously generates new photons; the present time summa of their
diameters was calculated to reach a length of about to 72 km/s per Mpc. Therefore, PdC
present rate of CMB-splitting within one Mpc was found equivalent, to that of the
Hubble’s constant (H0). This velocity, because the photons emerge uniformly into
space, would add as the summa of the velocities according to the number of parsecs that
separates two galaxies. The radius of the universe divided by the present CMB-diameter
per photon equals the number of photons linearly aligned to cover the distance of the
universe radius.

7
 Multiplied by of diameter of photon and divided by the universe radius express in
Mpc, 4216.446, result in the stretching out of every Mpc by the newly add photons
which represent recession velocity for each Mpc or H0 value:

1.78 ×1011γ CMB / s ×1.68 ×10−1 cm

≈ 72Km / s / Mpc H0, the Hubble constant
4216.446Mpc

Recession velocity corresponds to the simultaneous and uniform incorporation

of photons, adding H0 velocities accordingly to the number of Mpc, because this
photons influx, stretch-out over every Mpc segment of the total intergalactic distance.
Hence, recession velocity is related to H0 and proportional to the distance r and
when calculated as the distance between us and the Big-Bang origin (singularity or a
Planck locus?) accordingly to equation: vr = H 0 × rr

Km
72
s × 4216.4Mpc = 3 × 105 Km ≈ c
1Mpc s

H 0 × rU [Mpc] = c

c
rU [Mpc] =
H0

Accordingly, the radius of the earth location to the origin of the universe, allows
causal contact, because the velocity calculated as the summa of recession per Mpc, does
not exceed c. The c relationship precedes and persists along the expanding radius of the
universe for any encompassed length of time because the value of H0 is a function of the
universe size and time. Recession has been shown to be accelerating. The question: it is
a mere casualty that, at the present time we have reached the maximum relativistic value
of the Hubble’s constant, allowing a causal integration for the present observable
universe?

Hence, calculation shows the equivalence between CMB vacuum expansion and
galactic recession indicating that both may result from the same process. PdC predicts
that even is the photons travel at the velocity of c, their space-time locus expansion is
the mechanism expanding CMB intergalactic vacuum. CMB lengthening or elongation
involves an increase in their time of localization. Accordingly, recession distance per
Mpc may increase and the number of Mpc lengthening the circumference of the
universe will also increase. However, the time increment required for subsequent PdC
cycles would compensate the increasing H0 tacking for expansion a longer time and
allowing a velocity of recession that remains equal to c.

8
Fig.5: Quantum-structured recession. The figure shows survey of galaxies CfA (courtesy of
Hernandez Joseph http://astronomía.net/cosmología/galaxias.htm )
The E.S.TI.R.E. (STRETCH) model predicts CMB-vacuum expansion by is constituted
quanta multiplication and locus enlargement, responding to the relationship rγ/ tγ loc= c,
velocity of light. The latter configures a continuously and uniformly stretching-out space-
time by PdC splitting photon cycles, increasing the radius of the universe (rU) and time of the
universe (tU) by the multiplication per 2.52 and volume by 16 a factor per PdC cycles.
The newly formed CMB-photons, as a result of their uniform emergence, would increase the
galactic voids at a greater recession velocity ( vr = H 0 × rr ) than for intergalactic distances
within clusters.

Fig. 5 The formula r[Mpc]×H0=v shows that a galactic void 50 Mpc wide will increase
by a recession velocity 50 times greater, than for an inter-galactic recession for galaxies 1Mpc
apart.

Accordingly, Fig. 5 shows that, because the voids encompasses larger spaces, than at
the intergalactic level, the voids allow the emergence of a greater number of photons,
than at the intergalactic spaces within cumulus. Hence, the stretching out of the voids,
could pressure nearby galaxies into greater proximity to each other. The observed

9
greater galactic density, bordering and enclosing the voids, it is observed as filamentary
and laminar galactic structures.

If r = rU ∴ rU[Mpc]× H0=c. Hence, rU= tU× c ∴ tU× c × H0= c ⇒ H0=1/ tU .

Therefore, tU becomes dimensioned by the quantum structure of CMB, restricting H0 to
the role of adjusting expansion to the c-dependent causality horizon.
Conclusions

A simulation based in wavelength elongation with parametric down conversion

incrementing the photon number (10) was used to plot the dimensioning evolution of the
Universe as a function of the decrease in frequency of primordial energy. Thus,
accounting for the equal number between particle and radiation Era to the present, a
photon number increased over that of particles of about 231 (fig. 4).

Inter-conversion between photons of different λ by the simultaneous occurrence

of PupC and PDC events (17), is allowed because both processes are spontaneous, even
when the dynamic of this equilibrium favors cosmic expansion and could be detected as
the chaotic noise characteristic of vacuum fluctuation.

CMB, if a relic, only conserves 0.012% of the initial critical energy. It was
therefore assumed and used as a correction that at the end of the Inflationary period (11)
the energy of most primordial photons had been converted into ordinary and dark
matter. Connes (19) postulates the geometrical coexistence between a non-continuum and
a continuum (20). The simulation adapted this concept to that of coexistent
thermodynamic structures, in which the non-continuum is constituted by ordinary and
dark matter and the continuum, by the evolution of quanta of initial radiation and dark
energy. At the enunciation of the relativity theory (15) (16), CMB had not yet been
detected, and therefore could not be predicted a quanta constituted dynamic vacuum,
and a quanta dimensioning of the space-time, configuring galactic recession.

Einstein’s description unifying space, time and energy as a geometrical

continuum may be from analysis of CMB vacuum data, reinterpreted to imply: the
continuum evolving of a cosmic thermodynamic structure of quanta-integrated space-
time.

An always valid and illuminating guiding hypothesis, which I read from the
Penrose’s book 21 (translating from Spanish to English): “what fundamentally is needed,
is a subtle change of perspective… something that all of us had by pass”. For this advice
I am grateful.

10
References:

1. A. H. Guth, Phys. Rev. D 23, 347 (1981).

2. A. H. Guth and S. Y. Pi, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 1110 (1982).
3. A. H. Guth and P. J. Steinhardt, Scientific American 250, 90 (1984).
4. A. H. Guth, The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic
Origins (1998) Publisher: Perseus Books; 1st edition (1998).
5. A. D. Linde, Phys. Lett. B 108, 389 (1982).
6. A. D. Linde, Phys. Lett. B 129, 177 (1983).
7. A. D. Linde, Phys. Lett. B 175, 395 (1986).
8. A. D. Linde, Scientific American, November (1994).
9. A. D. Linde, Inflation, quantum cosmology and the anthropoid principle.
arXiv:hepth/0211048 (2002).
10. Smoot, G. and Scott, D., Cosmic Background Radiation, in Hagiwara, K. et al., Physical
Review D66, 010001-1, 2002.
11. Bennun, A., The General Science Journal, A model dimensioning the space-time by
Parametric Down Conversion, Sep. 05, 2007.
12. Bennun, A. The General Science Journal, Changes in Space-Time Configuration of
CMB for a Role in Vacuum Fluctuations, Sep. 13, 2007.
13. Bennun, A . CMB and the Casimir effect, The General Science Journal, on line December
12th 2007.
14. Prigogine, I, El Nacimiento del Tiempo, Tusquets Editores, Buenos Aires (2006)
15. A. Einstein, The Meaning of Relativity, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1988).
16. Rindler, W., Relativity special, general and cosmological, Oxford University Press, (2001)
17. M. Torres Cisneros, J.W. Haus, P. Powers, P.Bojja, M. Scalora, M.J. Bloemer, N.
Akozbek, L.A. Anguilera Cortes, R. Guzmán Cabrera, R.Castro Sánchez, M.A.
Meneases Nava, J.A. Andrade Lucio y J.J. Sánchez Mondragon. Conversion
Parametrica en un Cristal fotónico no-lineal. Revista Mexicana de Física 51,pp 258-
264 (2005).
18. Y.-S. Lee, T. Meade, M. DeCamp, T. B. Norris, y A. Galvanauskas, “Generation of Narrow-
Band Terahertz Radiation via Optical Rectification in Periodically Poled-Lithium Niobate,
Applied Physics Letter, 76, pp. 2505 (2000)
19. A. Connes and M. Marcolli, International Math. Research Notices 76, 4073 (2004).
20. Dudley J. M., Genty G., Cohen S., “Supercontinuum Generation in Photonic Crystal Fiber”,
in Review of Modern Physics, Vol. 78, No 11, pages 1135-1184, October 4, 2006
21. R. Penrose, “The Road to Reality”, publisher Jonathan Cape, London 2004. Spanish edition “ El
Camino a la Realidad”, graficas Monte Albán, S.A. Mexico. pag. 1398

*To whom correspondence should be addressed:

Alfredo Bennun. E-mail: alfr9@hotmail.com
Godoy Cruz 3046-Torre 2-Piso 8° Polo-(1425)-Ciudad de Buenos Aires

Tel: 0054-11-4775-7286/ Fax: 0054-11-4779-0944

11
12
 Simulation 1
Dimensioning of the quantum structure initiating the inflationary Universe
PdC n Universe Universe Photon Injection of energy Number photons Universe
4×n
ET =nEP ×
Cycle 3n ∑+2K time radius primordial volume
nγ =
quantum
∑ 2 n=0 inflationary inflationary nγγ inflationary
n=0
evolution nγγ = 16n
[s] [cm] [MeV] [cm3]

