A TREATISE
ON
ELECTRICITYAND MAGNETISM
~;rn~z
VOL.I.
2897~
Bonbon
<Bïfor&
(Cïarcnttttït ~r~s: ~tr~
i1 )p
1
q
U A TREATISE
ON
ELECTRICITYAND MAGNETISM
BY
Mûrh
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1873
[~l~W~/f~)'M<:)'t'<'t/]
PREFACE.
t
1
XIV PREFACE.
it is in thé nascent state, and in t!ie case of
Faraday's
TPe~c~~ this is comparatively easy, as they are
published in a separatc ~brm, and may be read con-
secutively. If by anything 1 hâve hère written 1
may assist any stndent in understanding Faraday's
modes of thought and expression, 1 shall
regard it as
tho accomplishment of one of my principal aims-to
communicate to others thé same delight whieh t have
found myself in reading Faraday's TPcsefM-c/~s.
TIie description of thé phenomena, and t!ie ele-
jncntary parts of the thcory of each subject, will be
found in the earlier chapters of each of the four Parts
into wltich t!iis treatise is divided. The student will
nnd in these chapters enou~'h to give Itim an
elementary
acquaintance with thé whole science.
Tlie remaming chapters of eacli Part are
occupied
witli tlie higher parts of thé theory, the
processes of
numerical calculation, and the instruments and methods
of expérimental research.
The relations between
electromagnetic phenomena
and thosc of radiation, the theory of molecular electric
currents, and thé results of speculation on thé nature
of action at a distance, are treated of in thé last
four
chapters of thé second volume.
7'M. J873.
CONTENTS.
PRELIMINARY.
Art. pf~ge
l. The expression of a quautlty consists of two factors, t)tc nu-
!nencaiva)uc,and thé oamco) thé coicretc unit. 1
2. Dimensions ofderivedmiits i
3-5. Thc tnrcc fnndamentu) unita–Lengtit, Time and Musa 2, 3
(i.Derivedunits 5
7. PhyHiealcontinuityanddiscontinuity (,
8. Diseontinuityof a functionof more thanone variable 7
n.Pcriodic and mun~e fonctions. 8
10. RclHtionofphysieatqn~ntitiesto directions in space 8
lI.McttningofthcwordtjSodarandVector 9
12. Division ofphysicatvectorsintotwo classes, Forces and Duxcs 10
13. Relation hctweencorrcspondingvcetorsoftnetwo classes 11
14. Linc-intpgratioti apprapriate to forces, surface-intégration to
nuxcs 122
15. Longitudinntandrotationatvectors 12
!(!. Ijine-intcgralstmdpotcntials jg
17. IIamilton'a expression fur tho rpJation between a force aufl its
potuntia! 15J
18. Cyclic régions ttndgcon)etryof position 16
19. Thé potcntiatin an acydic région ifi single vahied 17
20. System of vaines of thé potential Inacyencregion. 18
21. Surfocc-mtegrals. 19
22. Surfaces, tubes, and Unes ofnow 21
23. Right-handedtmdieft-handed relations m spuce 24
24. Transformation of a tinc-intcgralinto a anrface-intcgral 25
25. EH'ectofB'amiItoti'a opération on aveetorfunction 27
26. Natureof the opération~ 29
CUXTHNTS.
PART r.
ELECTIiOSTATJCS.
CMAPTER I.
DESCRIPTION OF Pt~NOMEfA.
Art.
27. EiL.ctnHcation by frictiun. EL.ctrifieation is of I»ago
twu Mnds, tu
which the munca uf Vitrcous ami Hcsmons, or Positive nnd
N~ativc.havcbcengiven go
28. E)eetriHcationby induction
31
2'). Eleetrificution by couductiou. Cot!duct.o)-sMid
insulutors 32
30. lu dcctnftuation by friction thf.
quantity of the positive ch.c-
tri~c~ttion is equid to that of thé negative e]ectriHcation 33
31. To charge a vessc! with a
quanti ty of electricity equa! and
opposite tothatof an excite Jbody 33
32.
Todischargoaconductorcomp!etc]yintonmcta))ievesse! 34
33.Tcatofe]ectrineatioQbygo)d-]eafe!ectroscopc. 34
34. ËfectnUcation, considered as tt measurable quantity, may be
ca)]edE!cctncity
35.Etcctr:citynmybctrpatedn8aphysica!quanttty 3~
36.
TheoryofTwoOuids "37
37.Thco!yufOneHu:d g~
38. Mcasurement ofthe force bctwcen c!ectri~d
bodies 40
39. He~tioH between t)us force and the
quantifies of c!ectrie:ty 41
40. Variation ofthe force with the djattmee
-42. Definitiun of the clectrostatie unit of
e~etricity.–Its
dimensiona 42
43. Proofof thé hwofeicctric force
44. E!cctricMd
45. Elcctric potentinl
· 45
46. E~ipotcntiai surf~es. Exa.npie of thcir use in' re.~ui~
about electricity 4'-
47. Lincs uf furce
48. Etcctric
tension ·~ 17
49. Etectromotive force
47
50. Capacityof)iconductor
48
SI.PropertIcaufhodies.-Rcsist.utcc ~g
CONTHNTS. xvn
.Ut. ~KC
52. !S[)c';itichtductivL'c.q)~(;it.yoi':Ldic)uct.ric. 50
.'):{. 'A)'s(n'j)tion'ofc)(;ctt'icity. 50
.')). Impost-ibiHtyut'an.d'soiutcchit.)'~ 5!1
55. Dismptivcdischargt'Utow 52
5~ Brush 5d
57. Spnrk 55
58.E)cctnt;tdp))e)i<)niLCnt).()t'Tuurma)n)(: 5C
5t). Plan ot't))ctrcntisc,~)td sketch oi'ItHrcsu)ts 577
(i<). Ktectricput[n'iz'it!onm)d'Hsp!auen)cn< 5n
(U.')'))C motion ofdcctncityantdo~oustothatof un i!)con)pn"-H)t)t~
Onid ''2
(i2. i\'cu)iantit'.soft))('tht'o)'y<'t't))is<)'c)).t)St' (!2
CHARTER H.
VOL. t. b
xviii
C'ONTM~TS.
CHAPT~H H).
C!IAPTER t\.
