ASSIGNMENTS

SUBMITTED BY

APARNA MARKOSE

17307005
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is your carbon footprint?

Suggest modifications to your carbon foot print.

2. Calculate the electronics waste generated per year in India and the rest of the
world.

3. Identify Bamboo species in the campus.

4. Weight of water bottle, material of cap per kg carbon emission, make statistics
of daily thrown water bottle in Pondicherry.

5. Compare GaAs Processing and Si processing.

ASSIGNMENT 1:

WHAT IS YOUR CARBON FOOT PRINT, SUGGEST MODIFICATIONS

ONE DAY CARBON FOOT PRINT

Bathing

(2 times) – 5 bucket water *2 – 600 litre

(1.5 hp motor – 14 litre / mint) - 42 mint

Electriity usage – 42 mints – total used electricity – 0.80 units

In India from coal, production of 1 unit electricity will lead to the production of 1
Kg co2

So
0.80*1= 0.80 kg of Co2

Gas
1 liter of LPG weighs 550 grammes. LPG consists for 82.5% of carbon, or 454
grammes of carbon per liter of LPG. In order to combust this carbon to CO2, 1211
grammes of oxygen is needed. The sum is then 454 + 1211 = 1665 grammes of
CO2/liter of LPG.

For cooking food for me per day, I need to use at least 1 hour 30 mints, gas
supply.
So 1.5*1.665 = 2.4975 kgs of co2
Lift

Usage of Lift in department - 4 times a day. Total usage is nearly 1 mint a day.

For 884 for capacity lift, 5.6 Kw is the power.

Total lift electricity consumption = 0.09 units

So 0.09 *1 kgs of co2 = 0.09 kgs of Co2.

Food
For 10 ton the materials to reach university – Transport- Mainly food items- For

Rice items coming from Andra Pradesh

Total distance to Pondicherry – 326 km

Mileage – 6 km/litre

1 litre diesel producing co2 = 2.68

Total co2 production = 5242.08 kg

For 1 kg food , transportation co2 foot print – 0.5242 kg

I ate nearly 0.5 kg food total. So co2 produced for that – 0.2621 kg

Per day Usage of Fan and Bulb

I nearly use 15 hour electricity and fan.

Electricity from bulb – 0.27 kwh – 0.27 units

Fan – 1.35 units

Total – 1.62

Total co2 – from electricity – 1.62 Kgs

Total Co2 Produced By Me on 19/02/2018 = 5.2696 kg

SUGGESTIONS

 Production of co2 can reduce by minimizing the usage of fan, light and water
use.
 Lift usage can avoid, it will lead to reduction of 0.09 kg of carbon dioxide
 If I can get indigenous food items, carbon foot print can reduce.
 Gas usage can be reduced by using hot box, cooker etc
ASSIGNMENT 2

CALCULATE THE ELECTRONICS WASTE GENERATED PER YEAR IN INDIA

AND THE REST OF THE WORLD.
INDIA
Actual data on generation or import of e-waste is not currently available in
India. Several studies have been conducted by various agencies to find out the
inventory of e-waste in the country. Most of these studies are based on the model of
obsolescence of electronic products, which needs to be validated with the field data. A
survey was carried out by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) during 2005. It
was estimated that 1.347 lakh MT of e-waste was generated in the country in the year
2005, which is expected to increase to about 8.0 lakh MT by 2012. During 2007,
Manufacturers’ association for Information Technology (MAIT), India and GTZ, India
had, however, carried out an inventory on e-waste, arising out of three products:
computers, mobile phones, and televisions. The total quantities of generated e-waste in
India, during 2007, were 3, 32, 979 Metric Tonnes (MT) (Computer: 56324MT,
Mobile Phones: 1655MT, and Televisions: 275000MT) (Sources: Report on “E-waste
Inventorisation in India”, MAIT-GTZ Study, 2007).