0* 5.39E-44* 1.616E-33 1 1.22E+22 1.07E+15 1.77E-98

1* 6.56E-44 4.180E-33 16 2.08E+23 9.60E+15 3.06E-97
2* 7.99E-44 1.081E-32 256 3.33E+24 7.78E+16 5.29E-96
3* 9.73E-44 2.796E-32 4096 5.33E+25 6.24E+17 9.16E-95
4* 1.18E-43 7.233E-32 6.6E+04 8.54E+26 4.99E+18 1.58E-93
5* 1.44E-43 1.871E-31 1.0E+06 1.37E+28 3.99E+19 2.74E-92
6* 1.76E-43 4.839E-31 1.7E+07 2.19E+29 3.19E+20 4.75E-91
7* 2.14E-43 1.252E-30 2.7E+08 3.50E+30 2.56E+21 8.21E-90
8* 2.60E-43 3.237E-30 4.3E+09 5.59E+31 2.04E+22 1.42E-88
9* 3.17E-43 8.373E-30 6.9E+10 8.95E+32 1.64E+23 2.46E-87
10* 3.86E-43 2.166E-29 1.1E+12 1.43E+34 1.31E+24 4.25E-86
11* 4.70E-43 5.601E-29 1.8E+13 2.29E+35 1.05E+25 7.36E-85
12* 5.72E-43 1.449E-28 2.8E+14 3.67E+36 8.37E+25 1.27E-83
13* 6.97E-43 3.747E-28 4.5E+15 5.87E+37 6.70E+26 2.20E-82
14* 8.49E-43 9.692E-28 7.2E+16 9.38E+38 5.36E+27 3.81E-81
15* 1.03E-42 2.507E-27 1.2E+18 1.50E+40 4.29E+28 6.60E-80
16* 1.26E-42 6.484E-27 1.8E+19 2.40E+41 3.43E+29 1.14E-78
17* 1.53E-42 1.677E-26 3.0E+20 3.84E+42 2.74E+30 1.98E-77
18* 1.87E-42 4.338E-26 4.7E+21 6.15E+43 2.20E+31 3.42E-76
19* 2.27E-42 1.122E-25 7.6E+22 9.84E+44 1.76E+32 5.92E-75
20* 2.76E-42 2.902E-25 1.2E+24 1.57E+46 1.40E+33 1.02E-73
21* 3.37E-42 7.506E-25 1.9E+25 2.52E+47 1.12E+34 1.77E-72
22* 4.10E-42 1.941E-24 3.1E+26 4.03E+48 8.99E+34 3.07E-71
23* 4.99E-42 5.022E-24 5.0E+27 6.45E+49 7.19E+35 5.30E-70
24* 6.08E-42 1.299E-23 7.9E+28 1.03E+51 5.75E+36 9.18E-69
25* 7.40E-42 3.359E-23 1.3E+30 1.65E+52 4.60E+37 1.59E-67
26* 9.01E-42 8.689E-23 2.0E+31 2.64E+53 3.68E+38 2.75E-66
27* 1.10E-41 2.247E-22 3.2E+32 4.23E+54 2.95E+39 4.76E-65
28* 1.34E-41 5.813E-22 5.2E+33 6.76E+55 2.36E+40 8.23E-64
29* 1.63E-41 1.504E-21 8.3E+34 1.08E+57 1.89E+41 1.42E-62
30* 1.98E-41 3.889E-21 1.3E+36 1.73E+58 1.51E+42 2.46E-61
31* 2.41E-41 1.006E-20 2.1E+37 2.77E+59 1.21E+43 4.26E-60
32* 2.94E-41 2.602E-20 3.4E+38 4.43E+60 9.65E+43 7.38E-59
33* 3.57E-41 6.729E-20 5.4E+39 7.09E+61 7.72E+44 1.28E-57
34* 4.35E-41 1.741E-19 8.7E+40 1.13E+63 6.18E+45 2.21E-56
35* 5.30E-41 4.502E-19 1.4E+42 1.82E+64 4.94E+46 3.82E-55
36* 6.45E-41 1.164E-18 2.2E+43 2.90E+65 3.95E+47 6.61E-54
37* 7.86E-41 3.012E-18 3.6E+44 4.65E+66 3.16E+48 1.14E-52
38* 9.57E-41 7.790E-18 5.7E+45 7.44E+67 2.53E+49 1.98E-51
39* 1.16E-40 2.015E-17 9.1E+46 1.19E+69 2.02E+50 3.43E-50
40* 1.42E-40 5.212E-17 1.5E+48 1.90E+70 1.62E+51 5.93E-49
41* 1.73E-40 1.348E-16 2.3E+49 3.05E+71 1.30E+52 1.03E-47
42* 2.10E-40 3.487E-16 3.7E+50 4.87E+72 1.04E+53 1.78E-46
43* 2.56E-40 9.018E-16 6.0E+51 7.80E+73 8.29E+53 3.07E-45
44* 3.12E-40 2.332E-15 9.6E+52 1.25E+75 6.63E+54 5.32E-44
45* 3.80E-40 6.033E-15 1.5E+54 2.00E+76 5.31E+55 9.20E-43
46* 4.62E-40 1.560E-14 2.5E+55 3.19E+77 4.25E+56 1.59E-41
47* 5.63E-40 4.036E-14 3.9E+56 5.11E+78 3.40E+57 2.75E-40
48* 6.85E-40 1.044E-13 6.3E+57 8.18E+79 2.72E+58 4.77E-39
49* 8.34E-40 2.700E-13 1.0E+59 1.31E+81 2.17E+59 8.25E-38
49.9214* 1.00E-39 6.481E-13 1.3E+60 1.709E+82 1.51E+60 1.14E-36
50* 1.02E-39 6.984E-13 3.671E+82 3.03E+60 1.43E-36

“E” indicating exponential in base 10x

*Indicating stage of quantum dimensioning

13
 Simulation 2
Subsequent dimensioning of the Universe

Universe Universe Mean black body emission Compton Number Universe

time radius Energy of packets Wavelength photons Volume
rU / tU= c Ur [Eγ = Eλ] [rγ=λc=λ/2π] [nγ] VU
tu rU=[VUx3/4π]1/3 Eγ= EPl×(1/2)n rγ=c×h/2πEγ nγ= initial×(2)n VU= Vλc x nγ
[s] [cm] [MeV] [cm] [photons] [cm3]
n actual = 105
0 1.00E-39 6.48E-13 3.493E+21 5.650E-33 1.51E+60 1.14E-36
End of inflation and initiation of expansion: characterized by rU / tU= c
0-1 2.16E-33 6.48E-13 3.4928E+21 5.650E-33 1.51E+60 1.14E-36
1 3.29E-23 1.63E-12 1.746E+21 1.130E-32 3.02E+60 1.82E-35
2 1.37E-22 4.12E-12 8.732E+20 2.260E-32 6.04E+60 2.92E-34
3 3.46E-22 1.04E-11 4.366E+20 4.520E-32 1.21E+61 4.67E-33
4 8.72E-22 2.61E-11 2.183E+20 9.039E-32 2.42E+61 7.47E-32
5 2.20E-21 6.58E-11 1.091E+20 1.808E-31 4.83E+61 1.20E-30
6 5.53E-21 1.66E-10 5.457E+19 3.616E-31 9.66E+61 1.91E-29
7 1.39E-20 4.18E-10 2.729E+19 7.232E-31 1.93E+62 3.06E-28
8 3.51E-20 1.05E-09 1.364E+19 1.446E-30 3.87E+62 4.90E-27
9 8.86E-20 2.65E-09 6.822E+18 2.893E-30 7.73E+62 7.84E-26
10 2.23E-19 6.69E-09 3.411E+18 5.785E-30 1.55E+63 1.25E-24
11 5.62E-19 1.69E-08 1.705E+18 1.157E-29 3.09E+63 2.01E-23
12 1.42E-18 4.25E-08 8.527E+17 2.314E-29 6.18E+63 3.21E-22
13 3.57E-18 1.07E-07 4.264E+17 4.628E-29 1.24E+64 5.14E-21
14 9.00E-18 2.70E-07 2.132E+17 9.256E-29 2.47E+64 8.22E-20
15 2.27E-17 6.80E-07 1.066E+17 1.851E-28 4.95E+64 1.31E-18
16 5.71E-17 1.71E-06 5.330E+16 3.703E-28 9.89E+64 2.10E-17
17 1.44E-16 4.32E-06 2.665E+16 7.405E-28 1.98E+65 3.37E-16
18 3.63E-16 1.09E-05 1.332E+16 1.481E-27 3.96E+65 5.39E-15
19 9.14E-16 2.74E-05 6.662E+15 2.962E-27 7.92E+65 8.62E-14
20 2.30E-15 6.90E-05 3.331E+15 5.924E-27 1.58E+66 1.38E-12
21 5.80E-15 1.74E-04 1.665E+15 1.185E-26 3.17E+66 2.21E-11
22 1.46E-14 4.38E-04 8.327E+14 2.370E-26 6.33E+66 3.53E-10
23 3.68E-14 1.10E-03 4.164E+14 4.739E-26 1.27E+67 5.65E-09
24 9.29E-14 2.78E-03 2.082E+14 9.478E-26 2.53E+67 9.04E-08
25 2.34E-13 7.01E-03 1.041E+14 1.896E-25 5.07E+67 1.45E-06
26 5.90E-13 1.77E-02 5.205E+13 3.791E-25 1.01E+68 2.31E-05
27 1.49E-12 4.45E-02 2.602E+13 7.583E-25 2.03E+68 3.70E-04
28 3.74E-12 1.12E-01 1.301E+13 1.517E-24 4.05E+68 5.92E-03
29 9.43E-12 2.83E-01 6.506E+12 3.033E-24 8.11E+68 9.47E-02
30 2.38E-11 7.13E-01 3.253E+12 6.066E-24 1.62E+69 1.52E+00
31 5.99E-11 1.80E+00 1.626E+12 1.213E-23 3.24E+69 2.43E+01
31-32 1.33E-10 4.00E+00 1.80E-23 4.00E+69 2.68E+02
32 1.51E-10 4.52E+00 8.132E+11 2.426E-23 6.48E+69 3.88E+02
33 3.80E-10 1.14E+01 4.066E+11 4.853E-23 1.30E+70 6.21E+03
34 9.58E-10 2.87E+01 2.033E+11 9.706E-23 2.59E+70 9.93E+04
35 2.41E-09 7.24E+01 1.017E+11 1.941E-22 5.19E+70 1.59E+06
36 6.09E-09 1.82E+02 5.083E+10 3.882E-22 1.04E+71 2.54E+07
37 1.53E-08 4.60E+02 2.541E+10 7.765E-22 2.08E+71 4.07E+08
38 3.86E-08 1.16E+03 1.271E+10 1.553E-21 4.15E+71 6.51E+09
39 9.74E-08 2.92E+03 6.353E+09 3.106E-21 8.30E+71 1.04E+11
40 2.45E-07 7.36E+03 3.177E+09 6.212E-21 1.66E+72 1.67E+12
41 6.18E-07 1.85E+04 1.588E+09 1.242E-20 3.32E+72 2.67E+13
42 1.56E-06 4.67E+04 7.942E+08 2.485E-20 6.64E+72 4.27E+14
43 3.93E-06 1.18E+05 3.971E+08 4.969E-20 1.33E+73 6.83E+15
44 9.89E-06 2.97E+05 1.985E+08 9.939E-20 2.66E+73 1.09E+17
45 2.49E-05 7.47E+05 9.927E+07 1.988E-19 5.31E+73 1.75E+18
46 6.28E-05 1.88E+06 4.964E+07 3.976E-19 1.06E+74 2.80E+19
47 1.58E-04 4.74E+06 2.482E+07 7.951E-19 2.12E+74 4.47E+20
48 3.99E-04 1.20E+07 1.241E+07 1.590E-18 4.25E+74 7.16E+21
49 1.00E-03 3.01E+07 6.204E+06 3.180E-18 8.50E+74 1.15E+23
50 2.53E-03 7.59E+07 3.102E+06 6.361E-18 1.70E+75 1.83E+24
51 6.38E-03 1.91E+08 1.551E+06 1.272E-17 3.40E+75 2.93E+25
52 1.61E-02 4.82E+08 7.755E+05 2.544E-17 6.80E+75 4.69E+26
53 4.05E-02 1.21E+09 3.878E+05 5.089E-17 1.36E+76 7.51E+27
54 1.02E-01 3.06E+09 1.939E+05 1.018E-16 2.72E+76 1.20E+29

