KPJ HEALTHCARE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Foundation in Science Programme

PRACTICAL MANUAL

BIOLOGY PRACTICAL 2
FIS 2102
LABORATORY REGULATIONS

Students are advised to read and understand the following rules:

1. Eating, drinking and smoking are prohibited in laboratory.

2. Laboratory coat must be worn at all times while in laboratory.
3. To those who have long hair, tie your hair neatly all the time while in laboratory
and the students who wear headscarves please ensure the edge of your
headscarf is tucked in inside your lab coat.
4. Table surface must be cleaned up and disinfected with 70% alcohol solution right
before and after your practical session.
5. In case spill occurs, cover the spilled area with 70% alcohol and tissues.
6. Do not use your mouth while using pipette. Please use suitable equipment
provided.
7. In case of accidence such as gas leakage or apparatus damages, please inform
your lecturer or the person in charge immediately.
8. If you have allergies (fungus, dust etc.), please inform to the lecturer or the
person in charge before handling microorganism or any material.
9. Discard waste into the container provided. Distinguish each waste.
10. Note down all the information and observation precisely.
11. Clean all the objective lenses of microscope with absolute alcohol (95%) by using
a lens paper.
12. Please ensure that all gas pipes, water and electricity have been shut down
before leaving the laboratory.
13. Students are required to clean up and disinfect their own table as this is to apply
good laboratory practice for every student.
PRACTICAL REPORT PROCEDURE

1. Practical report must be submitted individually. The report must be made by hand
writing. Only the front cover can be printed.
2. Laboratory report must be submitted before the next practical class takes place.
3. Late submitted report may cause deductions to your marks.
4. Your report is copyright reserved. Any student caught copying other student’s
report or letting anyone copying his/her report, will have no marks.
5. In your report, you must have:

a. Practical title
b. Objective
c. Introduction
d. Apparatus
e. Method (written in passive sentences)
f. Result / Observation
g. Discussion
h. Conclusion
i. Questions

6. Front page of your practical must have:

a. Subject name & code
b. Practical title
c. Student name
d. Matrix number
e. Practical date
f. Submit date
g. Lecturer

*Please use plain A4 paper only

Sample of the lab report’s front page:

BIOLOGY PRACTICAL 2
FIS 2102

PRACTICAL 2: HUMAN ANATOMY

Name:
Matrix No:
Practical Date:
Submit Date:
Lecturer:
List of Experiments:

1. Cell division.

2. Human Anatomy:
 Nervous system
 Cardiovascular system
 Endocrine system
 Respiratory system
 Urinary system
 Reproductive system
 Sense organs

3. Human Skeletal System

4. Histology

5. Haematology and Chemistry

6. Physical Fitness:
 Determination of Heart Rate, Pulse Rate, Respiratory Rate and Blood Pressure
 Determination of Index of Physical Fitness
Practical 1: Cell Division

Objective:
 To observe the pattern of movement of chromatids in mitosis and meiosis.
 To compare the number of equatorial between mitosis and meiosis.
 To draw cells in different mitosis and meiosis phases.

Introduction:

THE CONCEPT OF CELL DIVISION

Cell Division Cycle: Cells that are growing and dividing go through a repeating series of
events called the cell division cycle (or cell cycle). During the first phase (G 1), the cell
grows and prepares for DNA replication, which occurs in the subsequent S phase.
Further growth takes place in the G2 phase, and finally mitosis occurs in the M phase.
G1, S, and G2 are collectively called interphase.

 G1 stands for gap 1, or pre-synthesis.

 S for synthesis
 G2 for gap 2, or post-synthesis.
 M is the mitotic division phase.

Material and Apparatus:

 1. Paper/plastic plates
2. Thread
3. Glue
4. Marker pen
5. Scissors

Method:
1. Prepare a series of mitosis and meiosis of a cell from the paper plates.

Question:
1. How many chromatids produced in a cell at the end of mitosis?
2. How many chromatids produced in a cell at the end of meiosis?
3. Compare between Anaphase I and Anaphase II in meiosis.