The paper I referred :

http://meity.gov.in/writereaddata/files/EWaste_Sep11_892011.pdf

Electronics Waste Generated in India at 2007 : 382979 MT

= 382979* 103 Kg

Expected Waste generation in 2011 = 467098 * 103 Kg

WORLD
The world produced nearly 54 million tons (49 miillion metric tons) of used electrical
and electronic products last year. That's an average of about 43 lbs. (20 kg), or the
weight of eight bricks, for each of the 7 billion people on Earth.

The StEP Initiative forecasts that by 2017, the world will produce about 33 percent
more e-waste, or 72 million tons (65 million metric tons). That amount weighs about
11 times as much as the Great Pyramid of Giza.

The world produced e waste = 54 million tons = 54000,000*103 kg

Expected Waste generation in 2017 = 72000,000*103 kg

The page I referred: https://www.livescience.com/41967-world-e-waste-to-grow-33-

percent-2017.html
ASSIGNMENT 3:
IDENTIFY BAMBOO SPECIES IN THE CAMPUS
1. DWARF BUDDHA BELLY BAMBOO – BAMBUSA VULGARIS
Found at DDE Lawn
Details
A very attractive ornamental with large swollen internodes and weeping culms.

Typical height: 5 to 6 m
Typical culm diameter: 12cm

Minimum temperature tolerance: -2°C

Climate: Prefers tropical or subtropical climates.

Light conditions: Full sun to part shade

Growth habit: Weeping culms, open clumping

Growing conditions: Moist, well-drained soil. Keep well mulched.
Origin: China
2. FARGESIA MURIELAE BAMBOO (UMBRELLA BAMBOO)
Found at DDE Lawn
 Details

 F. murielae is an elegant, evergreen, clump-forming bamboo with graceful,

arching yellow-green canes 2.5-3.5m high or more. Leaves lanceolate, to 10cm
in length, bright green
 Plant origin : China
3. BAMBUSA MULTIPLEX CV. GOLDEN GODDESS
I found it two three places at campus (Ecology, DDE lawn, Near Library, Physical
Education.) Ornamental type, fast growing golden colour stem.
Botanical Name: Phyllostachys aurea

Common Name:Golden BambooMaximum height: 3 metres

Cane diameter:4 cm
Will tolerate minus temp:-12°c

Shape: Bushy

Type:Clumping Bamboo
Phyllostachys aurea is cultivated as an ornamental plant for gardens. In the United
States, it is considered an invasive species that crowds out native species and is
difficult to remove.
4. BAMBUSA VULGARIS
(Infront of Green Energy Technology )
5. KARA EATA ( NOT SURE )
ASSIGNMENT 4:
WEIGHT OF WATER BOTTLE, MATERIAL OF CAP- PER KG CARBON
EMISSION, MAKE STATISTICS OF DAILY THROWN WATER BOTTLE IN
PONDICHERRY.
WEIGHT OF WATER BOTTLE, MATERIAL OF CAP , PER KG CARBON
EMISSION

Weight of Water mineral water bottle = The average PET bottled water container
weighed 18.9 grams

Cap of water bottle is mainly made up of virgin plastic.

Virgin Plastic

Virgin versus Recycled Resins. The vast majority of plasticpallets are made from
HDPE (high density polyethylene) and PP (polypropylene), and recycled HDPE and
PP.

Per kg co2 emission of water bottle

Every ton pet produce 3 ton co2.

So 1 kg PET produce 3 kg carbon dioxide

Approximate water bottle thrown in puducherry

Area of puducherry = 562 km2

Approximately every km2 area generating 20 water bottle In a day.

So total = 11240 bottles

ASSIGNMENT 5:
COMPARE GAAS PROCESSING AND SI PROCESSING.
GaAs wafer creation is done in a very controlled manner.

Growth
Several different growth techniques are used for production of III-V compound
semiconductor crystals at Wafer Technology. The growth method used depends on the
required material type and properties. Basic details of the processes used are given
below.