'.HNM.\LTjj].;oiu':))S.
/(~+~ 3
Appli~tiou ofthcthcor~t.thc dctcrn.in.tiunofthc dis-
tr)))ut,'onof(.)cett-tc!ty 107
100. Gr.-cn's t],c.orcm nud its
,.Ly.s,caj intcrpr.t~ioa'
101. U)-ccn'sfunctinns
I02.m.thoduni,~in~u,itin~~h.csofdcT~aI'eo~i<, ~?
Cf~'THNTS. xix
CHAPTER V.
CHAPTER VI.
CHAPTER VIL
L'JIAPTEK )H.
S'L)':('A.Si:hOPJ:)J.:CT):U.')(;AT)UX.
Art.
/'111'
!2).T\v<.)m)-a)~])Innc.'i
J2~.T\vut-o)K'cnt)'i(;sj'J)0)'icidsm'):n-~ ?
¿¡2
)2(i.T\<)C(')LX!)L]('y)i))(h'ict-m'f'i)ccs
t2r. t.on~t.L).)i.ia)
'ccu.ryti..<)<r,t).ccnd.S(.t'~h.<)an~ur-
)~U))dc(n)yry))n(h.rsnmi()(.r(.)tt.j)(,t(. ];j,j
C'IIAi'TEK I\.
S)')IJ~ffCALn.\R.t!u.\j(,s.
//t''f 1~
/s=~~ r~,
~.cruy.i.th.
140. ~uc..f~,tthL.o)u.f.r, I
~'ir' io
-c har-
¡}Jollic;
1~1. Sur~c-in~nJ 172
uf the .qu~ .fa
.ynunctrica)j~n.c' :3
'49
t'DXT~XTS. x\i i
Art. l'nsu
l')2. Dureront ))]cthud.oftrt.'ntin~sp!icri(-~))armonius 174
W3. On thc din~nnns of spin.'rie~) t'armunics. (Fi~s. V. Vf, VII,
vm.ix) 175
I-)-t. If t))Cpotcn<ia)i.s(-o)tstm)tt)u'oug))(mttH)ynnitc portion uf
spnccitisgott)r<ju~1)ontt))cwLotc!'['gion continuons withit
wit!nnw!)ichJj:)pLtcf''s('qu.tti')!)isfatisncd. 17C
1~5. To nnntysc n. sphorio)! J)n.)'tno!)ic into syston nf conju~atc
!uu'!not)ics t'y morns of a finitc junnher of jncnsurcments at
sclectcd points nft!)csphcrc 177
I-1G. App)ic!ttiont~sp!)f'nc!u)(tnntir)ysphcrict)Icnnducto)'s 178
CHAPTER X.
CHARTER XI.
jns.ThonMOn'sinetitudofutcctt'Icinm~s )91
]5(). \V))L'n twu puiuf.s nre oppo;t~y attdn))L'f)ua))y<;)(;ct)'ifn;t),thc
Furfaceforwhicht))fjpt)tuntin!ihixct'ûis:t.sp))crc ]92
]57. Etectric images. J93
]58. DistriLutiouufcIcctricityûntitcam'facoofihcspiicrc 195
150. Image ofauygIvendistriLut.M~ofcIcetricIty. 19G
160. H.csuittuitfurccbetwecn M cicctrincdpomtand sphère. ]97
]GI. l!)mge3inaniuHnite]))a)]ccoHdncting8U)'f)tcc 198
IC2. Eicctric inversion ]<)f)
1G3. Geomc(,)'!caHheo)'ents~bout inversion 201l
16'L Application t'fthc hMthodtothcprohIcMof.Art.tn8 202
CONTENT;
Art.
Io5. Finit); syatousof successive inm~c.s. 203
!GU. Case oftwoapho'icat surfaces intcrsccti])~at an
au~)e" 20~
I()7. Enmncration of thé cases in which t)ie number of ium"-es is
nnitc
IG8.Cascoft\vospherc3i)itet-sectin~ort))o~una!Iy. 207
!G').
Ct).-icoi't)u'eeHphc)-Mmtct-s(;ctin~ort)toguun)Iy .2)0
170. Case uf four
Hphere.sintursectm~ortttogonaDy ~n
171. Infinité Hene~Hfixxtg' 2)2
C~uoftwoconœtitncspiiures
172. Anytwo sphères uotinter.-iect.ingeauhother 2)~
173. Ctdcuhttion of thé coefHcients
ofcapacity and mductiun 2]<iG
I7L C)t)cu!)ttiun 'jf t))(' ct~u'~es of t])e and of t))e force
sp)n;res,
!)etwct;nt!)ûfm ~.y
!75. Distribution uf L-Iectricity ou two
.sp:)ercs in eotitact. rruuf
Sphc)'(! n,,(t
]7(j. TIiouisons nn-cstlgati<j)t ofan elcct.ri<icd
sphcricat how) 22!
!77. Distribution un an c!)ipsoid, aud on a circntnr disk at
po-
tentia)
!78. Induction on an utunsnht.tcd disk or huwl by an cicetrined
point in t)m eontiuuation of t)'c p)anc ut- ap)icrictd sm'faec 222
)79. Tiiu t-cst of thc spiierc supposud etoctrincd
unifornny 223
I80.Thubuw!!naiutaincdatput(;!ttia!~fuiduninftucncud 223
8 L Induction on the ))<)w[due ta a
nointpincedanywhci-e 22-J
CHAPTEU XII.
82.
Caac9mwhichtheq)mntit,ies)u-efn)tct:unaut'.<tuid.vun)v 22C
!83.C()njugatcfuuct!(~)t.'j. n.~7
I8').(Jot)ju~i).<(jfn)tctn)nH)nt).ybcaddt!([n)'Mn))t)'actcd 228
185. Cunju~tc funetion.s ut' conjugale fm~H~s tn'c titc'nsctves
conju~to ~~Q
t8(.).Tr!UtMf'<))-!ntttionufl'uiss<)t)'s équation 03]
187.
Additimm)theot'cmsu)tco))ju~t(;functiuns 232
188. r'ivcrstfntmtwodiutcnsion.s
~og
!8n.Ek'ct)'ic images in (.wodinn'nsions ~03
)nO.Nu)un!uin'Mt)-:ui'.ifurnmti<mofi))iscf)sc 231
!H1. Di~tri).utiuu ofdcctnciiy nu.n- Uic ~c uf ,L cu.iductor foi-ille(l
Lyt\()p):tnusut't'net;s
tf)2. HHip~8:u)d))y~et-boti~.