References:
Wardsworth publishing company (1997).

Biology for matriculation semester 2.

Practical 2: Human Anatomy

Objective:
 To define and differentiate anatomy and physiology.
 To identify systems in human body; nervous system, cardiovascular system,
endocrine system, respiratory system, urinary system, reproductive system and
special senses.
 To complete handouts (answering questions) given for each system.
 To perform dissection of toad and compare to the human body system.

Introduction:
Anatomy is referring to the study of the structure of the human body. The structure of
body parts and their organization are very closely related to their functions or
physiology. Anatomy has the following subdivisions:
- Gross anatomy – macroscopic structure of body parts.
- Surface anatomy or topographic anatomy – deeper parts of the body in relation
to the skin surface.
- Developmental anatomy or embryology – growth and development of the human
body.
- Histology – detailed structure of body parts such as cells and tissues.
- Radiographic anatomy – deeper organs and structures within the body using
radiographic and other imaging techniques.

Physiology, in simple terms, refers to the study of the function of the human body
structures. It is concerned with the way the various systems of the human body function
and the way each contributes to the functions of the body as a whole. Physiology
includes the following subdivisions:
- General physiology – general concepts and principles that are basic to the
functions of all systems.
- Systemic physiology – functioning or different system of the body.
Indu Khurana et. al. (2010)

Material and Apparatus:

1. Human body system handouts.
2. Human manakin
3. Intact human skeleton (top to toe)
4. Distilled water
5. Dissecting tray
6. Chloroform solution
7. Cotton balls
8. Gloves
9. 70% alcohol
10. Mask
 11. Beaker
12. Tissue rolls
13. Towel

Method:
1. Place a toad in a closed container (provided for each group).
2. Wet the cotton balls with chloroform water.
3. Put the cotton balls in the container.
4. Allow the container to remain closed for 10 minutes for chloroform to work (the
toad becomes unconscious).
5. Place the toad on dissecting tray with the ventral upward.
6. Fix all the extremities with pin.
7. Hold the skin (lower abdomen) of the toad by using forceps. Begin dissection
with a small cut on lower ventral (abdomen) using scissors.
8. Cut the skin (vertically) from bottom progressing to the jaw of the toad.
9. Then cut the skin laterally (to the side). Set pin.
10. Dissect open the muscle layer of the toad until you are able to see the internal
organs. Set pin.
11. Observe and identify all the organs.
1. Label the anatomy of a toad below:

2. The skeletal system of a toad:

3. Nervous system of a toad:
Question:
1. How many kidneys does the toad have?
2. How many lungs does the toad have?
3. Identify the heart, liver, lungs, stomach, small intestine and large intestine of the
toad by taking picture. Please label the pictures soon in your lab report.
4. List the difference between toad’s organ (amphibian) and human’s organ
(mammals).
5. What happened when you cut the heart out from the body?
6. What is the color of the bile?
7. Did you manage to find the nerves of the toad?
8. Is the toad vertebrate or invertebrate? Explain.

References:
Indu Khurana et.al. (2010). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology for Nursing and Allied
Health. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd.
Practical 3: Human Skeletal System

Objective:
 To identify the axial and appendicular skeleton.
 To recognize cranial and facial bones.
 To identify joints or articulations and the movement allowed.
 To observe types of bones; long, flat, sesamoid and irregular.

Introduction:
Skeleton comes from the Greek word meaning “dried-up body”. It is perfectly adapted
for its functions of body protection and motion. The skeleton is subdivided into two
divisions: the axial skeleton, the bones that form the longitudinal axis of the body, and
the appendicular skeleton, the bones of the limbs and girdles. In addition to bones, the
skeletal system includes joints, cartilages, and ligaments.

Functions of the bones:

a. Support – anchors all soft organs.
b. Protection – protect soft body organs e.g. skull protects the brain.
c. Movement – skeletal muscles attached to the bones by tendons, use the bones as
levers to move the body and its parts.
d. Storage – storage for fats and minerals.
e. Blood cell formation – hematopoiesis occurs within marrow cavities.
(Elaine N. M., 2006)

Material and Apparatus:

1. Intact human skeleton.

Method:
1. Observe and identify each part of bones.
2. Answer the questions provided in the manual (you may refer to any revision
books).