14
 Universe Universe Mean black body emission Compton Number Universe
time radius Energy of packets Wavelength photons Volume
rU / tU= c Ur [Eγ = Eλ] [rγ=λc=λ/2π] [nγ] VU
tu rU=[VUx3/4π]1/3 Eγ= EPl×(1/2)n rγ=c×h/2πEγ nγ= initial×(2)n VU= Vλc x nγ
[s] [cm] [MeV] [cm] [photons] [cm3]
n actual = 105
55 2.57E-01 7.71E+09 9.694E+04 2.035E-16 5.44E+76 1.92E+30
56 ? Subsequent steps 4.847E+04 4.071E-16 ? ?
57 ? (56-68) 2.424E+04 8.142E-16 ? ?
58 ? involves formation 1.212E+04 1.628E-15 ? ?
59 ? of matter from the 6.059E+03 3.257E-15 ? ?
60 ? nγγ increment 3.029E+03 6.514E-15 ? ?
61 ? Assuming that 1.515E+03 1.303E-14 ? ?
62 ? from original 7.574E+02 2.605E-14 ? ?
63 ? 1.7E+82 MeV 3.787E+02 5.211E-14 ? ?
64 ? remains 1.893E+02 1.042E-13 ? ?
65 ? 2.087E+78 MeV 9.467E+01 2.084E-13 ? ?
66 ? as CMB 4.734E+01 4.169E-13 ? ?
67 ? only 0.012% 2.367E+01 8.337E-13 ? ?
68 ? 1.183E+01 1.667E-12 ? ?
69 5.31E+03 1.59E+14 5.917E+00 3.335E-12 1.088E+77 1.69E+43
70 1.34E+04 4.01E+14 2.958E+00 6.670E-12 2.176E+77 2.70E+44
71 3.37E+04 1.01E+15 1.479E+00 1.334E-11 4.352E+77 4.33E+45
72 8.50E+04 2.55E+15 7.396E-01 2.668E-11 8.703E+77 6.92E+46
73 2.14E+05 6.42E+15 3.698E-01 5.336E-11 1.741E+78 1.11E+48
74 5.40E+05 1.62E+16 1.849E-01 1.067E-10 3.481E+78 1.77E+49
75 1.36E+06 4.08E+16 9.245E-02 2.134E-10 6.963E+78 2.84E+50
76 3.43E+06 1.03E+17 4.623E-02 4.269E-10 1.393E+79 4.54E+51
Equal number of photons and baryons: nγγ = nB 1.9E+79
77 8.63E+06 2.59E+17 2.311E-02 8.537E-10 2.785E+79 7.26E+52
78 2.18E+07 6.52E+17 1.156E-02 1.707E-09 5.570E+79 1.16E+54
79 5.48E+07 1.64E+18 5.778E-03 3.415E-09 1.114E+80 1.86E+55
80 1.38E+08 4.14E+18 2.889E-03 6.830E-09 2.228E+80 2.97E+56
81 3.48E+08 1.04E+19 1.445E-03 1.366E-08 4.456E+80 4.76E+57
82 8.77E+08 2.63E+19 7.223E-04 2.732E-08 8.912E+80 7.61E+58
83 2.21E+09 6.62E+19 3.611E-04 5.464E-08 1.782E+81 1.22E+60
84 5.57E+09 1.67E+20 1.806E-04 1.093E-07 3.565E+81 1.95E+61
85 1.40E+10 4.21E+20 9.029E-05 2.186E-07 7.130E+81 3.12E+62
86 3.54E+10 1.06E+21 4.514E-05 4.371E-07 1.426E+82 4.99E+63
87 8.91E+10 2.67E+21 2.257E-05 8.742E-07 2.852E+82 7.98E+64
88 2.25E+11 6.73E+21 1.129E-05 1.748E-06 5.704E+82 1.28E+66
89 5.66E+11 1.70E+22 5.643E-06 3.497E-06 1.141E+83 2.04E+67
90 1.43E+12 4.27E+22 2.821E-06 6.994E-06 2.282E+83 3.27E+68
91 3.59E+12 1.08E+23 1.411E-06 1.399E-05 4.563E+83 5.23E+69
92 9.05E+12 2.71E+23 7.054E-07 2.798E-05 9.126E+83 8.37E+70
93 2.28E+13 6.84E+23 3.527E-07 5.595E-05 1.825E+84 1.34E+72
1.19E+13* Frontier of last scattering, 3000 K=2.58E-07 MeV
94 3.92E+13 1.18E+24 2.585E-07 7.634E-05 1.846E+84 6.80E+72
95 5.30E+13 1.59E+24 2.409E-07 8.190E-05 3.691E+84 1.68E+73
96 1.34E+14 4.00E+24 1.205E-07 1.638E-04 7.383E+84 2.69E+74
97 3.36E+14 1.01E+25 6.024E-08 3.276E-04 1.476E+85 4.30E+75
98 8.48E+14 2.54E+25 3.012E-08 6.552E-04 2.953E+85 6.88E+76
99 2.14E+15 6.41E+25 1.506E-08 1.310E-03 5.906E+85 1.10E+78
100 5.38E+15 1.61E+26 7.530E-09 2.621E-03 1.181E+86 1.76E+79
101 1.36E+16 4.07E+26 3.765E-09 5.241E-03 2.362E+86 2.82E+80
102 3.42E+16 1.02E+27 1.882E-09 1.048E-02 4.725E+86 4.51E+81
103 8.61E+16 2.58E+27 9.412E-10 2.097E-02 9.450E+86 7.21E+82
104 2.17E+17 6.51E+27 4.706E-10 4.193E-02 1.890E+87 1.15E+84
105 4.33E+17 1.30E+28 2.353E-10 8.38E-02 3.780E+87 9.34E+84

*379000 light-years
** Present

15
Calculation for mean energy of black body emission spectra was done according
to:

P its the quantity of energy MeV through 1 cm3 vacuum per second and relate to λ:

2πc 2 h 1  MeV 
P= ×
λ5 e hc/λkT − 1  cm 3 × s 
k = Stefan-Boltzman constant = 8.616×10-11 MeV/K
T = temperature = 2.725 K

16
 Recession velocity and the space-time parameters are
restricted by the velocity of light

Alfred Bennun
Graduate School of Rutgers University (retired)
www.alfredobennun.com.ar

Abstract

The results of an empiric simulation by parametric down conversion (PdC) fitted

observational evidence. This data was plotted in relationship to the radius of the universe (rU) in
Mpc multiplied by Hubble’s constant (H0): H 0 × rr = vr and when vr =c, H0=c/rU[Mpc] = 71
Km/s/Mpc, the observed reported value.

Hence, expansion was characterized as subject to c, functioning as a relativistic causality

horizon, determining at all times the value of H0. In contraposition, it has been proposed that the
universe may have expanded, to reach a radius of 45×109 light-years, within the widely accepted
chronological age of 13.7×109 light-years.

In the coordinates of the universe time versus cosmic radius, a plotting shows that the
universe radius in light years corresponding to 1.3×1028cm =4213.01Mpc, yields the observable
H0: H 0 = 71 km / s / Mpc

Introduction

A simulation, by applying a wave function treatment to Planck energy limit EPl, shows a
stretching quantum-space Big-Bang (1-7). In this theoretical description the chronology of the
space-time evolution, corresponds with a continuum process of wave-elongation (∆λ) discernible
as an increment in the number of CMB-photons of decreasing energy (8-17). This quanta-structure
constitutes the matter-free vacuum.

1
 Results

Fig. 1 shows that the postulation of a universe radius of 45×109 light-years, correspond to
value of H0 = 232 km/s/Mpc which is not compatible with its observable value. The figure also
shows that the projection of observable recession velocity as a function of space-time could be
plotted as a straight line. A time-projection of value of H0 in excess of 71 km/s/Mpc shows as an
open curve and a lower one as a close curve.

Fig.1: The relationship between recessions of velocity vs. the coordinates of space (radius)-
time. For present time 4.34×1017s solving H0 × rr = vr

) 1.3787 × 104 Mpc H = 7.54 × 10 −18 1 = 232.7km / s / Mpc , value well in

H 0 × 4213.01Mpc = ⇒ 0
4.34 × 1017 s s
excess of observable H0.

ç) 4213 .01Mpc 1 observable

H 0 × 4213 .01Mpc = 17
⇒ H 0 = 2 .3 × 10 −18 = 71km / s / Mpc
4.34 × 10 s s

ò) 5.51×10−3 Mpc −24 1

H0 × 4213.01Mpc = 17
⇒ H0 = 3 ×10 = 9.3 ×10−5 km/ s / Mpc
4.34 ×10 s s

2
 Discussion

The Einstein-De Sitter model (2) proposed an equation in which the relationship between
velocity and distance, for the present H0 could be express as H02 = 8/3 π G ρc, where critical
density ρc = 3 H02/[8/3 π G]= 1.879 h2 10-29 g/cm3. The formula allows a density relationship,
mass/volume, constant and inversely proportional to volume, which is increasing as the cubic
expression the expansion parameter.

Hence, in dependence of density determined by critical mass, the functional response of the
expansion parameter could be shown by analytical geometry, shaping like either an open, flat, or
close curve.

Conclusions

Fig. 1 shows that the expansion parameter, H 0 = dA(t ) / A assay as the chronology of the
H0 within the space-time coordinates corresponding to the thermodynamic chronology, also
shows a similar pattern. It could be concluded that the relationship between Planck’s mass and
the fundamental constants: mPl = Ñ1/2×c1/2× G-1/2, allows that from Planck’s energy limit to that of
present CMB, shapes the cosmic thermodynamic structure. This one relates space-time
parameters to c and also determines the CMB quantum radius, which settles on the shape of
vacuum. Therefore, recession velocity could not be larger or smaller, because is conditioned at
all times by c.

3
References:

1. G. Gamow, Mr. Tompkins, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1993).

2. Einstein, A. & W. de Sitter, “On the Relation between the Expansion and the Mean Density
of the Universe,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 18, 213 (1932).
[reprinted, with commentary, in Lang, Kenneth R. & Owen Gingerich, eds., A Source Book
in Astronomy & Astrophysics, 1900-1975 (Harvard Univ. Press, 1979), 849-50.]
3. A. Einstein, the Meaning of Relativity, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1988).
4. Liddle, A., “An introduction to Modern Cosmology”, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Second
Edition (2004).
5. H. Reeves, El Primer Segundo. Últimas Noticias del Cosmos 2, Ed. Andrés Bello, Santiago
de Chile (1998). Liddle, A. R., and Lyth, D. H., “Cosmological Inflation and Large-Scale
Structure”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2000).
6. A.A.Grib, V.Yu.Dorofeev, Creation of particles in the early Friedmann Universe. Proc. of the
Second A.A.Friedmann Intern. Seminar on Gravitation and Cosmology, 117 (1994).
7. Guth, A. H. and Steinhardt, P. J., The Inflationary Universe, in Scientific American, 250, pp.
90 (1984).
8. Smoot, G. and Scott, D., Cosmic Background Radiation, in Hagiwara, K. et al., Physical
Review D66, 010001-1, 2002.
9. G. Smoot, COBE Observations and Results, <arXiv:astro-ph/9902027> (1999).
10. I. Prigogine, El Nacimiento del Tiempo, Tusquets Editores, Buenos Aires (2006).
11. M. Torres Cisneros, J.W. Haus, P. Powers, P.Bojja, M. Scalora, M.J. Bloemer, N. Akozbek,
L.A. Anguilera Cortes, R. Guzmán Cabrera, R.Castro Sánchez, M.A. Meneases Nava, J.A.
Andrade Lucio y J.J. Sánchez Mondragon. Conversión Parametrica en un Cristal fotónico no-
lineal. Revista Mexicana de Física 51,pp 258-264 (2005).
12. Bennun, A.: “Inflation-Expansion Characterized by Relativistic Space-Time-Velocity Plus
the Quantum-Dimensioning Parameters of CMB-Elongation”, The General Science Journal
Special and General Relativity, Jan. 14, 2008.
13. Bennun, A.: “A Simulation Shows the Distinct Roles of Matter Curving and CMB
Expanding Space”, The General Science Journal Astrophysics, Dec. 18, 2007.
14. Bennun, A.: “Changes in Space-Time Configuration of CMB for a Role in Vacuum
Fluctuations”, The General Science Journal Astrophysics, Sep. 13, 2007.
15. Bennun, A.: “A Model Dimensioning the Space-Time by Parametric-Down Conversion”,
The General Science Journal Astrophysics, Sep. 5, 2007.
16. Bennun, A.: “CMB Radiation and the Casimir Effect”, The General Science Journal Particle
Physics - Quantum Mechanics, Dec. 12, 2007.
17. Penrose Roger, “El camino a la realidad”, Randon House Mondadori, Barcelona, (2006).

4
 1

CMB RADIATION AND THE CASIMIR EFFECT

Alfred Bennun
Graduate School of Rutgers University*
www.alfredobennun.com.ar
12/12/07

Abstract
Parametric down Conversion (PdC) and parametric up conversion (PupC) had been
experimentally observed as spontaneous energy conservation processes. The first one
could increase cosmic entropy by decreasing energy density. In a Casimir effect
experiment could be calculated that the space between plates contracts, because PupC
allows that from every two, low energy Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) photons
could be created one of higher energy. This decrease in photon number and increase in
photon energy density allow shrinking of the volume of CMB photon localization. This
effect reduces initial volume to 6.25% per each pair of integrated photons. This process
would be observable as a decrease of the space separating the parallel plates.

The higher energy photons, are generated from CMB-containing (constituted?)

vacuum, and therefore, could be inconsistently attributed as coming out of nothingness an
assumption reserved to virtual energy in accordance to Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle.