()~ig.X) ~37
193. Tt-audfot-nmtionui'thiscasu.
(Fi'r.XI) OQu
'-ONTHN't'S. xxii!
~rt. pj)~
194. Application tu two cases of thé nowofelectricity in itcon-
dnctii]gsheet. 23!)
195. Application to two cases ofcicetrictd induction 239
196. Cnpacity of a condenser consist.ing of n circuhu' disk betwccu
twoinnnite{)]t)ncs. 2-10
197. Cuse of a séries of cquidistant pinnos eut ofYLy n. p)auc ut right
angles to thon 242
l')8.Cuscoftt.furn)Wcd surface 243
lOO.Ctisooftt.sIngicHtt'tUK~tgt'oovu 243
200. Mo()Inention of the results whcn thc gl'oovc is eircuhtr 244
SOL Application tu Sir W.Thomson'sgutu'd-ring. 245
202. Cusc of two p~mHc! ph~tcHeut ufF by n. perpondicuitu' plunc.
(FIg.XH) 246
203. C)moof)tgratingofp:u'aUctwh'cH. (Pig.XIII) 248
204. Œ.sc uf n single ck'ctriticd wirc transfui')ned into t)mt of the
grating 248
205. Thc grating uscd ns tLshidd to protcct n. body from c)ectnod
influence 2.J9
20<). Mcthod ~fttppt'oxiniatiou npplicd tu tho case ofthc ~t'atin~ 251
CtIAPTER XIII.
MLECTttOSTATIG fXSTKUMnNTS.
Art.
j~~c
222. Measurc]uc!)tof thé potentitLt uf couductor \vit!ton(.
touc])I))g it 27C
223. Mcasui'cment of thc suj'erficiid ~cnHityot' c)cctrif!cntiot). Thé
proofpJfmc ny~
224.Ahcmisp!tcreusednsa<cst o?o
225.Acit'cuI[tt'diak. n~n
22C. Onelectncnccumulators. TiteLcyJcnjfn- .281
227.Accnmu!atorsofmeasu)'abtccn))acit,y ~n
228.Ti)cguar(I-n))gaccu!nu!nto)' no~
339. Comptu-isoaot'thc capacités ot'accumuitttors. ~g~
PART II.
KLE('T!{()K!N').;M,\TfG'
CJIAPTEU I.
TnEELM;TfU<;('[jfmnNT.
CHAPTER II.
CONDUCTIONANn )tHS!STA\('E.
24!.Ohm'sLnw
f,
2.12. Génération ofhMtbythccun-ent.
JuuIc'sLaw 29(;
24.3. Anniogy bctwccn thc conduction of c~etricity and t))nt of ).cat 297
24'Dincrcnccshctwcenthctwoe)nsscsofp))cno!nc))a.297 î
215. Fara.hiy' doctrine oftt~e i.npo.ssiLiHt.y ~f an nhs-.tutc
c))ar~c 298
CO~TE~TS. xxv
CMAPTER III.
CHAPTER IV.
HLKCTROLYSIS.
CIIAPTER V.
ELHCTROLYTfC
POLAUtZATtON.
2G-1. DiMcuttiesof~ppIyingOhm'sIttwtoclectrotytcs 31 H
2G5. Oh)n's)awncvcrthcIcssapp!!caUe 318
2CC. Thcun'eet uf pu))n'izat!~ondistim;uishcd from that of resist~ncf 3188
2(;7. roliu'ixtttiou duc to thé présence of the ions nt tlie eicctrodca.
T)tcious!ioti[ittfrcestate 31S)
2C8. Relation bctweon t))e cicctromutivc force of po)n)'ixation ttnd
the stutc of thc ions at tlie électrodes 320
xxvi CONTUX'JS.
Art.
l'/I¡;U
2CO. D~sipation'jft))u]uus:mdi(.'ssufpo!.u'ization
321
270. Lin)itof)'t)'ixation
.)r,,
27t.Uittc)''s!iccuH(l:u-ypi)c(;umpfn-edwitIit))eLeydenjn!' 322
272. CuustiUitvoJttucctcmcnts.–Danicil'ace!!
39~
CIIAPTER VI.
CHAPTER VII.
285.
Nut.Lt.iou ~~o
28C.Co)npusttiu)]a!tdrcsotutionufu!ectriccurrcata 333
2R7. Dctct-minat!on uft))c (tunutity winch Oows
through any sm-racc 339
288.]'~juati()H(.'f:tsu!'fiLceof'f)o\v r.
2R9.nt.)tti(')))'ftwoc)t))))yt))rcc Systems of surfaces of)!uw 3.10
2')O.Tn))eHuf'()o\v
2')L Expt-csMon for t)K.nmpnnonts uf t)tc flow ni tcnns uf surfaces
"< sjj 1
2')2. uf this px))rcssion
Simp]ifn.-ntlon by n prope)- choice of pnm-
3.n1
29:}. L'nit tubes of )!ow used as n complète nict!n)d of dcterniining
the<;un'c))t u~ln1,,
2!)t.Cm-t-L'))t-s)tcctsaudem-rcnt-f).mctu)ns g.to
2n~.H<pt!itiuuof'continuity' ot~
20U. Qucmtityofdcctt'ieity winch ftowsthrough~givcn surface 3.1.j
CONTENTS, xxvii
CHAPTER VIII.
IŒSISTANCKASU CONDUCTIYITYIN TUHJ~ DIMENSIONS
CHAPTEK IX.
(,'ONDUCTIOXTintOUUH imTEHOGËNEUUS MËDFA.