Question:
Answer the questions provided in the manual.

References:
Brian H. K. (2012). Laboratory Activity Guide for Anatomy & Physiology. Departmental of
Biomedical Sciences, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, USA.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer business publisher.

Elaine N. M. (2006). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Holyoke Community College,
San Francisco, USA. Pearson Benjamin Cummings. 8th ed.
Practical 4: Histology

Objective:
 To name the four basic tissues of the human body.
 To observe and identify a variety of prepared tissue sections with a microscope.
 To provide an example of where each tissue studied in this laboratory may be
found in the body.
 To provide the basic function of each identified tissue/cell type.

Introduction:
Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function are called tissues. The four
primary tissue types – epithelium, connective tissue, nervous tissue and muscle –
interweave to form the fabric of the body. Tissues are organized into organs such as
heart, kidneys, and lungs. Most organs contain several tissue types, and the
arrangement of the tissues determines each organ’s structure and what it is able to do.
Thus, the study of tissues should be helpful in your later study (Elaine N. M., 2006).

Material and Apparatus:

1. Microscope
2. Histology slides set (100pc/set).
3. Revision book.

Method:
1. Observe each slide under the microscope.
2. Identify each slide for tissue type.
3. Answer the questions provided in the manual.

Question:
Answer the questions provided in the manual.

References:
Brian H. K. (2012). Laboratory Activity Guide for Anatomy & Physiology. Departmental of
Biomedical Sciences, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, USA.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer business publisher.

Elaine N. M. (2006). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Holyoke Community College,
San Francisco, USA. Pearson Benjamin Cummings. 8th ed.
Practical 5: Haematology & Biochemistry

Objective:
 To identify the range of blood sugar level in human body (normal and abnormal).
 To determine blood sugar level in a person by using a glucometer.
 To count red blood cells in human body by using a haemacytometer.
 To determine blood group/type of a person.

Introduction:
Blood is the ‘river of life’ that surges within us. It transports everything that must be
carried out from one place to another within the body – nutrients, wastes (headed for
elimination from the body), and body heat – through blood vessels.

BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL RANGES

Blood glucose ranges for adults and children differ slightly. The following ranges are
guidelines provided by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) but each
individual’s target range should be agreed by their doctor or diabetic consultant.

Recommended target blood glucose level ranges

The NICE recommended target blood glucose levels are stated below for adults with
type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes and children with type 1 diabetes. In addition, the
International Diabetes Federation's target ranges for people without diabetes is stated.

NICE recommended target blood glucose level ranges

Target Levels Before meals 2 hours after meals
by Type (pre prandial) (post prandial)
Non-diabetic 4.0 to 5.9 mmol/L under 7.8 mmol/L
Type 2 diabetes 4 to 7 mmol/L under 8.5 mmol/L
Type 1 diabetes 4 to 7 mmol/L under 9 mmol/L
Children w/ type 1 diabetes 4 to 8 mmol/L under 10 mmol/L
NB: There are differening opinions about the ideal blood glucose level range.
Normal and diabetic blood sugar ranges
For the majority of healthy individuals, normal blood sugar levels are as follows:
 Normal blood glucose level in humans is about 4 mM (4 mmol/L or 72 mg/dL)
 When operating normally the body restores blood sugar levels to a range of 4.4
to 6.1 mmol/L (82 to 110 mg/dL).
 Shortly after a meal the blood glucose level may rise temporarily up to 7.8
mmol/L (140 mg/dL).

For people with diabetes, blood sugar level targets are as follows:
 Before meals: 4 to 7 mmol/L for people with type 1 or type 2.
 After meals: under 9 mmol/L for people with type 1 and 8.5mmol/L for people
with type 2.

As is visible from the NICE targets, children with type 1 diabetes have a greater upper
limit for their blood sugar levels by 1mmol/L.