CMB is subject to gravity, but its elongation by PdC is not (2). Accordingly, PdC
present splitting CMB rate was evaluated as equivalent to that of the Hubble’s constant
(H0). PdC continuously generates new photons, the summa of their radius could be
assumed to reach a length of about to 70 km per Mpc per second. This value, because the
photons emerge uniformly into space, would add as the summa of the number of parsecs
that separates two galaxies. Accordingly, multiplying the PdC equivalent to H0 70 km/sec
by a distance of about 4300 Mpc, the inter-galactic velocity of recession would approach
that of the propagation of light in vacuum. However, the photon themselves are only
expanding to expand CMB intergalactic vacuum.

Introduction

CMB packets with a mean wavelength (λ) of 5.27 x 10-1 cm, at the presently
detectable density of 411 photons per cm3 yielding a total cosmic photon number (nγ)
equal to 3.78 x 1087 photons (1). The present volume of the universe (UV) corresponds to
the cosmic (nγ) multiplied by the volume of λ-localization (Vλc-loc). This one, by analogy,
calculated according to the Compton wavelength (λc) from the equivalence between an
electron and its wavelength volume [Vλc-loc= 4/3 x π x λc3]. Hence, the CMB even at its
present low energy level of 2.35 x 10-4 eV, may be, therefore, dimensioning the cosmos
 2

with the radius 13.7 x 109 light years. Accordingly, it could be assumed that the
description of vacuum as identical to empty space is far from accurate (2).

Fig. 1: The decrease, by Parametric Down Conversion (PDC), of the energy density (log Eγ: MeV) and
corresponding increment of the Compton reactive radius (log λc: cm) per CMB photon, as a function of the
increment of Cosmic time (log Time(s)).

Figure 1 shows a correlation between the elongation curve for CMB calculated as
a Compton radius (λc) and the photon decrease in energy (Eγ). The present volume of the
universe (VU) corresponds to the cosmic number of photons (nγ) multiplied by the
volume of λ-localization (Vλc-loc). The latter, calculated according to the Compton
wavelength (λc) measured by experimental collision interaction between an electron and a
photon: Vλc-loc = 4/3× π× λc3.

The ubiquitous presence of CMB may allow that its possible physical interactions
within a boundary system formed by proximal conducting parallel plates could have
incidence in the results measuring the Casimir Effect. Experiments were usually carried
on using other plates than those made with material transparent to CMB (3) (4), preventing
equilibriums between CMB in the inside with that outside the plates, confining those
within the inside. These non-transparent plates would allow an initial condition of
equilibrium of photons CMB pressure which may not be sustainable, because if the plates
are conductive could withdraw from the inside the initially confined CMB packets. This
effect would decrease the nγ enclosed and therefore the summa of their Vλc-loc would
occupy a smaller space allowing the plates to show mutual attraction.
 3

CMB Radiation and The Casimir Effect

Parametric up
conversion

CMB of longer CMB of shorter

wavelenght wavelenght

3
CMB detectable concentration of 411 photons per cm
Photon overlapping within a confinement space by parametric up
conversion would allow two photons integrating to create one
of shorter wavelenght. This decrease in photon
number and increase in photon energy density allows shrinking
of the volume of photon localization. This process would be
observable as an attraction between parallel plates.

Fig 2: Illustration of photon parametric conversion.

An exterior photon pressure may produce space confinement of CMB leading to a

photon overlapping resulting in parametric up-conversion. This process permit that two
photons of low energy became integrated into one of higher energy, but shorter
wavelength (figure 2). The calculation for the integration of two actual CMB photons
(with Vλc-loc of 2.47 x 10-3 cm3 x 2 =4.94 x 10-3 cm3) into one with twice the energy
reduces initial volume to a Vλc-loc 3.09 x 10-4 cm3. The remaining volume per photon pair
would be 6.25%.

Some of the geometries utilized to measure the Casimir effect had been reported
to result in a repulsive force (4). Laboratory experiments show wavelength elongation (5).
The later also occurs as a parametric down conversion (6) in which a photon could split
into two, each one with half the initial energy and each duplicating initial wavelength.
Thus, increase nγ and wavelength of CMB expanding into a greater volume of
localization. Consequently, the increase volume may appear to result from a repulsive
effect.

Connes postulates the geometrical coexistence between a non-continuum and a

continuum (7). The simulation adapted this concept to that of coexistent thermodynamic
structures, in which the non-continuum is constituted by ordinary and dark matter and the
continuum, by that of the evolution of initial radiation and dark energy. Hence, vacuum
represents space voids of matter in the non-continuous structure, but, for the continuous
structure absence of energy, would be equivalent to the absence of space itself. This does
not contradict the premise that increasing energy density allows space to shrink (figure
2). At the enunciation of the relativity theory (8), CMB had not yet been detected, but
 4

Einstein’s description unifying space, time and energy as a continuum implies that
without energy, the space continuum will be absent or collapse (9).

Conclusions

The interference of CMB radiation in the Casimir effect is discussed. An exterior

photon pressure on the parallel plates may lead CMB into a parametric-up conversion
process.

PupC allows two photons of the CMB, of low energy and large Compton volume
locus, to become integrated into one of higher energy, but shorter wavelength and smaller
by 93.75% locus. PupC, the interaction of two photons to generate one, is not kinetically
favored over its opposite direction, PdC.

Parametric up and down conversions are spontaneous processes, however if the

lattices of the Casimir plates, are more transparent to smaller photons, PupC, as a
reaction, would tend to completion, because as the smaller photons leaves the internal
space decreasing their mass participation on equilibrium, leading to the shrinking of
space (example: a reaction producing a gas or a precipitation, etc.).

PdC, from of the Era of last dispersion to the present, produces an increment in
CMB-photon number from 3.44×1084 to 3.78×1087. Total energy during spontaneous up
or down reactions is conserved, but PdC increases entropy by decreasing energy density,
as a function of increasing cosmic vacuum volume.

Any energy emerging from vacuum could be expected to contribute with its
volume of localization to an increase of volume within the Casimir plates decreasing
attractive effects. Emerging of dark energy into ordinary space, if a possibility, may have
similar effect. However, energy transfer from ordinary to virtual space would allow a
decrease of the enclosed volume, but this could not be conceptualized as energy emerging
from vacuum.

References:

1. Smoot, G. and Scott, D., Cosmic Background Radiation, in Hagiwara, K. et al.,

Physical Review D66, 010001-1, 2002
2. Bennun, A. “A Model Dimensioning the Space-time by Parametric down Conversion”,
The General science Journal, on line September 7th 2007.
3. Lamoreaux, S. K., Resource Letter CF-1: Casimir Force, American Journal Physics 67
(10), October 1999
4. Hushwater, V., Repulsive Casimir force as a result of vacuum radiation pressure,
American Journal Physics 65 (5), May 1997
 5

5. Dudley J. M., Genty G., Coen S., “Supercontinuum Generation in Photonic Crystal
Fiber”, in Review of Modern Physical, Vol. 78, No 11, pages 1135-1184, October 4, 2006
6. Y.-S. Lee, T. Meade, M. DeCamp, T. B. Norris, y A. Galvanauskas, “Generation of
Narrow-Band Terahertz Radiation via Optical Rectification in Periodically Poled-Lithium
Niobate, Applied Physics Letter, 76, pp. 2505 (2000)
7. A. Connes and M. Marcolli, International Math. Research Notices 76, 4073 (2004).
8. A. Einstein, The Meaning of Relativity, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1988).
9. Bennun, A. “Changes in Space-time configurations of CMB for a role in vacuum
fluctuations”, The General Science Journal, on line September 13th 2007.

*To whom correspondence should be addressed:

Alfredo Bennun. E-mail: alfr9@hotmail.com
Godoy Cruz 3046-Torre 2-Piso 8° Polo-(1425)-Ciudad de Buenos Aires
Tel: 0054-11-4775-7286/ Fax: 0054-11-4779-0944
 Integrative-design of radio-nuclear source shielded with scintillation crystals for
sustainable light-powering of photovoltaic cells

Copyright © Alfred Bennun

Member American Nuclear Society
Elected 1969 (Retired)

Abstract

The proposal evaluates the feasibility to develop radioisotope reactors for generation of
luminescence. The engineering could be achieved by using the energy of beta (β) and gamma (γ)
particle emissions by non-fissionable radioisotopes, to excite scintillation crystals.

The radioisotopes would be covered by a dense shield of scintillation substances, capable by

becoming excited to deplete the energy of radiation by emitting light which in turn would be
directed by mirrors to power photocells and generate electricity.

This manufacturing approach could minimize the possibility of harmful radiation leaks,
allowing the use of rather small quantities of radioisotopes, without having to resort to a heavy
lead shielding. This opens the door for many applications, for example to cover the energy needs
of a house or building. Safety operating conditions should be implemented: for example, by
resorting to keep the chip in a metal box connected by optical fibers, to deliver the light or electric
energy, to the places where the energy-using appliances would be located.

Solar sails propulsion by a luminescence-nuclear plant, could achieve continuous

acceleration to reach a significant percent of the velocity of light, which would allow interstellar
navigation. Light-transfer technology could easily allow miniaturization, with much smaller
development costs by permitting toy-sized prototypes. Example by replacing the battery in a model
airplane, a radio scintillation-chip, allows the aircraft to fly for months without landing to control
weather, crops, etc.

Additionally, this model could be use for the planning and developing of larger airplanes,
with reduced fueling needs. Similarly, by decreasing the use of fuels in many applications could
prevent considerable CO2 contamination. The generation of cheap artificial light, not only could
improve food production but increasing photosynthesis would also decrease CO2. These chips also
appear to offer considerable advantage, as a suitable energy source for nanotechnology.

1
 Introduction

The designs of nuclear reactors involve large amounts of radioactive materials which require
heavy lead shielding. Light-weight radioisotopes could be used as sustainable, long lasting-sources
of energy, which do not involve like the heavy radioisotopes, the danger of generating a chain
reaction. Lightweight nuclear sources are presently in use, to generate by heat-transfer electrical
power.

However, heat-transfer by nuclear reactors, involve engineering mechanical solutions which

because of their complexity, could only be scaled to much larger sizes, than it is possible with
radioisotopes-scintillation crystals. The heat-transfer is subjected to heat losses greater than light-
transfer, because of friction between moving constitutive parts.

The scientific background (1)(2)(3) is well established, and the paper only intents to convey the
techno feasibility and the relative advantage of its adoption. The improvement of using the
scintillation methodology is not only that transfer of light does not require mechanical devices, but
also decreases shielding needs, if the scintillation substance is used as a covering shield of the
radioisotopes.

Protection by the scintillation enclosure could be enhanced, by designing mirrors to surround

the radioactive crystals, allowing only light to emerge. These energy-transducer radioactive
crystals could be sized to play the role of nano-reactors.

Theoretical background

Table 1: Scintillation substances and range of fluorescence emission: NaI with 1% Tl

(thallium) could be made more efficient by the addition of the scintillation substances some are
listed.

Crystal made of: NaI with 1% Thallium (Tl) plus Dimethyl POPOP, etc.

Crystal excited by γ and / or β →crystal l*l → hν (or uν).

Acronym Scintillation function Fluorescence emission maximum

[nm]
BBOT Prim. & sec. 425-435
Butyl-PBD Primary 360-365
PBD Primary 360-370
PPO Primary 360-365
Bis-MSB Secondary 420-430
Dimethyl POPOP Secondary 425-430

Empirical assay

To prevent radiation leak, an empirical assay can be done; by encasing a core radioisotope
fiber into scintillation crystals shaped as cylindrical tubes of progressive larger and larger
diameters, until radiation of the core is no longer registered by a Geiger detector. Table 3, allows
calculating the remaining energy of any leaking counts, which would be very much decreased by
their partial absorption. Direct assay of any energy left-over, in the remaining counts, could be
done by the simple methodology of interpolation pages of paper, between the source and the
Geiger detector.
2
 The period of half-disintegration allows to express that the fraction of the initial nucleus
remaining after n periods is (t ½n). Therefore, after 7 periods of half life, the quantity of the
remaining radioactive material is less than 1%.