310.Sm'faefj-conditK)ns 3~0
3tl.Sp!icnc)dsu['faec
3!2.S})!ierIca)shci! 3~3
313. Sp)ienc:t)st)cnpttteediuaHc!d(jfunifonn<tow 3(;.j
31-1. Mcdmn)i)iw)uehsu]td!s})hut'cafn'cunifonnlydi8seminated 3C5
315. tn)ugesi!)~]))unc surface. 3~~
31G. McDiodofinverstoMnot applicable inthree dimensions. 3fj7
317. Case uf conduction t)n'ou~)i a. stratum bouudcd by parallcl
l'Lmes g(jy7
318. Infunto scries of images. AppUcation tu magnetic induction 3(j8
319. On stnitifled couductor.-). Cooiticienta of conductivity of a
couductor cotiaistmg of altcrnatu strata. of t\o dincrent sub-
stances g(jf)
320. If neitherof thc substtuiccs lias thc rotatory propcrty dcnotcd
by7'thecontpoundeonductoi'isfreefromit 370
321. If Uiu substances arc isotropic thé direction of grcatest resist-
ancuisuormultothetitratu. 37)1
322. Médium contauungparailcicpipedsofanothct'mcdium 3711
323. Ttiu rotntury prupcrty c.mnot bc iotroduccd by mcauH of con-
dutjtiugchanuds 37~
324. Construction of an artificia) sutid imving givcu codncients of
toti~itudinalandtrausvcrscconductivity 373
xxvill ODXTHy'rs.
OJIAPTER X.
(;n\)~'f'T)t)\ )Nni~),t:<"rn[('s.
)'r.
:). ïnastri~tlyi~~nugcncot~smcdiu))) Li)'')Tc.n)))t;)t.) interna)
~Sc :!7.t
:!2C. T))curyof a condenser In w))ic!tt)tedic!cctrit.;is
u'jtaperf'cct
insuiatur .)--
.27.~()rcH!dt)n)c)Mrgc duc tu simple conduction 37~
~28.T))eoryot'acom))us!tc)tccuu)u)ato! 37~
:!29. Residua)d)nrgc)U)dctectrica)
absorption ~73
~3<T<)t:))disc)nn- JoUr,Qn
;i.'i].Ct)n]pan.sot)W)t!tt)~('on<tn(;tiunf)f!)eat. 'jgt
332.T!)(.'<'ryuftc]c~m))h ''ahicH~ndcoutjwnsouor~hec~untionH
wit))tfiosc'<)ftit('con(]nctio))('f')K':)t ~gj
.3. Opinion <)f0]nn un ttussubjcct ~gt
;U.Mcch!unca)iI)ustr.)t!()nofthf)~)-0))<'rtio.'jf)<'ndic]cct)'ic 33~
CHArTHK Xf.
CHAPTER XII.
:i.')f).]\L't~Ls,(.'icet!-o]ytcs,auddK.')uch'ics .)j.,
.')(!(). RcMstitnccofjnehdti.ni (i
.< nc~istttnc~ofmcrcury )~ï
.<!2. T:))))('of résistance of mcta).s .)8 fi
.<?. I!c'.iMtft!)cc<.)fc)e(;h'oIytps.j!) !)
.'«iLExpcrimcntsofraaIxow .1~
~'5.
Hxt<eri)ncntH«fK()])]rtmschi'jntNipp<t)dt. 20
.'i(!().HcMintancc()fc)ietcctt'ics )2t
.'iC7.(Jutt,a-pc)'ch:t .)~:j
.<'8.(!Ias.s. ,j~j
3('!).(!aM-s .j
370. Exp(.'rin)t'i~Hf))"\Viedc)u:mn:m<)Uu))!tu:m)) )2f)
ËLECTRICITY AND MA&NETISM.
ERRATA. VOL. I.
/<Ë)
~0 -P n"=ao
is zero, because the curve a =
a. is reduced to n. point at which
there is but one value of~Vand of x.
Tbc two linc intc~ra)s,
PRELIMINARY.
The theory of dimoMionn was Hrat atat~ ).y Fourier. y/tf'o)-e de C7t<t~!o-, § 160.
.5.]] THH TIIREH FtJNDAMENTAÏ, HNtTS. 3
.=~~=.
~.2~
whence = Since r and are both
2 Icn~ths, and t is a
time, this equation cannot bc true unicss the dimensions of are
[/< ~]. The same can be shewn from any astronomicat
tion in whieh the mass of a, equa-
body appears in some Lut not in a])
of thé terms -t-.
0. ~1~
Uct. L..fH.)u.u)e/ .<e,~ of r~~
]~. Ihb. (,). Stonuyon ''rhu Jnturt~t ~lutinns of (;s'
18C8 .nd Sir W Thn,o..n Th..Si.e .f ..U.s.- .V~ /)'/t; Anb..
lie nhout \;32,000,000pounclH, uf
h~h~O~
6.J DERIVE!) UNITS. 5
~/M~.S'.
0;t 7'/y.y/'<
C~MK//y ~M~M/
7.] A quantity is said to vary conti]iuous1y when, if' it passes
from one vahtu to anothcr, it assumes ail thé intermediate
values.
We may obtitin the from a
conception ofcontinuity conside-rafion
of the continuons existence oi'ft particle of matter in time and
spar-e.
Such a partic)e cannot pass irom onc
position to anothcr without
dcs~-ihius- n conLinuous line in space, and thé coordinates of its
position must he continuons functions ofthe timc.
In thé so-called < erjuation of' as s-iven in treatises
eontinuity,'
on Hydrodynamics, thé iact
cxpressed is that ma«cr cannotappcar
in or disappcar from an élément of volume withont
passin~ in or out
throug'h the sidcs of that etcment.
A quantity is said to be a continuous function of its
variables
whcn, if thc variables alter coitinuonsly, thé qnantity itse!f alters
cont!nuous)y.
T)ms, if Il is a function of.~ and if, while x passas
continuousiy
from .7~ to .?- )< passes
contmuousty from 7~ to but \vhen x
passes from to r. 1t passes from M/ to H~ diffèrent from
bcing
then /< is sud to have a. in its
discontinuity variation \vith
respect to -v for thé value = a- hceause t passes ahruptiy
from
to ?// while .?.-passes
continuous)y <hroug)i .p,.