BLOOD-GLUCOSE TEST
A blood glucose test measures the amount of a sugar called glucose in a sample of
your blood. Glucose is a major source of energy for most cells of the body, including
those in the brain. Carbohydrates (or carbs) are found in fruit, cereal, bread, pasta, and
rice. They are quickly turned into glucose in your body. This raises your blood glucose
level. Hormones made in the body called insulin and glucagon help control blood
glucose levels.

How the Test is Performed

A blood sample is needed.

How to Prepare for the Test

The test may be done in 2 ways:
 After you have not eaten anything for at least 8 hours (fasting)
 At any time of the day (random).

How the Test Will Feel

When the needle is inserted to draw blood, some people feel moderate pain, while
others feel only a prick or stinging sensation. Afterward, there may be some throbbing.

Why the Test is Performed

Your doctor may order this test if you have signs of diabetes. However, other tests
(glucose tolerance test and fasting blood glucose test) are better for diagnosing
diabetes. The blood glucose test is also used to monitor patients who have the
diabetes. It may also be done if you have:
 A change in behavior
 Fainting spells
 Seizures for the first time
Normal Results
If you had a fasting blood glucose test, a level between 70 and 100 milligrams per
deciliter (mg/dL) is considered normal. If you had a random blood glucose test, normal
results depend on when you last ate. Most of the time, blood glucose levels will be
below 125 mg/dL. Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories.
Talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific test results. The examples above
show the common measurements for results for these tests. Some laboratories use
different measurements or may test different specimens.

What Abnormal Results Mean

If you had a fasting blood glucose test:
 A level of 100-125mg/dL means you have impaired fasting glucose, a type of
prediabetes. This increases your risk for type 2 diabetes.
 A level of 126 mg/dL and higher most often means you have diabetes.

Higher-than-normal random blood glucose levels may be a sign of diabetes. In

someone with diabetes, it may mean the diabetes is not well controlled. Your
healthcare provider will likely order a fasting blood glucose or a glucose tolerance test,
depending on your random test result. Other medical problems may also cause higher-
than-normal blood glucose levels, including:
 Overactive thyroid gland
 Pancreatic cancer
 Pancreatitis
 Rare tumors, including pheochromocytoma, acromegaly, Cushing syndrome,
or glucagonoma.

Lower-than-normal blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia) may be due to:

 Hypopituitarism (a pituitary gland disorder)
 Underactive thyroid gland
 Insulinoma (very rare)
 Too little food
 Too much insulin or other diabetes medications

Risks
Veins and arteries vary in size from one patient to another and from one side of the
body to the other. Obtaining a blood sample from some people may be more difficult
than from others. Other risks associated with having blood drawn are slight but may
include:
 Excessive bleeding
 Fainting or feeling light-headed
 Hematoma (blood accumulating under the skin)
 Infection (a slight risk any time the skin is broken)
Considerations
Many forms of severe stress (for example, trauma, stroke, heart attack, and surgery)
can temporarily raise blood glucose levels. Drugs that can increase glucose
measurements include the following:
 Certain medicines to treat schizophrenia and psychosis
 Beta-blockers (such as propranolol)
 Corticosteroids (such as prednisolone)
 Estrogens
 Glucagon
 Isoniazid
 Lithium
 Oral contraceptives (birth control pills)
 Phenothiazines
 Phenytoin
 Salicylates (see aspirin overdose)
 Thiazide diuretics (such as hydrochlorothiazide)
 Triamterene
 Tricyclic antidepressants

Drugs that can decrease glucose measurements include the following:

 Acetaminophen
 Alcohol
 Anabolic steroids
 Clofibrate
 Disopyramide
 Gemfibrozil
 Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
 Pentamidine

BLOOD CLOTTING
Clotting is the mechanism that prevents and blood loss from broken blood vessels.