Table 2: Selecting radioisotopes according to a desirable half-life: Curie:

3.1010dissintegrations per second. REM (Radioactive environmental monitoring): 1 rad x Q. Rad:
Unit of absorbed radiation dose equivalent to 100 ergs per gram of absorbent matter. Q=Quality
factor; Energy captured per unit length. Skin annual dose limit: 50,000 mrem. These radioisotopes
should be maintained in sealed sources.

Radioisotope Half-life β (MeV) γ (MeV) (millirem/hr)** (millicurie)**

Strontium-89 50.52 (days) 1.481
Sodium-22 2.6 years 0.55i, 0.58 and 1.8 0.51 and 1.27 370 13.3
Cobalt-60 5.3 years 0.31 1.17 and 1.33 48 14.4
Cobalt-57 271.8 days <0.13
Strontium-90 29 years 0.54 740 0
decays
→Yttrium-89 3 days 2.26
Cesium-137* 33 years 0.52 and 1.18 0.66 777 4.1

* Decays to short-lived 133Ba ** Dose rate at 30 cm from source. Cadmium 109, half life 453 days,
shows an intermediate period of life.
89
Sr and 90Sr are well-known hazards, because replace the physiological function of calcium
in the body. Therefore, protection to contamination in addition to radiation is essential, the
radioisotope would be sealed in a glass constituted by the scintillating crystal itself or when needed
an additional cover of unbreakable glass.

Table 3: Reaching distance of β and γ: The energy of beta decreases by exciting atoms, ionizing
molecules and electron slowing-down (bremsstrahlung) which may generate x-rays. The effect of
x-rays or γ is to transfer energy to electrons with photoelectric effects ionizing molecules and
Compton interaction. If a given scintillation thickness, does not eliminate totally the energy of the
particles, but for example retains from 1 MeV only 0.01 MeV, the remaining effects would
correspond to this in the table to the lower energy level.

Energy of β [MeV] Air [m] Corporal tissue (cm) Aluminum [mm]

0.01 0.023 0.00027 -
0.5 1.5 0.18 0.59
1 4.2 0.5 1.5
3 12.6 1.5 5.6
Energy of γ [MeV] - Corporal tissue (cm) Lead [mm]
0.01 - 0.131 0.076
0.1 - 4.05 1.2
1 - 9.8 8.9

Table 4: This technology appears to be adequate to replace all sort of long-lasting batteries, and
scintillation 89Sr39 reactor, of similar size than a battery pack for a model airplane (500 g), would
allow 24 hours of constant operation for weather, crops, illegal activities, etc., for over a month.
3
 Technology Consume
[Wh]
Model airplane 500
Personal computer 350
Laser printed 100
Monitor 14’’ 75
TV 14’’ 53
Telephone 16
Radio AM/FM 9

Calculation of the weight-ratio between radioactive and covering

scintillation crystals to minimize harmful radiation leaks

When an energetic particle or a photon (radiation) goes across a scintillation crystal like NaI
(molecular weight, mw=150), some of the atoms along the trajectory become excited and
thereafter return to their ground state with emission of light.

Each scintillation molecule subtracts from the kinetic energy of the colliding β-particle or
excitation by the γ-radiation, an average of 30 to 50 electron volts (eV), as the excitation energy
required for the emission of one photon.

It could be calculated if a scintillation crystal contains enough molecules, to match by energy

transfer most of the possible trajectories of β -particle or γ-radiation. The steps to calculate: a.
Reaction, b. Disintegration per second per mol, c. Scintillation weight to efficiently prevent
radiation leak (calculated as that required for photon emission) d. Energy yield.

a. Disintegration reaction for 90Sr

90
Sr38 90 39 0 –
Y + e (kinetic energy=0.54 MeV per atom)
1 0 1 1
n (neutron) p (proton) + 0 e– (β -particle)
In a subsequent β -minus reaction:
90
Y39 90
Zr40 + 0e– (2.26 MeV) (Half-life 64 hr).

Total energy per atom= 0.54 MeV+2.26 MeV=2.8 MeV

b. Disintegration per second per mol of 90Sr38

For both β -particles from 90Sr38 decay: 2.8 MeV divided by about, i.e., 40eV (transfer energy
during each collision) = 7×104 photons per β -particle trajectory, requires an equivalent number of
atoms in the scintillation crystal. Half-life: 0.5mol= 3.01×1023disintegrations/29 yrs (28.8 yrs)=
1.05×1022/1yr =1.05×1022/ 3.1536×107s =3.32×1014 disintegrations/s. Hence, multiplied by 7×104
photons yield the number of photons 2.331×1019 emitted/s/mol 90Sr38.

c. Scintillation weight to efficiently prevent 90Sr38 radiation leak

4
Assuming collision efficiency of 1 β particle per 4,000 of scintillation molecules during particle
trajectory, the relationship would be: 2.3×1019 photon emitted×4,000 (correction for collision
efficiency) = 9.2×1022 n° of required scintillation NaI atoms. Molar ratio of required atoms of NaI:
9.2×1022 /6.02×1023=15.3% (molar ratio NaI/90Sr38: 150/90=1.66) =25.4% for 90g =23g of NaI
will deprive from its kinetic energy and trap the β -particles emitted by 90g of 90Sr38.
90
d. Energy yield of Sr38

Total half-life energy per mol=3.012×1023×2.8 MeV=8.432×1023MeV

8.432 × 1023 MeV 1yr 3.342 × 1018 MeV or 4.45×10−20 kWh

× = ⇒ 0.15kWh/mol
28.8 yr 8.76 × 103 h h MeV

a. Disintegration reaction for 89Sr38

89
Sr38 89 39
Sr + 0 e–, (β-Radiation (0 e–) =1.481 MeV/atom).
Half-life: 50.55 days. Activity: ≥ 500 mCi/g at Oak Ridge Nat. Lab. reactor discharge.
Radiopurity: 99%.

b. Disintegration per second per mol of 89Sr38

1.481 MeV/40eV=3.7×104 photons. Half-life: 0.5mol= 3.01×1023disintegrations/ 50.55day=

5.957×1021/day=5.957×1021/ 8.64×104s =9.89×1016 disintegrations/s; multiplied by 3.7×104
photons yield the number of photons 3.66×1021 emitted/s/mol 89Sr38.

c. Scintillation weight to efficiently prevent 89Sr38 radiation leak

Assuming collision efficiency of 1 β particle per 500 of scintillation molecules during particle
trajectory, the relationship would be: 3.66×1021 photon emitted×500 (correction for collision
efficiency) = 1.83×1024 n° of required scintillation NaI atoms. Molar ratio of required atoms of
NaI: 1.83×1024 /6.02×1023=303% (molar ratio NaI/89Sr38: 150/90=1.66) =503% for 89g =450g of
NaI. Disposal: after 7 × 50.55 d = 354 days remains only 1% of radioactivity
89
d. Energy yield of Sr38

Half-life= 223.5 MWh/50.52 d.=4.424MWh/day=184.3 kWh/kg of 89Sr38.

3.0115×1023 ×1.481MeV 1day 3.676 ×1020 MeV 4.45 ×10−20 kWh

× = × = 16.358kWh / h / mol
50.55day 24h h 1MeV

A battery of 18 g 89Sr38 + 90 g NaI=110g theoretical weight for energy source of 3.2 kWh 20%
efficiency: 650Wh. An additional 300g would be required to complete the battery device. This one
could compete with Lithium batteries, which are presently in use to operate the electrical motor of
model airplanes (table 4). Its advantage the operative fly-time exceeds one month without need to
replace the scintillation battery.

a. 60Co disintegration reaction: Beta-minus (β = 0e–) decay:

5
60
Co27 60
Ni28+ (0.31MeV 0 e–) + (1.17MeV γ + 1.33MeV γ), Total energy=2.824 MeV

Production of 60Co: 59Co (not radioactive) + neutron 60

Co + γ (Q = 7.492 MeV). 60Co can
not start a chain reaction and since disposal is still unsolved, it may be purchase at lower price than
89
Sr. However, 60Co it has to be handed more carefully.

b. Calculation of disintegration per second per mol of 60Co27.

3.0115×1023 / 5.1 yrs=5.90×1022(disinteg./yr)= 5.90×1022/3.1536×107s =1.87×1015 (disinteg./s)

2.824×106 eV (energy summation of 1β + 2γ/50eV transfer energy per collision) ⇒5.65×104
photons/(1β + 2γ)× 1.87×1015 disinteg./s =1.06×1020(photon emitted /s/mol of 60Co27).

c. Scintillation weight to efficiently prevent 60Co27 radiation leak

90
β -particles from Sr38 and 89Sr38 have greater collision efficiencies than the mixture of β and γ-
radiation of 60Co27. This required introducing a correction factor for the lower efficiency of the NaI
scintillation shielding for 60Co27. Collision efficiency of 1/10000 of radioactive vs NaI. The
relationship: 1.06×1020 photons emitted/s/mol=1.06×1024 ⇒ 264g of scintillation molecules
required to absorb the energy of 60g of 60Co27.
60
d. Energy yield of Co27

Energy output for full life of 1kg of 60Co27= 2.63×103 MWh; half-life⇒ 1.315×103 MWh/5.3yrs =
2.481 MWh /yrs=28kWh per kg of 60Co27=1.68kWh per mol of 60Co27.

Photosynthesis

Figure 1 illustrates a possible design for a long lasting light-emitting lamp. This technology
does not require cabling, and could be useful for regions far away from electrical power lines
and/or which have not access to trained electrical engineers.

Adding scintillation and fluorescent substances together to melted glass or any convenient
translucent material, will allow manufacturing artificial crystals of different efficiency and with
light emission of different wavelengths. This, allow to obtain an emission spectra, similar to the
one generated by day-light florescent tubes, presently used for plant growing.

For its general use, the lamp has the inconvenience that it cannot be turned off. However, it
could be devised a sliding mechanism for the radioactive fiber, that would allow its shifting from a
scintillation-translucent container tube to a metal (lead) container tube.

6
Fig1.Radioisotope excited scintillation lamps. a) Glass fiber chip of encased radioactive isotope and
scintillation mixture showing Beta Decay, with atomic disintegration and emitting β particles. b) Being
introduced into a translucent cylinder made of additional layers of scintillation substances, like sodium
iodine (NaI), after excited molecules return to ground state emit scintillation light and glows like a lamp.

If the radioactive fiber is manufactured from by-products of nuclear reactor operations, it

may require a thicker translucent container cylinder in order to prevent the radiation leak by this
waste.

Selection of scintillation systems for photosynthesis

The photon emission during the collision of the beta particle would provide a light source for
hydroponics, plant, photosynthetic bacteria, and algae growth, etc.

Plants have two reaction centers for light interaction which are called photo system I (P700)
and photo system II (P680). Excitation of the first center generates a strong reducing agent to
transfers electrons to NADP. Excitation of the second results in a strong oxidant that from water
releases oxygen. Photo system II injects electrons in the chain connecting both systems.

Figure 2: Illustrates the z-scheme. A photon converts both chlorophyll complexes (P680 and P700) into
powerful reducing agents P680* and P700*. Also shows that input of water interacts with Mn into release
of ½ O2 and protons (H+) pumped into thylakoid lumen and transfer of hydrogen and electrons (e–) to
reduce NADP from oxidized to NADPH + H+, the later turnover to oxidized is obtained by transfer of its
reducing power in the dark reactions which allows CO2 fixation (Calvin Cycle).

7
 Figure 2 shows that excitation of photo systems I and II requires illumination with light from
several wave-lengths, development of scintillation mixtures will allow light emission on the range
required to cover the full action spectra.