If we eonsider thé différential eocfnclent of Mwith
respect to for
the value = as thé limit of thé fraction
~o
Thé case in which thc components ofthc flux are //M~/ functions
of those of t!tc force is discnssed in the c'hapter on thé
Equations
of Conduction, Art. 296. Therc are in gencral nine cociHcientH
which determine the relation bctwcen thé force and thc nux. In
certain cases we have rcason to bcheve that six of thèse cnenicicnts
form three pairs of equnt quantities. In such cases thé relation he-
t-wecn the line of direction of thc force and thé !iortn:d pianc ofthe
nux is of the samc kind as that bet\cen a diameter of a.n cHipsoid
and its conjngate diametral p)anp. In Quaternion iangua~e, thc
one veetor is Hnid to be a linear and vector funetion of thc othcr, :uid
whcn therc arc thi-ee pairs of equa! coeflicielits thé fonction is said
to bc scif-conju~'ate.
In tht- case of magnetic induction in iron, the flux, (the
ma~
nctizatiott of thc iron,) is not a linear funetion of the magnetlxi!~
force. In aH cases, howcver, the product of the force and the
flux rcsolvcd in its direction, ~ivcs a resu)t of scicntific
import-
ance and tliis is aiways a scalar (juantity.
14.] There are two mathematical opcrations of frcquunt occur-
rence whieh arc appropriatc to these two classes of vcctors, or
direct cd quantities.
In the case of forces, we have to takc the intégrât
along a Une
of thé produet of an e)emcnL of thé line, and the resolved
part of
thé force along that élément. TIie result of this opération is
called thé Liue-integra! of thc force. It represents thé wnrk
donc on a body carried niong the linc. In certain cases in which
the IIne-integral does not depend on thc l'orm of thé line, but
only on thé position of its extrcmities, thé line-integral is called
thé Potential.
In thé case of fluxes, we have to take t])e
intégral, over a surface,
of thé nux through every clement of the sttrface. Thc rcsult of
t))is opération is ca!)cd tlie Surfhce-intt~ra! of t))c Onx. It rcni'c-
sents the quant!ty which passes through thc ëurface.
Thcrc are certain suHact's ncross which thL'rc is no flux. Iff'
t\vo of these sur&ces intérêt, their line of intersection is a !i!K!
of Hux. In thosL' cases in w!tic)) the flux is in thé s:tmc Jircetion
as the force, lines of this kind are oftctt (;a!tcd Ijitins of Force. It
would be more correct, I)ow~vcr, to spc'ak of thcm in eleetrostatics
and ma~netics as Lines of Induction, atld in electrokinematics as
Lines of Ftow.
15.'] There is another distinction hctwccn différent kinds of
directed quantitics, which, Hiough in a physical
very important
~-] HNR-INTEGRALS. 13
0~ ./</KC-~M~y~
16.] Thé opération of integration of thc resolved part of a vector
quantity along a line is important in physical science generally,
and should he c]ear)y understood.
Lct .T, r he the coordinates of a
point 7' on a. line whosc
ten~th, mcasnred from a certain point is s. Thèse coordinates
will bc functions ofasingle variu.hie
Lut 7)' be the value of thé veetor
quant.ity at .7~ and ]ct t))o
tangent to thé curve at 7-' make with the direction of thc ang!e f,
then ~coM<=is thé
resoNed part of 7i' atun~ the line, and thé
intl'grnl
intégral
= cos e
°
is called thé linc-intcgral of' R
along thé Jine ~f.
We may write this expression
L~y~ + <7
''o0 r/.< + ~-7-)
14 PRELIMI~ARY. [i6.
ÛM7~<
Thc quantity is a scalar function of thé position of thc point,
and is tlicrefore independent of thé directions of référence. It la
called thé Potential Function, aud thé veetor quantity whose com-
ponents are is said to have a potential if
xY = (rl~),
F=
1, _(0-I¥), Z=
~=- ~='~)'dz)
~Vhen a potential function exists, sm'Ihces for which thé po-
tential is constant are called Equipotential surfaces. Thé direction
of 7~ nt any point of such a. surface coincides with tlie normal to
thé surface, and if ? bc a normal at thc point P, then Il = ·
ilt-
Thé metbod of considering the components of a vector as thé
first derivatives of a certain funetion of thé coordinates witli re-
spect to thcse coordinates was invented Ly Laplace in his treat-
ment of the theory of attractions. The name of Potentiat was first
given to this function by Orcen t, who made it the basis of his
trcatment of electricity. Green's essay was ncglected by mathe-
matic-ians ti!l 1846~ and before that time most of its important
theorcms had been rediscovered by Gauss, Chasies, Sturm, and
Thomson j:.
In thc theoiy of gravitation thé potential is taken with thé
opposite sign to that which is here used, and tlie résultant force
in any direction is tben measured by thé rate of ~MC;Meof thé
M<'c. liv.iii.
Ct'leHte,
t HtiMty on thoA~ptictttxni [<f~):tthetnatica) An~tyHHtot.he'n~eorieftofEtectricity
nnd Mnj~t~tisn), K~tti)~h:t:n, ~S2S. Keprinted in Crc~f' ~ur!K! and in Mr. Fcrrcr'a
édition of Grcun'H \Vt)rkn.
Thontson and Tait, A~/xr~ fMo:o/ § 483.
1~.] RELATION BKTWEEN FORCE AND POTENTIAL. 15
rapiddecreaseof~
thé conditions
18 There arc cases, !)owcver, in which
= 0, ~==0, 0 and ~~==0. 0
/M ~~t'M
C/C/U-M'A- and 7~<yMM~.
Surfaces arc either complete or hounded. Complete surfaces are
eitbcr infinité or closcd. Bounded surfaces are limitcd by one or
more eloscd lines, which may in thé limiting cases become finite
lines or points.
A finite région of spacc is bounded by one or more closed
surfaces. Of tliese one is the external surface, the others are
If' two curvcs are such that one of them may be transformée}
into the other by continuons motion without at any time passing
throug'h any part of space for which the condition of having a,
potcntial is not futnited, thèse two curvcs are called ReconcDeabIe
curvcs. Curves for which this transformation cannot be effected
are called Irreconcileable curvcs
Thé condition that ~c+J~+Zr/j is ft. complete diHercntiat
of some iunction for all points within a certain region, occurs in
several physical investigations in which the directed quantity and
tlie potential have dinbt'cnt physical interprétations.
In pure kinematics we may suppose -Y) to Le thé com-
ponents of thc displacement of a point of' a continuous body whose
original coordinates are a' then tlie condition expresses that
thèse displacements constitute a MOM-o~<< N~'a<Mt.
