Experiment # 1

Objective:
To measure the following parameters of op-amp

 Input bias current

 Input offset current
 Input offset voltage
 Slew rate

Apparatus:
i. Op-amp
ii. Resistors
iii. Capacitors
iv. Signal generator
v. CRO
vi. Dual power supply
vii. Bread board
viii. Connecting wires

Theory:
Input bias current:
Input bias current is defined as average of currents entering the input
terminals of an Op-amp. Typically these currents are of the order of nano amperes. Let I1 and I2 be the
currents entering the input terminals of an Op-amp the input bias current is given by

Ib = (I1+I2)/2

Input offset current:

Offset current is defined as difference of bias currents entering the input
terminals of an Op-amp. Typically these currents are of the order of nano amperes. Let I1 and I2 be the
currents entering the input terminals of an Op-amp the input bias current is given by

If = (I1-I2)
Input offset voltage:
Input offset voltage is the voltage applied at the input terminals of an Op-
amp to make output zero, typically of the order of milli volts.

Slew rate:
It is the maximum rate at which output can change in an op-amp. It is one of the major limitations in an
op-amp. It is expressed in volt/second. The output gets distorted if the rate at which output changes
exceeds slew rate.
Circuit diagrams:
Input bias 1 current:

Input bias 2 current:

Input offset current:

Input offset voltage:

Slew rate:
Procedure:
Input bias current
I. Connect the circuit.
II. Measure the output voltage from which the inverting input bias current can be calculated as
III. Ib(-ive)=Vo/Rf
IV. Connect the circuit.
V. Measure the output voltage from which the non-inverting input bias current can be calculated
as
VI. Ib(+ive)=Ro/Rf
VII. Average of magnitude of both Ib(-ive) and Ib(+ive) gives the input bias current.

Input offset current

I. Connect the circuit.
II. Measure the output voltage using multimeter.
III. Calculate the offset current as Ios=Vo/Rf.

Input offset voltage

I. Connect the circuit.
II. Measure the output voltage as using multimeter.
III. Calculate offset voltage as Vos=Vo/(1+Rf/R1).

Slew rate
i. Give the square wave input from the signal generator.
ii. Increase the frequency slowly until the output is just barely a triangular wave.
iii. Calculate sew rate as SR= (del V /del t).
 Question and answers
What is the input bias current?
The average of the currents entering the negative input and positive input of an op-amp is called input
bias current.

Why do we use composition resistor?

In a bipolar op-amp circuit, even when the input is zero, the output will not be zero. This is due to effect
of input bias current. this effect can be compensated by using composition resistor.

What is thermal drift?

In an op-amp the bias current, offset current and offset voltage changes with change in temperature.

Offset current drift is measured in nA/deg C and offset voltage drift is measured in mV/deg C.these
indicate the change in offset current or voltage for each degree Celsius change in temperature.

Why is IC471 op-amp not used for high frequency applications?

Op-amp IC471 has very low slew rate and therefore cannot be used for high frequency applications.

What is unity gain circuit?

Voltage follower is called unity gain circuit. The circuit does not amplify and provides constant gain of
unity.
 Experiment # 2
Objective:
To construct and test the performance of an inverting and non inverting amplifier using IC471.

Apparatus:
i. Dual power supply
ii. Bread board
iii. Connecting wires
iv. Resistors
v. IC471
vi. Signal generator
vii. CRO

Theory:
Inverting amplifier:
Inverting amplifier is an amplifier which is used to amplify the input signal
and invert the input signal. Gain of inverting amplifier is as follows

Gain=-R1/R2

Non-inverting amplifier:
Non-inverting amplifier is an amplifier which is used to amplify the
input signal. Gain of non-inverting amplifier is as follows

Gain=1+R1/R2
Circuit diagram:
Inverting amplifier:

Non-inverting amplifier:

Calculations and observations:

Inverting amplifier
Sr. Input Output
No. Voltage Voltage
1 5 volt 13.2 volt
Non-inverting amplifier
Sr. Input Output
No. Voltage voltage
1 5 volt 9.2 volt

Output of inverting amplifier:

Output of non-inverting amplifier:

Procedure:
Inverting amplifier
i. Connect the circuit as shown in the
ii. Give input to the amp using signal generator.
iii. Now check the output voltage using voltmeter and the inverted signal on CRO.

Non-inverting amplifier
i. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
ii. Give input to the amplifier using signal generator.
iii. Now check the output voltage using voltmeter and non inverted form of input signal on the
CRO.