All these systems could be made totally independent of other forms of energy than the
radioisotopes themselves, which on the other hand, can substitute for solar panels, which could
usually operate for only the 8 hours of sun light (19). On the other hand if a plantation is divided
into 3 lot areas angling 120o each, their artificial light exposition could be triplicates by a rotating a
scintillation panel mounted on a pivot to cover each area for 8 hs. Light generated by this
technology, could be used to drive photosynthesis to obtain sustainable ecosystems (4-17).

Ecosystem solutions

One of the uses of light-transfer technology may be the replacement of solar panels which
could be expected to have a very low efficiency in Polar Regions, by the use of radioisotope lamps
manufactured in the shape of panels which could allow the development of agriculture in very cold
regions or at least to support the light requirements of greenhouses in Polar Bases.

Integrative techno-concept

This integrative techno-concept should be specifically suitable to meet energy requirements

largely independent of existing technologies. The technological impact of this reactor is that it
could be scaled down to the size of a battery. By supplying electrical power to an electrical battery
charger, it makes unnecessary to change the usual power supply connections or configurations
required for instrumental operation.

Fig. 3: Scintillation coupled to voltage control Electric power is supplied by radioisotope operated
batteries connected to this voltage amplifier. The figure shows that β-decay particles interact with the
scintillation crystal, resulting in photon emission reflected by surrounding mirror. In direct contact with the
scintillation crystal is represented the photoelectric cathode of a photomultiplier which releases electrons
when stricken by photons. The electrons are accelerated to the first anode, arriving with energy of two
hundred electron volts (V), releasing secondary electrons from its surface. Subsequent repetition of this
process results in an output of electrical current.

8
 Tandem photovoltaic elements could be use to increase efficiency, if the energy of β particles
could be more efficiently capture, by a mixture of scintillation substance generating light of more
than one wavelength. The design could be improve by using the energy generated from
radioisotopes to generate electric energy in excess, of that to be supplied to the voltage control.

Additionally, research could be extended to find cascade systems which will allow the
summation of quantum steps of scintillation, and/or phosphorescent, and/or fluorescent substances.
This may allow obtaining summation of the energy of photons of longer wavelength into emission
of more energetic photons, or obtaining systems of greater energy efficiency.

More advanced chips could be develop by incorporating boron nitride crystals (hBN) highly
resistant to heat with emission of a λ = 215 nm (nanometers) at room temperature (19), UV
radiation may be suitable in vacuum to propel solar sails. The design task would be to transfer
energy along optical fiber to stimulate laser devices.

One additional example could be that production of light by these lamps may allow
generation of electricity from hydrogen gas, or enhance its propulsion power by producing two
dissociation pathways, of opposite parity which entangle and lead to correlations in the directions
followed by the resulting proton, electron and atom (20).

Heat dissipation

These and subsequent electrical power figures had not been corrected for heat-losses
decreasing efficiency. The latter should be determined experimentally. Losses by dissipation of
energy as heat through a cooling system could be connected to a heat system for maintenance of
the environmental temperature within spatial exploratory vehicles.

The material selected to contain the radioisotopes could be given different shapes to facilitate
heat-dissipation. It is suggested to manufacture long fibers to be cut accordingly to its end use. For
small sizes, heat exchange with surrounding air will provide enough refrigeration. For such a
purpose radioactive fibers could be bended and pleated and/or turned around over itself taking care
of leaving enough distance in order to allow an easier air-cooling effect.

For a larger radioisotope core, the refrigeration could be achieved by spinning the radioactive
fiber around a circulation tube of an attached cooling system. If to match a large radioisotope core
requires a large core-enclosing scintillation shielding, this could be made of superimposed crystals
leaving between themselves enough space to form air-circulation channels. If the size of the
system reaches the need to require a liquid cooling system, this could be installed in such a way
that one of the sides has reflecting capability allowing both cooling and focusing of the emitted
light.

Engineering solutions will be able to adequate the geometry of radioactive and scintillation
crystals to allow for sufficient heat dissipation according to different operative requirements. In the
vacuum of space, rather than cooling it may be required to radiate heat into the chambers
containing instruments.

9
 Technology adaptable for interplanetary and deep-space exploration

Space exploration and colonization of other worlds requires long-lasting energy supplies
(21)(22)(23)
. However, for space agencies purposes, the half life of 90Sr38 operated photovoltaic
battery may be adequate, but its power may be insufficient, and the opposite may be true for 89Sr38.
Hence, it may be more suitable in pursue of space-exploration 60Co27.

NASA has initiated exploration outside the Solar System using probes which fall into a path
of circumvallation of the sun, to confer these spacecrafts the gravitational energy needed to escape
the solar system. The thrust thus obtained, allows speeds of the order of tens of thousands of
kilometers per hour and would take to these space probes many millenniums in reaching other
suns.

For interplanetary navigation, the use of solar sails is under development, as planed
aluminum screens would be push by the sun’s photons. This type of navigation allows constant
acceleration, with a theoretical limit of a fraction of the speed of light. However, if the spacecraft
would be moving away from the sun, the number of photons incident on the sail, would diminish
until becoming null.

As a result solar propulsion cannot be use to navigate between two solar systems. The
considerable dimension of a thermonuclear plant would require solar sails with the sizes of many
square kilometers. The solution is to replace the thermonuclear plant by a luminescence-nuclear
one, in which the energy of non fissionable radioisotopes like strontium-90 would be transformed
by scintillation crystals on light flashing directly on the sails.

The engineering of this system could be expected to result in considerable smaller sails,
allowing much smaller development costs by using toy-sized prototypes.

Scintillation lamps in deep space could provide radiation pressure to compensate for the one
diminishing from the Sun. If required, two spacecrafts could cross-direct their own laser ray to
provide impulse to the other craft’s sail, as a solution to requirement of an outside source of power.

These lasers could maintain continuous acceleration, if achieving an increase of 10 meters

per second every second, in a few years may allow reaching a significant percentage of the
velocity of light. Hence, allowing in not to many years to reach another solar system, at velocities
that could never be achieved using gravitational navigation.

Planetary exploratory vehicles may take advantage of atomic reactors of reduced size and
weight, which are suitable to be used as batteries with an operative life-spam close to the half-life
of a radioisotope. Example: One kg of 60Co27 plus the weight of the energy generating crystals may
weight less than 5kg, providing almost 27 kWh / h decreasing to half after 5 yrs.

If a photovoltaic battery based in 60Co27 is coupled to an electric motor its lasting operational
life and power could be favorably compared to a robot vehicle (about 45kg.), operated by remote
control with energy derived from a lithium battery, whose full operative life is only of several
hours.

A life support system consisting of a small plant for electrolytic decomposition of water, can
be operated by these batteries since about 5Kwh could produce 1m3 of hydrogen and a ½ m3 of

10
oxygen per hour. A system like this could also save weight by converting waste water into an
oxygen supply and hydrogen that can be use as a propulsive fuel.

Life-support systems

These are usually based in the use of oxygen tubes and alkaline fixation of CO2, add
excessive weight and have limited life-spam and therefore are not too adequate for long voyages or
in supporting human colonies in the Moon or planets. The preceding systems could be replaced by
electrolysis generating oxygen or photosynthesis that will produce a renewable atmosphere which
will not only restore the level of oxygen but also, concomitantly decrease the level of CO2. These
objectives could also be achieved by the use of Solar Panels, although their size is much greater
than the a scintillation lamp, still, these could be easily adapted to provide light for photosynthesis,
but become increasingly inefficient when further away from the Sun.

Conclusions

For many radioisotopes shielding by scintillation molecules within the crystal itself could be
sufficient to trap most of the β-radiation or γ-radiation covered by a crystal of enough thickness,
resulting in negligible radiation leak.
Shielding by scintillation glasses should be considered as an innovative replacement to shielding
by lead. Uninterrupted glowing could be an advantage if saving in light expenses is desirable.

Comparative safety

Nuclear reactors could also be used as a source of energy for electrical lamps, but their size
and cost may limit their use. Moreover, a spaceship that would be required to travel to planet Mars
for a round trip of about 3 year or more may expose the crew to unhealthy and unacceptable levels
of radiation unless the atomic reactor is heavily shielded. The long lasting scintillation lamp will
add much less weight; because these could be designed to adjust to any scale, moreover the
scintillation crystal provides a lighter and more efficient shielding.

Comparative cost

The characteristic previously described allows that a small scintillation nuclear plant could be
made significantly cheaper that one similar size heat-transfer atomic reactors and could be easily
designed to meet safety and health requirements. The needs of a human colony outside earth will
certainly include a nuclear reactor but its operation will yield radioactive waste products, which
could be utilized as previously described.

Relation to the present state of knowledge

The world expanding energy needs indicates that is required to engineer ways and means for
extensive use of radioisotopes. These could make a significant contribution by adding a
supplementary energy source and also by alleviating the difficult problem of radioactive disposal.
Expansion of this technology may require studying systems that will allow efficient light
transmission through optical fiber-power lines. The development of Photon confinement systems is
required to allow storage of electromagnetic radiation to fill the role of capacitors.

11
References:

1.IRVING, Kaplan, ¨Nuclear Physics¨, E. Addison Wesley.

2.KLIMOV, ¨Nuclear Physics and Nuclear Reactors¨, Ed. MIR.
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Sr/chem.html
3.Dr. Lide (ed.) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 1999-2000: A Ready-Reference Book
of Chemical and Physical Data (CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics). CRC Press, USA,
79th edition, 1998.
4.BENNUN, A. and AVRON, M., The relation of the light-dependent and light-triggered
adenosine triphosphatases to photophosphorylation,. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 109, pp. 117-
127 (1965).
5.BENNUN, A., A model mechanism for coupled phosphorylation, (1974). In Proc. 3rd
International Congress Photosynthesis, Rehovoth (Mordhay Avron Ed.), Vol. 2, pp. 1107-1120,
Elsevier Science Publisher Co., Amsterdam.
6.BENNUN, A., Hypothesis for coupling energy transduction with ATP synthesis or ATP
hydrolysis, (1971). Nature New Biology, Vol. 233, No. 35, pp. 5-8.
7.BENNUN, A., Properties of chloroplast's coupling factor-1 and a hypothesis for a mechanism of
energy transduction, (1971). Proceedings First European Biophysics Congress, Baden, Austria,
1971, in “Photosynthesis, Bioenergetics, Regulation, Origin of Life” (E. Broda, A. Locker and H.
Sprínger-Lederer Eds.), Vol. IV, pp. 85-91, Wiener Medizinischen Akademíe, Vienna, Austria.
8.BENNUN, A., The unitary hypothesis on the coupling of energy transduction and its relevance
to the modeling of mechanisms, (1974). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 227,
pp. 116-145. A. B 10

9.Bennun, Alfredo and Avron, Mordhay. Light-dependent and light-triggered

adenosinetriphosphatases in chloroplasts.. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 19, 646-648. (1964)
10. Bennun, A. and Blum, J.J. Properties of the induced acid phosphatase and of the
constitutive acid phosphatase of Euglena.. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 125, 106-123. (1966)
11. Bennun, A. and Racker, E. Partial resolution of the enzymes catalyzing
photophosphorylation IV. Interaction of coupling factor I from chloroplast with components of the
chloroplast membrane.. J. Biol. Chem. 244, 1325-1331. (1969)
12. Stoppani, A.O.M., Ramos, E.H., Widuczynski, I., Bennun, A., and De Pahn, E.M. The
effect of 2,4 - dinitrophenol on the oxidation of endogenous and exogenous substrates by the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Vol. 1, pp. 241-252 (1962). Proc. Conf., Mexico City, 1961 in "Use of
Radioisotopes in Animal Biology and the Medical Sciences" (C.M. Fried et al., eds.) ,
Academic Press, London.
13. Stoppani, A.O.M., Bennun, A., and De Pahn, E.M. Effect of DNP on the metabolism of
phosphates in Saccharomyces cerevisiae pp. 59-68. Symp. of the inter-Am. Nuclear Energy
Commission, Valparaiso, 1964, in "5th inter-American Symposium on the Peaceful
Application of Nuclear Energy." J.D. Perkinson, and the Secretariat of IANEC, , Organization
of American States, Washington, D.C. (1965)
14. Bennun, A. Interaction of the chloroplast coupling factor with protons and water pp. 254-
264. Congreso Argentino de Ciencias Biologicas, 1970 in "Recientes adelantos en Biología"
(J.A. Moguilllevsky and R. Mejía, eds.) , Univ. of Buenos Aires Press. (1971)
15. Bennun, A. Properties of chloroplast's coupling factor-1 and a hypothesis for a mechanism
of energy transduction Vol. IV. pp. 85-91. Proceedings First European Biophysics Congress,
Baden, Austria, 1971. In “ Photosynthesis, Bioenergetics, Regulation, Origin of Life” (E.