If X, J~, Z represent thé components of thé velocity of a fluid at
the point z, then thé condition expresses that thc motion of thc
nuid is irrotational.
If A~ J~ represent thé components of the force at thc point
.c, y, z, then thé condition expresses that the work donc on a
particle passing from one point to another is tlie différence of thé
potentials at these points, and thé value of this différence is thé
same for ail reeoncileabte paths between thé two points.
0/< <S'/<<c<
21.] Let r/~be thc clément of a surface, and e tlie an~Ie which
a normal to thé surface drawn towards thé positive side of thé
surface makes with the direction of thé vector quantity 7~ then
= (i)
/V~ +~r~ + ~V ~r/
SeeSirW. Thomson 'OnVortcx Afotiun.' Tr~. & Fdt'ft., 1869.
-t- SeeTbomaon and TMt'a A~a<ttm< /tt7<«~ § 190 (i).
c 2
20 rHELHHNARY. [21.
~~=~ (,)
thé double Integ-ration being connned to the e!osed
surface, but
tlie triple intégration heing extcnded to thé whole enclosed
space.
Hence, if are continuous and finite within a dosed surface
'S', thé total surface-intégral of ovcr that surface will be
f rll'
dX dl'
PLcos E(18 rlI' r_IZ (le (lyelz,
ff
~=.~(~)~ ff Tt ) (S)
thc triple intégration being extended over tlie whole
spacc within S.
Let us next suppose that J", Z are not continuous within the
closed suHacc, but that at a certain surface
F(~ y, z) = 0 thé
values of Y, Z alter abrupt.ty from A-, Y, Z on thé negative side
of thc surface to on thé positive side.
If this discoQtinuity oecurs, say, and .ï' the value
between
of~wiHbe
dY
(X' X), (~
(6)
x~
where in thé expression under thé
intégra! sign only thc finite
values of thé derivative of ~'are to be considered.
In this case therefore thé total
surface-integ-ral of R over the
closed surface will be expressed hy
22.] ] SOLENOIDAL DISTRIBUTION. 21
~=~(~+~(r-z)~~
+ (7)
+ //(~- F) /)
or, if w~ M'are the direction-cosines of the normal to thé surface
of discontinuité and r~S'~an element of that surface
~=/F~
~Y 0
--+-+-=0
~°
is fu!<i!lcd, then the surface-integral taken over any elosed surface
drawn within this région will be zero, and the surfaec-integrat
takcn over a bounded surface within thc région will dépend only
on the fnrm ofthe elosed curve which forms its boundarv.
It is not, howevcr, gencraUy true that the same results fol!o\v
if thc rcgion witbin which the solenoidal condition is fn!ntled is
bounded otttcrwise than by a single surface.
For if it is bounded by more than one continuous surface, one of
thèse is thc external surface and the others are interna! surfaces,
PERIPHRACTIC REGIONS. 23
22.]
Thé cnntbine.) Mt.iuu of the muMieK of thé arm whe~i wo turn tho Kidt.- of
thé n~ht-hanf) ~ttwimt.s, and at thé Mme time thrust the han<! opner
fnrwttr<!s, wiU
imptess tho r~itt-h~ided ncrew motion on the m~ra firmJy than any vcrbf).]
d<ih!nt]..)t. A commun corkfferuw may be used mutnnry tM n nxttBriat symbot of thé t~me
r<t)un.
Pr<r \V. H. MitL-r Lns sug~~ed to mo th:tt aH thé t~tri~ of the vine are
r:nht-!)~.)dcd scruw.s.-m<)th.Mc of t)ie h..p ieft-hande~). the two .syMt~tttHofrulations in
fip~cc nu~))t he called those of thti vine Mu) the hop re~pectivciy.
T)~ Hyston ofthc vine, whieh wc adopt, is th~t of LinmL-uH. and of Hcrew-tUftkeM
in aH civilized cou~triu.) exccpt J.tpatt. De CMtdo!te w!m the first w]to called thé
hop-t.endnt nKht-h.mdHd. M,d in thie hu ts foltowed hy LittinK. an<[ by most M-riterq
on the rot~orypotarizatton of ]i~,t..Sercws like thé hop-tendrit are made for tho
coupUnga of raHv.carri:~es. M)d for the nttinss of wheeb). H.e left si<)e of
ordinary
camagoB, but they arc aiways called )eft.handed screws by those who use them.
2~.] LINE-INTEGUALAND SURFACE-INTEGRAL. 25
~< or
thé order of intégration bcing x, y in thé first expression, and~,A-
in thc second.
This relation hetwccn thc two products and may
bc comparcd with that between t!)e products of two perpendicular
vectors in the doctrine of Quaternions, t)ic sign of winch dépends
on the order of multiplication, and with thé reversai of the sign
of a deteriniriant when the adjoiiiing ro\vs or columne are ex-
changed.
For similar reasons a volume-intégral is to be taken positive when
thé order of intégration is in the cyclic order of the variables a; z,
and négative wlicn thc cyclic order is reverscd.
Wc now proceed to prove a theorem which is useful as Cfta-
bhshing a connexion between the surface-Intégral taken over a
finite surface and a line-integral taken round its houndary.
/<
24.] T~~EO'~).E~f IV. ~KC-< ~OMM~ a C~iS~M~
M~ ~6 e.C~e~ Ï~ ~M a
surface ~oKK~e~ ~6 c?~-<'e. ~K~XM~<~t\~
-Lt' ?
Let X, Y, Z be thé components of a vecto~~uantity who~e Hnc-
integral is to bc taken round a closed curve s.
Let S he any continuous finite surface bounded entirely by the
closed curve and let be thé components of another vector
quantity related to X, Y, Z by the equations
~F
~=~ ~=~
Thcn the surface-Intégral of S&taken over tlie surface S is equal to
tlie linG-Integjal of taken round thé eurve s. It is manifest that
f fulnl of themselves thé solenoidal condition
.o O.
f/y
Let l, M, M bo the direction-cosines of thc normal to an clement
26 PREL)M!NARY. [2~.
~(~+M~MO~. (2)
In order to form a definite idca of thé meaning- of thé element
wo sbaiï suppose that the values of thc coordinates .?', for
evcry point of thc surface are given as fonctions of two inde-
pendent variables a and If /3 is constant and a varies, the point
(~ z) will describe a curve on the sur~ee, and if a series of values
is given to /3, a series of such curvcs will be traced, aH lying on
the surfitce 8. In thc same way, by giving a. series of constant
values to a, a second series of cnrves may be traced, cutting thé
first series, and dividin~ thé wholo surface into elementary portions,
any one of which may be taken as thc element
Thé projection of this element on thé plane of z is, hy the
ordinary formula,
l.t 7~
rl S rl rh rl~
'~=(~)~~ rl: dfl (la. ( )
Thé expressions for w~6' and are obtained from this by sub-
stituting'.?', In cyclic ordcr.