Mechanism:
a. Platelets or damaged cells release a group of proteins called clotting factors.
These clotting factors are released into the plasma a wound site.
b. Clotting factors activate the enzyme Thrombin from its inactive form prothrombin
c. Thrombin turns the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into its insoluble fibrous
form Fibrin.
d. Fibrin binds together platelets and blood cells to form a solid 'plug' for the4
wound. This plug is called a clot.
ABO SYSTEM

Principle:
It was in 1901, that Austrian-American immunologist and pathologist Karl Landsteiner
discovered human blood groups. Karl Landsteiner's work helps to determine blood
groups and thus opened a way for blood transfusions which can be carried out safely.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930 for this
discovery.

Death of the patient was the result in most cases before 1900, when blood
transfusion was attempted. Blood transfusion was made much safer by the discovery of
blood groups, as blood of the same ABO group could be chosen for each patient.
However, there were still many cases of unexplained blood transfusion reactions.
Biologists still went in search of these unexplained questions.

In 1902 the fourth main type, AB was found by Decastrello and Sturli. It was the
observations of Levine and Stetson in 1939, and Landsteiner and Weiner in 1940 that
laid the foundations of our knowledge about the remaining major blood group - the
Rhesus system. Once reliable tests for Rhesus grouping had been established,
transfusion reactions became rare! For this discovery Landsteiner was awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930.

Karl Landsteiner

The Components of Blood

The circulatory system distributes about 4-6 liters of blood to the adult human body. The
blood mainly has 2 portions: the Plasma and the Blood Cells. Plasma is mainly
composed of water, but contains different types of proteins and other chemicals such
as: enzymes, glucose, fat particles, salts, hormones, antibodies etc. It constitutes about
60% of the blood. Blood cells can be observed under a microscope on staining. The
formation of blood cells occurs in the bone marrow by the 'Hematopoietic stem cells'.
They can be divided into 3 basic cell types:

Erythrocytes (red Blood cells):

As the name suggests, these red coloured cells give, blood its red colour. 1 ml of blood
contains approximately 5 million RBCs! The proportion of blood occupied by red blood
cells is referred to as the hematocrit, and is normally about 45%. Mature RBCs are
biconcave in shape, lack a Nucleus and many other organelles. They circulate in the
system for about 120 days, carrying out their job, i.e., to supply oxygen. This function is
carried out by them most efficiently. Since they are rich in an Iron-containing bio
molecule called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin has high affinity for oxygen and thus binds
to it and is transported from the alveoli (in lungs) to every parts of the body. There is
constant replenishment of RBCs in order to remove old cells that break down. (This
process is carried out in organs like the Liver, also producing by-products like Bile
pigments.) Millions of cels are released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow
each day.

Leukocytes (white blood cells):

These cells are key players in our immune system. They are of different types such as
neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, monocytes, basophils; each of them with a
variety of functions in our immunity. 1 ml of blood of an adult human contains about
4,000-11,000 leukocytes. Basically, they destroy and remove old or aberrant cells and
clear cellular debris, as well as attack foreign substances and infectious agents
(pathogenic entities).

Thrombocytes (Platelets):
The coagulation or blood clotting process is taken care of by them. The act on clotting
proteins like Fibrinogen, converting it into Fibrin. They create a mesh onto which RBCs
collect and thus forming a clot. Thus preventing excessive blood loss and also checks
the entry of pathogens into the body. 1 ml of blood of an adult human contains about
200,000-500,000 platelets.

The observations that led to the discovery of blood groups:

At times, it was observed that mixing blood from two individuals led to blood clumping or
agglutination. Later it was understood that the agglutinated red cells can clog blood
vessels and stop the circulation of the blood to various parts of the body. The
agglutinated red blood cells also crack and their contents leak out in the body. The
RBCs contain haemoglobin which becomes toxic when outside the cell. This must have
been the phenomena that occurred in the blood transfusion cases that ended up with
fatality of the patient at the receiving end. Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood
clumping was an immunological reaction which occurs when the receiver of a blood
transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells! People learned that,
compatibility of blood groups needed to be checked before anything else was done. If
they are not, the red blood cells from the donated blood will agglutinate. This can have
fatal consequences for the patient.

ABO blood grouping system:

According to the ABO blood group system there are four different kinds of blood
groups: A, B, AB and O (null).