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Broda, A. Locker, and H. sprínger-Lederer, eds.), Wiener Medizinischen Akademíe, Vienna.
(1971)
16. Bennun, A. and Bennun, N. Hypothesis for a mechanism of energy of energy transduction.
Sigmoidal kinetics of chloroplast's heat-activated ATPase. Vol. 2, 1115-1124 In Proc 2nd Int
Cong. On Photosynthesis Res. (Giorgio Fortí, Mordhay Avron and, Andrea Melardri, eds.), Dr.
W. Junk N.V. Pub.,The Hague. (1972)
17. Bennun, A. A model mechanism for coupled phosphorylation Vol. 2 pp. 1107-1120.
Proc. 3rd Int. Cong. Photosynthesis, Rehovoth (M.Avron, ed.) Elsevier Sci. Pub. Co.
Amsterdam. (1974)
18. F. Martin, J.; Fernandez T.; Havermeier, L.; Foucar, Th.; Weber, K.; Kreidi, L.; Schmidt,
T.; Jahnke, O.; Jagutzki, A.; Czasch, E. P.; Benis, T.; Osipov, A. L.; Landers, A.; Belkacem, M.
H.; Prior, H.; Schmidt-Bocking, C. L.; Cocke, R.; Dorner, “Single Photon-Induced Symmetry
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August 2007).
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Addendum

Comparative energy yield of radio isotopes vs. carbon combustion

The energy equivalence for each radioisotope calculated as a percentage of 235U92 to emphasize the
large energies involved.
Energy equivalence of 235 g 235U92 expressed as metric tons of carbon: 2.62×103 tons.
1 kg of 235U92 releases an equivalent (in electric power) ≅ 23,900 M Wh.

ESr-90 / EU per atom decay: ESr-90 : 2.8 MeV / EU : 2.11×102 MeV = 1.32%.
Energy equivalence of 90g of 90Sr38 in metric tons of carbon: 90.39 tons.
Molar relationship: 235g (235U92)/ 90g (90Sr38) = 2.61.
Percentage: ESr-90 / EU for molar relationships: 1.32%×2.61= 3.45%.
1kg of 90Sr38 full life: 824.5M Wh.

ESr-89 / EU per atom decay: ESr-89: 1.481 MeV / EU : 2.11×102 MeV = 0.71%.
Energy equivalence of 89 g of 89Sr38 in metric tons of carbon: 48.99 tons.
Molar relationship: 235g (235U92)/ 89g (89Sr38) = 2.64.
Percentage ESr-89 / EU for molar relationships: 0.71%×2.64= 1.87%.
1kg of 89Sr38 full life: 447M Wh.

13
Techno idea was previously submitted as Proposals:

“Integrative design for radio nuclear power-transfer by light to batteries”

Transmittal Letter or Prefatory Material
Phase I- Advanced Aeronautical/Space Concept Studies - NIAC CP 05-01. Refer by NASA to
DARPA, 03/16, 2007.

Radioisótopos como fuente de energía transferible por centelleo lumínico para operar sistemas
fotovoltaicos diseñados para escalas mayores o menores que una batería

Fundacion Argentina de Nanotecnologia (FAN) formulario para la presentacion de ideas-proyectos

(convocatoria 2006).

Alfred Bennun PhD.

Full Professor of Biochemistry (R)

Full Member Graduate Programs in the Molecular Biosciences - Rutgers - UMDNJ
647 E. 14th St. Apt. 2G
New York, NY 10009

14
Addendum to: “Integrative-design of radio-nuclear source shielded with scintillation
crystals for sustainable light-powering of photovoltaic cells”

Table 5: Comparative power of non-fissionable nuclear reactors

Radioisotopes Agency Maximum power Used Mass

(Kg) (Kg)
Thermal (W) Electric
(W)
Pu-238 NASA: Voyager 2 2400 160 4.5 39
Pu-238 ESA: Galileo 4400 300 7.8 55.5
Sr-90 Soviet 230 10 0.26 560
Scintillation crystals Scintillation Electric
(W) (W)
Sr-90 Project 433 87 0.26 1
Sr-89 Project 47780 9556 0.26 2
Co-60 Project 7280 1456 0.26 1.5
 Biomolecular/medicine

Nor-Adrenaline Activation of Adenylate Cyclase Modulates Memory Pathways.

Overexposure to epinephrine inactivates adenylate-cyclase causing stress-related

pathologies.

Dr. Alfred Bennun

Graduate Schools of Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey (R)
alfr9@hotmail.com
www.alfredobennun.com.ar

Abstract

Brydon-Golz, Ohanian and Bennun-Graduate Programs of Rutgers University (1) –

demonstrated that, by incubating with nor-adrenaline isolated membranes of rat’s brain
corpus striatum and cortex, initially appears an activator effect of the neurotransmitter on
these adenylate-cyclase preparations (AC). However, the prolongation of the incubation
time turns the enzyme unstable and inactive.

The adenylate-cyclase characterization, as activated by adrenalines and inhibit by

calcium, suggest that, at the physiological nervous cell level, after the initiation of the
change of membrane potential, the neurotransmitter activating AC generates intracellular
cyclic AMP. Thereafter, calcium entrance inhibits the enzyme. The increment of cyclic
AMP, activates kinases and their protein phosphorylating activity. This would result in
cell modifications that eventually lead to the required conformation to form neuronal
circuits’.

Introduction

A cell cAMP pathway and related metabolic interactions (Fig. A), allows to
postulate, that in the brain, adenylate cyclase activity by constituting the formative
pathways for emotional neuronal circuits, modulates emotional perception and emotional
memory. These, are subject to brain control through adrenaline and nor adrenaline levels.

Therefore, this conform pathways contributing to the integration of overall

emotional intelligence. The level of adrenalines and the exposition time of some tissues
to these, are incremented by stress. Thus stress, through the destabilizing and inhibitor
effect of these hormones on AC modifies the enzyme itself, and its ability to control brain
cells activity and feedback response. This, leads to pathologies of psychosomatic
etiology.

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Fig. A: Illustration of a cell cAMP pathway. Illustrate that modulating neurons, unloads
the nor-adrenaline neurotransmitter, in its synapses with a neuron and how beta-blockers presence (an
administered drug), prevents the nor-adrenaline physiologic agent to fulfill its function. Activation of nor-
adrenaline receptor associated to adenylate-cyclase, results in transformation of the substrate MgATP, into
cyclic AMP, which regulates biochemical pathways.

Results

Purpose: It was assumed that the molecular characterization of brain tissue

adenylate-cyclase permits in an isolated system, to measure response to the adrenalines,
for a biochemical simulation of this enzyme physiological response to stress.

Incubatory techniques: Rat brain’s isolated membranes of corpus striatum (a)

and cortex (b), had been incubated at 25 C° during 60 minutes at pH 7.4, with the
indicated concentration of MgCl2 ( graphic 1: 10 mM-MgCl2 and 15 mM-MgCl2;
graphic 2: 10 mM-MgCl2 and 20 mM-MgCl2) and constant lmM-ATP (Sigma product
Chemical Co. Obtained from horse’s muscles, containing 96% of ATP, 2% of GTP and
minimum quantity of others nucleotides), plus additions indicated on tests.

2
Graphic 1: Nor-adrenaline effect on the activation of adenylate-cyclase of
cerebral corpus striatum. Basal (without addition) + adrenaline (+0.1 mM-noradrenaline) and +
adrenaline + calcium (+ 0.1 mM-noradrenaline and 0.3 mM- CaCl2). It’s been determinate the cAMP
(cyclic AMP) formed and it is expressed by activity units (nmol of cAMP formed by hour/gr of proteins in
the particle preparation of the membrane).

Graphic 2: Nor-adrenaline effect on the activation of adenylate-cyclase of

cerebral cortex. Basal (without addition) + adrenaline (+0.1 mM-noradrenaline) and + adrenaline +
calcium (+ 0.1 mM-noradrenaline and 0.3 mM- CaCl2). It’s been determinate the cAMP (cyclic AMP)
formed and it is expressed by activity units (nmol of cAMP formed by hour/gr of proteins in the particle
preparation of the membrane).

3
 Graphics 1 and 2 show increment of cyclic AMP production as a response to
adenylate-cyclase activation by nor-adrenaline, and a decrease of cyclic AMP by
inhibition of the enzyme by the calcium addition.

Consequently, enzyme activation could be characterized like the molecular

answer to the stimuli, mediated by the adrenalines known as “fight or flight”, and/or the
initial step on the formation of emotional memory (2) (3) (4) (5). Calcium unloads within the
brain cells, to inhibit the enzyme and terminate the activator impulse initiated by the
neurotransmitter.

Graphic 3: Destabilizing effect on adenylate cyclase by overexposure to

nor-adrenaline. Isolated membranes of rat brain cortex were pre-incubated at 38 C during 3 hours
at pH 7.4 with the indicated additions from 1 to 5. Once the pre-incubation ends, membranes were washed
and re-incubated under the same conditions described for graphics 1 and 2. After the pre-incubatory and the
incubatory period, the residual adenylate-cyclase activity was measured in absence of adrenaline- or basal
conditions- (1 to 5-ligth bars), and with addition 0.1 mM nor-adrenaline (1 to 5 dark bars).

Graphic 3 show that the enzymatic activity has a notably decrease during the pre
incubation period with nor-adrenaline

Thus, it could be infer that the enzyme pre-incubated with nor-adrenaline for a
long period of time (2: 0,5 mM Nor-adrenaline), acquires a more unstable configuration,
because the adrenaline-enzyme complex, it’s more sensitive to the inactivating effect of
the incubation temperature (1), than the configuration of enzyme alone (1: Buffer/control)

The pre-incubation of the enzyme, with a saturating substrate concentration,

measures protection on the active and regulatory center, by formation of the enzyme
substrate complex (3: 5 mM Mg ATP). This pre-incubation, activated by three-folds the

4
enzyme by formation of the substrate MgATP-enzyme complex, show that the enzyme
MgATP protection against the inactivity effect of the nor-adrenaline.

On the other hand, it also shows that, if the enzyme had been pre-incubated with
buffer alone or buffer plus Mg (5: 5 mM MgSO4), the enzyme keeps considerable
activity.

Enzymes maintain cell levels by continuous synthesis, opposed to the

inactivation, in certain cases a thermal phenomenon. In the test tube, acceleration of the
thermal effect, by the stress hormone adrenaline, is not compensated by its synthesis, and
the enzyme level would show more clearly, the accelerated decrease.

In terms of the physiologic role of observed molecular relationship, pre-

incubation with buffer alone, would correspond with a partial or total starvation,
decreasing intracellular ATP. Therefore, lack of ATP could decrease resistance to stress,
pathological condition that afflicts patients with nervous anorexia syndrome.

In children’s development, could be predicted from the data that alimentary

insufficiency, will retard learning link to emotional memory (2). This effect has great
social impact, because it would decrease the children efficiency at learning, and it would
affect cerebral development leading to lower their intellectual coefficient.