Thé surface-intégral winch we have to find is
/(~+M~+-~)~, (4)
or, Bubstituting- the values of (' in terms of A', J", Z,
~A~ dX
riX rAY .</r dZZ
M t+ M -}- M (tZ) r~.
ff (tM
V~ 7/.v (l~- (5)
Thc part of this which dépends on X may be written
/n~ ~A' ~~y\
< ~)- (~ ~)} ~)6
f/ t 4.
i~ '<< daa ~a
~A'~ ~Y~ f/.Y~~
tla (li- (70 7ï~ 71 ¡3da' ()7
(7)
-+~~+7/ (ly (1[3
;Y~Y~ ~Y~~ de ela.
(7-~y
(lx
=~)~ (/v ) (8)
As we have made no assumption as to the form of the functions
a and /3, we may assume that a is a function of A', or, in other
words, that thé curvcs for which a is constant are those for whieh
HAMILTON'S OPERATOR V. 27
2.]
OMa !:ee~)'/?<o~.
<?? ~c< of the ~c)'~i'o~'V
is that by
25.'] We have seen that the opération denoted by V
which a vector quantity is deduced from its potential. Thé same
vector funetion, produces
opération, however, whcn applied to a
results which enter into the two theorems wo have just proved
vector displacements,
(III and IV). Thé extension of this operator to
and most of its further development, is due to Professer Tait t.
Let o- he a vector function of p, the vector of a variable point.
Let us suppose, as usual~ that
p = ~+~+/
and o-==~+yy+~
where J~ are the componenta of 0- in the directions of the
axes.
We have to perform on <rthé operation
\7 == -T- +? +
r/y
this and the rules for thé
Pcrforming operation, remembering
Thix theorem was given t'y Profesaor Stokes. ~m)'</t'i) 7't'MCF.nmu)f!<!0tt, 18S4.
nue'<ti"n 8. It it proved in Thomsun ttnd T:nt's ~~ttt-ft~ ~/t!0)'o~/ty. § 100 (j).
-)-'See l'roc. 7~. April 2S, J 8C2. On Green'H and other allied Theorems.
?'Mw.< -S. 7~'H., m69-70. very v~iunUo pttpcr; and On soma Quatenuon
7't'oc. R. S. ~Htn., 1870-71.
Intègres.'
28 l'RHLIMINAHY. [25.
and (IV)
/p =/Y~.V(r~
where <7?is an element of a volume, ds of a surface, f/ of a carve,
and Uv a unit-vector in thc direction of thé normal.
To understand the meaning of thèse functions of a vector, let us
suppose that o-o is thé value of o- at a point P, and let us examine
thé value of o-–o- in thé neighbourhood of P.
If we draw a closed surface round P~ then, if thé
surface-intégral of <rover this surface is directed
inwards, 'S'~7o-will he positive and the vector
o'o near thé point P will be on thé whole
t directed towards as in the figure (1).
I propose thercfbrc to call thé scalar part of
Fi~.l. ~o' the coM~ycMeeof o- at thé point JP.
To interpret thc vector part of Vo-, let us
suppose ourselves to be looidng in the direction of the vector
whose eomponcnts are ~j and let us examine
'"thé vector cr–o~ near thé point F. It will appcar
1 as in thc figure (2), this vector Lcing arranged on
V' thc whole tangentially in thé direction opposite to
the hands of a watch.
~'e'
I propose (with great diffidence) to call the vector
part of 7<r thé c/~7, or thé t'~OM of<7-a.t the point P.
26.] CONCENTRATION. 29
so that thé value at thé centre cxceeds or falls short of thé mean
value according as V~ is positive or negative.
I propose therefore to call V'~ thé coKc~M~OM of q at thé
point P, because it indicates thé excess of thé value of q at that
point over its mean value in thé neig-hbourhood of thé point.
If q is a scalar function, the method of finding its mean value is
well known. If it is a veetor function, we must find its mean
value by thé rules for integrating vector functions. Thé result
of course is a veetor.
CHAPTER I.
DESCRIPTtOXOF PHENOMENA.
.F/f~/y~'C~~M ~C<OM.
27.] ExpENMENT1 Let a piece of glass and a piece of resin,
neither of whieh exhibits any electrical properties, be rubbed to-
gether and left with thé i-ubbed surfaces in contact. They will
still exhibit no electrical properties. Let them be separated.
They
will now attract eaeh other.
If a second piece of glass be rubbed with a second piece of
resin, and if thé pieces bc then separated and suspended in the
neighbourhood of thé former pieces of glass and resin, it may be
observed-
(1) That thé two pieces ofglass repel each other.
(2) That each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin.
(3) That thé two pièces of resin repel each other.
Thèse phenomcna of attraction and repulsion are called Elec-
trical phenomena, and thé bodies which exhibit them are said to
be electrified, or to he c~;y6~ electricity.
Bodies may be electrified in many other ways, as well as by
friction.
Thé electrical properties of thé two pieces of glass are similar
to each other but opposite to those of thé two pieces of resin,
thé glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin
attracts.
Sue Sir W. Thornson On thé Mathematica! Theory of Electricity,' C«Ht&t-t'<~e
<tM(!.DuHtn .Vft</tem<!<t'<'«!yf)NrMft<.
Marct), 1818.
28.] RLHCTRIFICATION. 31
y~j'/f'ca/~M /;<<<M.
T)iM, and aevertd experiments which follow, are due to l''M-:tday, On Static
Electrical Inductive Actiot).' P/«' Jt/a~ 1843, or F~p. 7! ~o]. ii. p. 279.
32 ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMHNA. [29.
being within it, and which vanishes when ttjc glass is removed, is
called Electrification by induction.