Horizontal Synthesis
Used for producing stoichiometric polycrystalline bars of the compounds

High purity elements (Ga, As, In and/or P) are contained within a quartz boat, sealed
in a quartz ampoule and placed into a furnace chamber. The furnace chamber is heated
up and a temperature gradient is then moved along the boat. Temperatures and
pressures are dependant on the compound being synthesised.
Vertical Gradient Freeze
Used for producing low dislocation density GaAs crystals.

Chunks of polycrystalline GaAs, produced by horizontal synthesis, are placed in a

crucible with a seed crystal of the required orientation. The crucible is then placed
vertically in a furnace and a temperature gradient is moved up the length of the crystal
(away from the seed).

Single crystal growth propagates from the seed crystal and, because the crystal forms
in the shape of the crucible, diameter control of the ingot is relatively simple.

SILICON
A typical industrial silicon furnace has a shell diameter of about 10 m. Three pre-
baked carbon electrodes, submerged into the charge materials, supply a three-phase
current that heats the charge materials up to about 2 000oC. At this temperature,
silicon dioxide is reduced to molten silicon. The furnaces are operated such that there
is a layer of solid material (outer reaction zone) on top of the molten bath (inner
reaction zone) to maximize the silicon yield. The silicon is tapped from the furnace
through a tap-hole at the bottom, and refined by slag treatment or gas purging. During
refining, inclusions are removed, and the composition is adjusted to the specified
value. Subsequent to refining, the molten alloy is allowed to cool in a mould, and then
crushed to a specific size. Metallurgical-grade silicon has a typical specification of
98.5–99.5% for Si 13. Typical impurities in metallurgical-grade silicon include
carbon, alkali-earth and transition metals, as well as boron and phosphorus14.

A by-product of the silicon smelting process is condensed silica fume. A silicon

furnace produces about 0.2 to 0.4 tons of condensed silica fume per ton of silicon
metal. The fume reports to the filter plant where it is collected. Condensed silica
fume has found a wide array of applications in industry. Figure 3 shows a typical
industrial silicon furnace.

Impurities play a vital role in silicon solar cells. Impurities such as boron and
phosphorus, in small amounts, are desirable for the formation of the p-n junction that
is necessary for electricity generation in the silicon solar cell, while other impurities
have adverse effects on solar cells. Impurities can lead to the

formation of defects, and enhance the formation of dislocations, which act as

recombination centres of photo-carriers and can compromise both mechanical and
electrical properties as well as decrease the solar cell efficiency.6,17 Moreover,
impurities in solar cells generally introduce allowed levels into the forbidden gap and
thereby act as recombination centres, and an increased density of such centres
decreases the cell efficiency.

Chemical route
The traditional Siemens process is the baseline process for the production of
polysilicon. Once the high-purity silicon has been produced, the subsequent step
involves converting it into thin sheets of good crystallographic quality, for use as solar
cells. A thickness of about 100 microns is all that is needed to obtain the photovoltaic
output from silicon18. Production of crystalline wafers can be achieved either by
ribbon growth, or a two-step process starting with ingot casting or crystallisation
followed by wafer manufacturing. Due to the overwhelming dominance of the latter
process, and the minimal impact of the former process in industry, focus will be given
to the two-step process, as detailed below.

Ingot casting (crystallisation)

The
high-
purity
solar-
grade
silicon
produced through refining undergoes a crystallisation step to minimise defects prior to
the wafering. Process. There exist several different techniques for ingot casting; the
common crystallisation methods include the Czochralski process for single crystal
ingots, and the Bridgman process for multi-crystalline silicon ingots27. The
Czochralski crystallisation process is used to convert polycrystalline materials into
monocrystalline materials. Wafer manufacturing prior to wafer manufacturing, the
ingots undergo sectioning where the peripheral sections are cut. The mono-crystalline
cylindrical ingots undergo sectioning such that cubic ingots are produced, while multi-
crystalline ingots are sectioned for the removal of highly contaminated peripheral
regions. The ingots are then cut to blocks with a cross-sectional area equal to the
wafer size.