Beta-blockers mechanism, like propanolol action in the pharmacologic receptor

for noradrenaline (denominated norepinefrine in the U.S.A.), can be explained by its
antagonistic binding to the adrenaline receptor, which controls the activity of the
adenylate-cyclase enzyme (1)(6)(7)(8)(9)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(17)(18).

The Beta-blockers, when antagonizing the adrenaline binding to adenylate

cyclase, mitigate or attenuate the effects on cells of the circulating adrenalines in blood,
or in the cerebral spinal fluid.

Beta-blockers are used to protect the vascular system from the effects of
adrenalines. An additional therapeutic effect may surge from protecting people from the
emotional impact associated with formation of harmful memories.

There is a short term memory, an intermediate memory and a long term memory.
The beta-blocker, if given before formation of long term memory, could diminish the
intensity of the association between perception of the event and traumatic bodily
response, like tachycardia, etc. Therefore, allowing an scenario turning emotional
memory, into a factual memory.

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 Discussion

Beta-blockers, as competing with adrenalines, block molecular way that involves

the enzyme activated by adrenalines, in the cellular activity control of several weaves.
In beta-blockers absence, adrenalines activation leads to an increment of cyclic
intracellular AMP (1).

Fig. B: Cyclic AMP modulator effects. Inside the pre-synapse neuron, cyclic AMP, the
second messenger, activates protein kinase, which uses ATP, to produce phosphorylated proteins and/or
enzymes, which change from inactive to active or vise verse. These conform a neuronal pathway leading to
changes on a neuron, which could condition its answer to subsequent stimulus, and therefore, they conform
ways to memory formation.

Latter studies, agree on that a cascade of molecular events induces structural

changes, intensifying or debilitating the nervous cells connectivity, which would be the
sustenance of the long term memory (2) (3).

These studies, agree on that, in the memory affirmation, there are two different
phases: the cell mechanism, that establish the changes fixation in the force of neuronal
connection previously described; and those who reorganize and restructures the circuits
that recuperate and store memories (3)(4)(5).

6
 Then, the noradrenaline activated way (1) and the mediated by acetylcholine way
(3) (4)
, are differentiable systems of memory, functionally separated, but integrated for
conscious memory capability (2). Thus, the emotional way configures the possibility of
acquiring skills, habits, affects and aversions, etc. (2) (3) (4) (5). The spinal-brain barrier
separates blood from cerebral spinal fluid. The locus cereleus is rich in neurons uploading
nor-adrenaline at the synapse, and it’s been related with conducts disorders, like panic,
avoidance, etc.

Stress response of fat cells mediated by the metabolite-modulation of adenylate-

cyclase

The emotional pathway, in the reaction of stress, stimulates the adrenal glandule
to produce adrenaline in blood, activating the adenylate cyclase in tissues like fat tissue,
heart, etc. The adenylate cyclase of fat tissue (EC 4.6.1.1; ATP pyrophosphate-lyase
(cyclizing)), responds to the adrenaline stimuli in function of metabolite-modulated
interactions between active centers for substrate Mg-ATP complex, to produce cAMP
(cyclic AMP). The regulatory controls of the enzymatic activity, and its answer to
adrenaline, its exerted by free Mg2+ vs. free ATP4-, since their equilibrium allows
modulator effects in a receptor site for Mg2+, acting like a sensor of energetic
availability.

Excess of ATP4- or citrate-1, indicates that the intracellular level of energetic

reserves is high and, in the case of the fat cells, saturation of the ATP site inhibits the
stimulatory effect of the lipolytic hormones: ACTH and the stress hormones glucagon
and l-adrenaline, by decreasing their affinity for the enzyme. Inactivation of the adenylate
cyclase shifts the cells metabolic response to triglycerides synthesis
(10)(16)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)
. Metabolic-dependent changes in the concentration of ATP could
be amplified therefore, by changing the ionic equilibria participate in the metabolic
integrative control of the hormonal responsiveness of the adipocyte´s adenylate-cyclase.

An excess of ionic Mg2+, results from a low level of the chelating metabolites
which are intermediates of glucolysis. Saturation by free Mg2+, of the regulatory site
magnifies the affinity of the enzyme for the stress hormones.

Can metabolites by modulating activity and stability of the adrenaline response to

A-C affects animal longevity?

The study of longevity consistently shows that over-alimentation decreases in

more than half, the average of life expectancy of the studied animals. Sub-alimentation
prolongs the life expectancy, with respect to control animals. The enzymes adenylate
cyclase and insulin receptor tyrosine-kinase are characterized as being inhibited by
ATP4- concentration in excess of free Mg2+. At similar concentration, the chelating
interaction of ATP with Mg, forms ATPMg allowing little dissociation, and therefore
decreasing the ionic form (Mg2+), suppressing the activator effect of these hormones in
the enzymes. The condition of ATP4- in excess reinforces inhibition by absence of

7
Mg2+. The latter relationship would be present in over-fed animals, and would decrease
the response to stress, a possible explanation of over-eating as a defense mechanism to
emotional stress. On the other hand, tendency to sub-alimentation would lead to nervous
anorexia.

Conclusions

In the essay tube, the enzyme activated by noradrenaline, would physiologically

function to conform a pathway of emotional memory formation, and decrease of its
activity by blockers may alter the link between emotion and memory . The mind is
considered responsible, through maintaining the increment of adrenaline hormones
during an extended period of stress, for producing somatic illnesses, that not only affects
the brain, but alternatively others organs.

As demonstrated noradrenaline action in the test tube, is not only to activate the
enzyme, but also destroy it because of its prolonged action, it could be proposed as the
molecular mechanism of the physiological responses. This would be equivalent to a
molecular connection between mind and body, or in other words, the place for
psychosomatic effects, as mind producing over exposition to noradrenaline of the enzyme
molecules, part of the soma or body.

This connection would function by mind increasing secretion of adrenaline,

initially stimulating the enzyme, but latter destroying the enzyme, by prolonged
expositions of the enzyme, in excess of the cell capacity to restore it.

This would be the base for psychosomatic illnesses (1) (7), and corresponds to the
observed model of psychosomatics illnesses progress, which shows at first, a hipper
functionability followed by a hippo functionability.

Applied to a psychologically disease, this would be equivalent to anxiety followed

by depression. Analogous evolution of other disorders, affecting other tissues like
thyroid, would be a hipper thyroid stimulation followed by hippo thyroid function.

Molecular level studies are concordant with those at the organism level, since
they demonstrate that, if adrenaline is blocked by propranolol, it has a psychotherapeutic
activity. The effects of Beta-Blockers can be explained at molecular level, because by
antagonizing the union between noradrenaline and enzyme associated receptor, the active
center of the latter becomes blocked. In this way, beta-blockers lessen emotional
consequences dependent on adrenaline, during traumatic experiences. In the absence of
blockers, the stress effects prolong the adrenaline action even further than its activator
function, since overtime has an inactivating effect on the adenylate cyclase enzyme. This
overexposure, would causes dysfunctions in capabilities like thinking, planning,
judgment and memory (2)(3)(4). Consequently, beta-blockers administration would be
efficient by its preventive action, rather than showing curative action (5).

8
References

1. Brydon-Golz, S., Ohanian, H. y Bennun, A., Effects of Noradrenaline on the

Activation and the Stability of Brain Adenilate-Cyclase, Biochemical Journal 166, 1977,
p. 473-483
2. Goleman, D., La Inteligencia Emocional, Editorial Javier Vergara, Buenos Aires,
2000
3. Candau, J., Antropología de la Memoria, Editorial Nueva Visión, Buenos Aires,
11
2002
4. Eichenbaum, H., Neurociencia cognitiva de la memoria, Editorial Ariel, Buenos
Aires, 2003
5. Stein, R., Is Every Memory Worth Keeping?, in The Washington Post, October, 19,
2004
6. Ohanian, H., Borhanian, K. y Bennun, A., the Effect of Manganese on the
Regulation of Brain Adenylate-Cyclase by Magnesium and ATP, Biochem. Soc. Trans. 6,
1978, p. 1179-11827.
7.Ohanian, H., Borhanian, K., De Farias, S. and
BENNUN, A., A Model for the Regulation of Brain Adenylate-Cyclase by Ionic
Equilibria, Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes Vol. 13, 1981, Nos. 5/6, p. 317-
355
8. Bennun, A., Hypothesis for a Biochemical Memory Pathway IUB, in Ninth
International Congress of Biochemistry, Abstract Book Dc 27, Stockholm, 1973, p. 459
9. Bennun, A., the Unitary Hypothesis and the Relationship of Enzyme Modification
to the Pathophysiology of Membranes, Biochemistry / Biophysics, Meeting Abstracts,
Fed. Proc. 33, 1974, p. 1528
10. Harris, R.H. y Bennun, A., Integration of Hormone-Dependent Effects of
Adenylate-Cyclase, Abstracts American Chemical Society 168th Meeting Biol. 130, 1974
11. Bennun, A. y Brydon-Golz, S., Norepinephrine and the Pathophysiology of
Neuronal Membranes, Biophysical Journal 15, No. 2, 1975, p. 49a
12. Ohanian, H. y Bennun, A. Regulation of the Responsiveness to Calcium of
Hypothalamic Adenylate-Cyclase, Fed. Procedures 39 (6), 1980, p. 2106
13. Cruz, R. A., Menéndez, S. y Bennun, A., the Role of Energy Charge in
Regulation of Brain Adenylate-Cyclase Activity, Bulletin of New Jersey Academy of
Sciences 29, 1984, p. 29-30
14. Brydon-Golz, S. y Bennun, A., Relevance of the Alteration of Thresholds of
Adenylate-Cyclase Response, Abstracts Papers of American Chemistry Society, 17Oth
Meeting, Biol. Chem., 1975, p. 165
15. Brydon-Golz, S. y Bennun, A., Regulation of Thresholds of Adenylate-Cyclase
Response, Biophysical Journal 16, No. 2, Part 2, 1976, p. 190a
16. Harris, R., Cruz, R. y Bennun, A., Calcium and Calcium-ATP Interactions with
Adenylate-Cyclase, Federation Procedures 37, 1978, p. 1789
17. Ohanian, H., Borhanian, K. y Bennun, A., the Effect of the Equilibrium
Concentrations of Metal and ATP on Adenylate-Cyclase, Abstracts of American

9
Chemistry Society, 176th National Meeting Biology 51, 1978
18. Brydon-Golz, S. y Bennun, A., Post-synthetic Stabilized Modification of
Adenylate-Cyclase by Metabolites, Biochemistry Soc. Trans. 3, 1975, p. 721-724
19. Harris, R. y Bennun, A., Hormonal Control of Fat Cells Adenylate-Cyclase,
Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 13, 1976, p. 141-146
20. Harris, R., Cruz, R. y Bennun, A., the Effect of Hormones on Metal and
Metal-ATP Interactions with Fat Cell Adenylate-Cyclase, Biosystems 11, 1979, p. 29-46
21. Harris, R., Cruz, R. y Bennun, A., Metal and ATP Interactions with
Adenylate-Cyclase, Biophysical Journal 21, 1978, p. 14a
22. Cruz, R., Batista, V. y Bennun, A., Integration of Hormonal and Endogenous
Regulation of Adenylate-Cyclase, The l4th Annual Minority Biomedical Research
Support Symposium, by National Institute of Health, New Orleans, April 16-22, 1986,
12 NBRS Book of Abstracts, Comm. 63, p. 8-11
23. Cruz, R., Batista, V. y Bennun, A., the Integration of Hormones, Mg2+ and
Ca2+ on the Regulation of Adenylate-Cyclase, NIR Centennial MBRS-Marc
Symposium, Arlington, Virginia, Oct. 1-3, 1987, Book of Abstracts, Comm. 317, p. 72
24. Batista, V., Cruz, R. y Bennun, A., Divalent Metals and Hormones in the
Control of Adenylate-Cyclase Activity, NIR Centennial MBRS-Marc Symposium,
Arlington, Virginia, Oct. 1-3, 1987, Book of Abstracts, Comm. 317, p. 71

10