Blood group A

Blood group B

Blood group AB

Blood group O
Rh Factor
Rh (Rhesus) factor is found on the RBC's surface
in most people. Like A and B, this is also an
antigen and those who have it are called Rh+.
Those who lack the antigen on the surface of RBCs
are called Rh-. A person with Rh- blood does not
have Rh antibodies naturally in the blood plasma.
But a person with Rh- blood can develop Rh antibodies in the blood plasma if he or she
receives blood from a person with Rh+ blood, whose Rh antigens can trigger the
production of Rh antibodies (as the immune system is triggered by the presence of an
unknown antigen in the system). A person with Rh+ blood can receive blood from a
person with Rh- blood without any problems.

Inheritance of Blood Groups:

Blood groups for each individual are determined by genes or alleles (small packets of
information in cells contained in the DNA) which are inherited from both parents. Genes
for the Rh-ve and O groups from one parent are masked (i.e., they are recessive) by the
presence of Rh+ve and A or B genes from the other parent. That is, O and Rh negative
genes only produce an effect when there is a "double dose" of such genes, i.e., one
from each parent (homozygous condition). Thus, people who are apparently A or B
Rh+ve may also carry genes for the O and Rh-ve blood groups which can be inherited
by their children.

Principle behind blood tests: Blood

clumping or Agglutination
observation.

Compatibility between the blood groups of donor and recipient determines the
success of a Blood transfusion. The AB0 and Rh blood groups are looked at while
conducting the test. In a diagnostic lab, Monoclonal antibodies are available for A, B
and Rh antigen. Monoclonal antibody against Antigen A (also called Anti-A), comes in a
small bottles with droppers; the monoclonal suspension being BLUE in colour. Anti-B
comes in YELLOW colour. Anti-D (monoclonal antibody against Rh) is colourless. All
the colour codes are universal standards. When the monoclonal antibodies are added
one by one to wells that contain the test sample (blood from patient), if the RBCs in that
particular sample carry the corresponding Antigen, clumps can be observed in the
corresponding wells. A drop of blood is left without adding any of the antibodies; it is
used as a control in the experiment. The monoclonal antibody bottles should be stored
in a refrigerator. It is recommended to tilt the bottle a couple of times before use in order
to resuspend the antibodies that have settled at the bottom of the bottle.

FULL BLOOD COUNT & BLOOD SMEAR

A full blood count is a commonly done test. It can detect anaemia and various other
blood problems. A blood smear is when blood cells are looked at under a
microscope.

Plasma, the liquid part of blood, makes up about 60% of the blood's volume. Plasma is
mainly made from water but contains many different proteins and other chemicals such
as hormones, antibodies, enzymes, glucose, fat particles, salts, etc. Blood cells, which
can be seen under a microscope, make up about 40% of the blood's volume. Blood
cells are made in the bone marrow by blood 'stem' cells. Blood cells are divided into
three main types:

 Red cells (erythrocytes). These make blood a red colour. One drop of blood
contains about five million red cells. A constant new supply of red blood cells is
needed to replace old cells that break down. Millions are released into the
bloodstream from the bone marrow each day. Red cells contain a chemical called
haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is attracted to oxygen and the two substances can bind
together. This allows oxygen to be transported by red blood cells from the lungs to
all parts of the body.
 White cells (leukocytes). There are different types of white cells such as neutrophils
(polymorphs), lymphocytes, eosinophils, monocytes, basophils. They are a part of
the immune system and are mainly involved in combating infection.
 Platelets. These are tiny and help the blood to clot if we cut ourselves.

To make blood cells, haemoglobin and the constituents of plasma constantly, you need
a healthy bone marrow and nutrients from food including iron and certain vitamins.

What is a full blood count?

A full blood count (FBC) is one of the most common blood tests done. A blood sample is
taken which is prevented from clotting by using a preservative in the blood bottle. The
sample is put into a machine which automatically:
 Counts the number of red cells, white cells and platelets per ml of blood.
 Measures the size of the red blood cells and calculates their average (mean) size.
 Calculates the proportion of blood made up from red blood cells (the haematocrit).
 Measures the amount of haemoglobin in the red blood cells.