The silicon solar cell: Manufacturing step is important, both technically and
economically, as endeavours can be undertaken during this step to minimize solar cell
losses, i.e. maximize efficiency. Moreover, the silicon solar cell manufacturing costs
account for approximately 25% of the final module cost. The production scheme for
silicon solar cells is detailed below.

Saw-damaged layer removal: Silicon wafers usually contain a saw-damaged and

contaminated surface layer, which has to be removed at the beginning of the solar cell
manufacturing process. Typically, 10 to 20 microns is etched from both sides of
wafers cut by a wire saw. Alkaline etches are commonly used, with subsequent
rinsing in deionised water.

Texturing Subsequent to etching : The silicon wafer surface is shiny and reflects more
than 35% of incident light. The wafer surface therefore undergoes texturing in order
to minimise reflectance. The reflection losses in commercial solar cells are reduced
mainly by random chemical texturing. Mono-crystalline silicon wafers can be
textured in a weak solution of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with
additions of isopropanol at 80oC producing randomly distributed pyramids. Due to
the nature of anisotropy in multi-crystalline silicon wafers, the random tartarisation
process is not effective on these silicon wafers. Mechanical texturing renders sound
results for microcrystalline silicon wafer texturing. The optical reflection can be
decreased to less than 10% in this processing step.

Emitter diffusion (junction formation): Emitter diffusion is one of the critical steps in
the manufacture of silicon solar cells. The starting silicon wafers are usually boron-
doped, i.e. p-type. It follows that phosphorus, an n-type impurity, is introduced to
form the p-n junction. The process is carried out in a furnace at a temperature of
approximately 900oC for phosphorus diffusion. Typical processing time is limited to
about 30 minutes, and a penetration depth of about 0.5 microns is achieved. A
common dopant source is POCl3. Other dopant deposition methods include screen
printing, or chemical vapour deposition.

Edge isolation during an n-type diffusion from the gas phase on p-type substrates, the
emitter is usually formed on the entire surface of the wafer. Consequently, shunts are
formed between the n-type and the p-type region of the silicon solar cell. Edge
isolation techniques are applied to isolate the front and the rear side emitter. The
techniques for edge isolation include mechanical, laser cutting, or plasma etching.
Plasma etching is particularly synonymous with edge isolation of screen-printed
silicon solar cells. In plasma etching, the silicon wafers are stacked, and loaded into a
vacuum chamber for etching in a fluoride or oxide plasma environment, and
approximately 2 to 5 microns of silicon wafers are removed from the edges, thereby
electrically isolating the front and the rear emitter28. Careful handling of the silicon
wafers is necessary to avoid damages.

Anti-reflection coating: The reduction in the front surface reflectance of a crystalline

silicon solar cell presents a possibility for improved cell efficiency29. An anti-
reflection coating is applied to minimize surface reflectance. Several materials with
refractive indices ranging between 1.4 and 2.7 can be used as anti-reflective coating on
silicon solar cells30. Titanium dioxide was the industrial choice for antireflection
coatings. Currently, silicon nitride deposited by plasma-enhanced chemical vapour
deposition is the dominant anti-reflection coating for silicon solar cells, due to its
optimal refractive index and an additional benefit of bulk passivation properties.
Metal contact formation (metallisation) :The process of contact formation is a vital
solar cell processing step because it strongly affects various properties of the silicon
solar cell, such as short circuit current, open circuit voltage, series resistance, shunt
resistance, and the fill factor.

Contact firing: The screen-printed contacts initially lie on top of the insulating anti-
reflection coating. The silicon solar cells undergo a short heat treatment at
temperatures up to 900oC, using a belt-driven furnace. During the firing process, the
antireflection coating layer experiences selective dissolution such that the contacts
penetrate through the anti-reflection coating onto the emitter while avoiding deep
penetration into bulk silicon. Moreover, the back surface field formation with
aluminium is achieved