Questions and answers

Define an operational amplifier?
An operational amplifier is a direct coupled, high gain amplifier consisting of one or more differential
amplifier .by properly selecting the external components, it can be used to perform a variety of
mathematical operations.

Mention the characteristics of an operational amplifier?

i. Open loop voltage gain is infinity
ii. Input impedance is infinity
iii. Output impedance is zero
iv. Zero offset
v. Bandwidth is infinity

Define input offset voltage?

A small voltage applied to the input terminals to make the output voltage as zero when the two input
terminals are grounded is called input offset voltage.

Define input offset current?

The difference between the bias currents at the input terminals of the op-amp is called input offset
current.
 Experiment # 3
Objective:
To construct and test the performance of an integrator and differentiator using IC741.

Apparatus:
i. Dual power supply
ii. Resistors
iii. Regulated power supply
iv. IC471
v. AFO
vi. Capacitors
vii. CRO
viii. Connecting wires

Theory:
Op-amp integrator:
Operational amplifier can be configured to perform calculus operations
such as differentiation and integration. In an integrating circuit, the output is the integration of the input
voltage with respect to time. A passive integrator is a circuit which does not use any active devices like
op-amps or transistors. An integrator circuit which consists of active devices is called an Active
integrator. An active integrator provides a much lower output resistance and higher output voltage than
is possible with a simple RC circuit.

Op-amp differentiating and integrating circuits are inverting amplifiers, with appropriately placed
capacitors. Integrator circuits are usually designed to produce a triangular wave output from a square
wave input. Integrating circuits have frequency limitations while operating on sine wave input signals.
Op-amp Integrator Applications:
i. Op-amp integrating amplifiers are used to perform calculus operations in analogue
computers.
ii. Integrating circuits are most commonly used in analogue-to-digital converters, ramp
generators and also in wave shaping applications.
iii. Another application would be to integrate a signal representing water flow, producing a
signal representing the total quantity of water that has passed by the flow meter. This
application of an integrator is sometimes called a totalizer in the industrial
instrumentation trade.

Op-amp differentiator:
An op-amp differentiator or a differentiating amplifier is a circuit
configuration which produces output voltage amplitude that is proportional to the rate of change of the
applied input voltage. A differentiator with the only RC network is called a passive differentiator,
whereas a differentiator with active circuit components like transistors and operational amplifiers is
called an active differentiator. Active differentiators have higher output voltage and much lower output
resistance than simple RC differentiators.

An op-amp differentiator is an inverting amplifier, which uses a capacitor in series with the input
voltage. Differentiating circuits are usually designed to respond for triangular and rectangular input
waveforms. For a sine wave input, the output of a differentiator is also a sine wave, which is out of
phase by 180o with respect to the input (cosine wave). Differentiators have frequency limitations while
operating on sine wave inputs; the circuit attenuates all low frequency signal components and allows
only high frequency components at the output. In other words, the circuit behaves like a high-pass filter.

Applications of Op-amp Differentiator

i. Differentiating amplifiers are most commonly designed to operate on triangular and
rectangular signals.
ii. Differentiators also find application as wave shaping circuits, to detect high frequency
components in the input signal.
Circuit diagram:
Integrator:

Output:
Differentiator:

Output:

Observations and calculations:

Amplitude(volts) Time period(ms)
Input 0.5 20
Differentiator output 2.9 20
Integrator output 3.5 20

Procedure:
i. First of all, took all the required apparatus.
ii. Then connect the resistors and capacitor with the IC as shown in the figure.
iii. Give dc supply to the circuit using dc power supply.
iv. Then give input using function generator.
v. At the end check the output voltage and output waveforms on the CRO of both integrator and
differentiator.
 Questions and answers
What are the applications of current sources?
Transistor current sources are widely used in analog ICs both as biasing elements and as load devices for
amplifier stages.

Justify the reasons of using current sources in integrated circuits?

 Superior insensitivity of circuit performance to power supply variations and temperature.
 More economical than resistors in terms of die area required to provide bias currents of small
value.
 When used as load element, the high incremental resistance of current source results in high
voltage gains at low supply voltages.

What is the advantage of wilder current source over constant current

source?
Using constant current source output current of small magnitude is not attainable due to the limitations
in chip area. Wilder current source is useful for obtaining small output currents. Sensitivity of wilder
current source is less compared to constant current source.

Mention the advantages of Wilson current source?

 Provides high output resistance.
 Offers low sensitivity to transistor base current.