The main abnormalities which can be detected are:

 Anaemia - this means that you have fewer red blood cells than normal, or have less
haemoglobin than normal in each red blood cell. The most common reason for an
FBC to be done is to check for anaemia. There are many causes of anaemia. The
average size of the red cells can give a clue as to the cause of some anaemias. For
example, the most common cause of anaemia is a lack of iron. With this type of
anaemia, the average size of the red blood cells is smaller than normal.
 Too many red cells - this is called polycythaemia and can be due to various causes.
 Too few white cells - this is called leukopenia. Depending on which type of white
cell is reduced it can be called neutropenia, lymphopenia, or eosinopenia. There
are various causes.
 Too many white blood cells - this is called leukocytosis. Depending on which type
of white cell is increased it is called neutrophilia, lymphocytosis, eosinophilia,
monocytosis, basophilia. There are various causes - for example:
 Various infections can cause an increase of white blood cells.
 Certain allergies can cause an eosinophilia.
 Leukaemia causes a large increase in the number of white blood cells. The
type of leukaemia depends on the type of white cell affected.
  Too few platelets - this is called thrombocytopenia. This may make you bruise or
bleed easily. There are various causes.
 Too many platelets - this is called thrombocythaemia. This is due to disorders
which affect cells in the bone marrow which make platelets.

Material and Apparatus:

1. Glucometer and strip
2. Sterile lancet/needle
3. 70% alcohol swab
4. Sharp bin
5. Anti-A and Anti-B reagents
6. Glass slide
7. Orange stick
8. 70% alcohol solution
9. Clean towel
10. Tissue roll

Method:
1. Slot in the glucometer strip into the glucometer (ensure the blood drop icon is
blinking – means it is ready).
2. Prepare two separated drops of anti-A and anti-B on a glass slide.
3. Apply alcohol swab on the skin.
4. Use the sterile lancet to perform skin pricking.
5. Introduce a drop of blood to the glucometer strip (result in 10 seconds).
6. Introduce a drop of blood onto each anti-A and anti-B on the glass slide.
7. Mix the blood-reagent mixture with orange stick (use different stick for each
drop).
8. Observe the result for both tests and jot down your observation.

Question:
1. What is the range for normal blood glucose?
2. Why does the blood glucose level increased after 2 hours you had meal.
3. What principle that makes the blood drops agglutinated (clumping)?
4. What is the purpose of using alcohol swab prior to pricking?

References:
Brian H. K. (2012). Laboratory Activity Guide for Anatomy & Physiology. Departmental of
Biomedical Sciences, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, USA.
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Practical 6: Measurement of Blood Pressure

Objective:
 To determine pulse rate, heart rate, respiratory rate and blood pressure during
resting condition.
 To determine pulse rate, heart rate, respiratory rate and blood pressure after
exercise.
 To determine physical fitness of a person.

Introduction:
Physical fitness comprises two related concepts: general fitness (a state of health and
well-being), and specific fitness (a task-oriented definition based on the ability to
perform specific aspects of sports or occupations). Physical fitness is generally
achieved through correct nutrition, exercise, hygiene and rest.
Physical fitness has been defined as a set of attributes or characteristics that
people have or achieve that relates to the ability to perform physical activity. (Physical
Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General). There are a lot of activities which
can be classified as physical activity. For example, walking is a popular physical activity
for Canadian adults, regardless of age, sex, BMI or income group, however, the
prevalence of regular walking varies between demographic subgroups. Public health
strategies that focus on promoting walking for exercise should consider these results
when defining target audiences and designing interventions. (S.N. Bryan et. al., 2009).

Material and Apparatus:

12. Stethoscope
13. Sphygmomanometer
14. Timer

Method:
Please follow the instructions given in the handouts.

Question:
Please answer the questions given in the handouts.

References:

S.N. Bryan, P.T. Katzmarzyk (2009). Patterns and Trends in Walking Behaviour Among
Canadian Adults. Canadian Journal of Public Health. Vol. 100, No. 4.