Similar effects would be prodnccd if the g]nss were suspended
near tlie vessel on thé outside, I)ut in that case we should find
an elcetrification vitreous in one part of the outside of thé vessel
and resinous in another. 'When thc glass is inside thé YCHsd
thé whole of thé outside is vitreously and the wholc of thé inside
resinously electrified.
~6'C~OK ~y C~M~C/~M.
29.] ExPERiMKN'rIII. Let thé métal vessel he electrified Ly
induction, as in thé ]ast cxperiment, let a second metallic body
be suspended by white silk threads near it, and let a metal wire,
similarly suspended, be Lroug-ht so as to touch simultancousiy thc
electrified vessel and tlie second hody.
Thé second hody will now bc found to bc vitrcousiy electrified,
and thc vitreous electrification ofthf vessel will have diminished.
The clectrical condition has hcen tnmsferred from thé vessel to
the second body by means of thc \vire. Thc wire is called a M~-
<<6' of electricity, and tlie second body is said to be ~c/
COM~C~'O?:.
CoMf/M<?~~
~M~ 7MM~O~.
ExpERiMENTIV. If a glass rod, a stick of resin or gutta-percha,
or a white silk thread, had been used instead of the metal wire, no
transfer of clectricity would have taken place. Hence these latter
substances are cal!ed Non-conductors of electricity. Non-conduc-
tors are used in electrical expérimenta to support electrified bodies
wit1)ou-t carrying off their electricity. They are then called In-
sulators.
Thc metals are good conductors air, glass, resins, gutta-perel)a~
viileaiiite, paraffin, &c. arc good insulators but, as we shall see
aftenv!<.rds, all substances resist the passage of electricity, and all
substances allow it to pass, though in execedingly dif!erent degrees.
Titis subject will be considered when we come to treat of thé
Motion, of electricity. For thé présent we shall consider only two
classes of bodies, good conductors, and good insulators.
In Experiment II an electrified body produced electrification in
thé metal vessel whilc separated from it by air, a non-eonducting
medium. Sueh a medium, considered as transmitting these electrical
pneets without conduction, has been called by Faraday a Dieleetric
8UMMATION 0F ELECTRIC EFFECTS. 33
~1.]
is called
médium, and the action which takes place through it
Induction.
lu Expcriment III thé electrified vessel produced electrification
in the second metallic body throug-h t)tc médium of thé wire. Let
us suppose thé wire removed, and the cleetnficd pièce of glass taken
out of thé vesse) witliout touching- it, and removcd to a sufHt-ient
distance. Thc second body will still exhibit vitreous cIcctriiiL-a-
have résinons
tion, but thc vessel, whcn thc glass is removed, will
clectrification. If wc now brit)~ thé wire into contact with Loth
all clectri-
bodies, conduction will take place along thé wire, and
the cicc-
fleatiou will disappear from hoth bodies, shewing that
trification ofthc two bodics \vaH equfil aud opposite.
II it was shewn that if
30.] Exi'ERDiENT V. In Experimcnt
a pièce of glass, clectrined by rubbirg it with resin, is hung up in
outside does
an insulated metal vessct, thc electrification observed
not depend on ttte position of thc glass. If we now introduce thé
rubbcd into thé same vessel,
pièce oi' resin with which thé glass was
there is
without toudiing it or thé vessel, it will he found that
no electrification outside thc vessel. rrom this we conctude t))at
to that
thé eleeti-iiication of thc resin is exactly equal and opposite
of hodies, electrified in
of thé glass. By putting- in any number
dcctrincation of thc outside of
any way, it may be sliewn that thé
tlie e!cctr:uca-
the vessel is that due to thé algebraic sum of aU
are resinous. We have
tions, those bcing reekoned négative which
thus a practicat method of adding tt.e eleetn~ effccts of several
bodies without altering the electrification of each.
insulated metallic vessel, 7~,
31.1 ExpEtUMENT VI. Let a second
he provided, and let thé clectrified piece of glass be put into tbe
second vessel
first vessel A, and thé electrified picce of resin into the
thé metal
Let the two vessels bc thcn put in communication by
Ail signs of clectnucation will dis-
wire, as in Experiment III.
appear.
thc ptcces of glass a.nd of
Next, let thé wire be removcd, and let
It will
rcsin be taken out of thé vessels without touching them.
be fbund that is electrified resinously and J~ vitreousiy.
into a
If now thé glass and thé vessel A be introduced togethcr
that there is no elec-
larger insulatcd vessel C, it will be fuund of A is
trification outside C. This shews that the electrification
of thé pièce of glass, and that
exactly equal and opposite to that to that
of 7? may be shcwn in the sMne way te he equal and opposite
of thé piece of resin.
VOÏ-. 1)
34 ELECTUOSTATIC rHHXOMEX.A. [3~.
Wu have thus obtained a mcthod of charging a vcssel with a
qnantityofc!eetricityux:K'Hycqua!and opposite to that ffan
etcctrIficdbodywithoutidto'ingH~ccIccti'Incation ofthe ):it.tcr,
and wc may in this way chafge any number of vcssels with exac'Hy
t'qua1quantitiesofc)ectricityofcith(;rkind,whichwcmayt:tke
forprovisionalunits.
33.'] Exi'EKiAtENT VII. Let the ycsse) 2~, chargcd with a. quan-
tity of positive c')cctricity, which \vc shall call, ior the presc'nti,
unity, he introduo.'d into the larger insniated vessel C without
ionchmg' it. It will prodncu a positive elcctrification on thé ont-
sidc of 6'. Now let 7~ 1e made to touch thc inside ci' C. No change
cf'titc cxtcrnfd cIccti'IHcut.ion will hc observed. If'j9 is now t:d<cti
out of C withont tonchii)~- it, a.))d removcd to a stiflieieiit distance,
it will he iou)td that j~ is co)np)ctc)y discharged, and that C t)as
bccotne chargcd with a. utiit of positive c)cctricity.
Wc hâve thus a mcthod oftransfL'rri])~ thc charge of7~ to 6'
Lct be now rechat'g'ed with a unit of ciccti'icity, introduced
into C a.h'cady charged, made to touch thc inside of C, and l'c-
moved. It. will hn fuuud that 7~ is a~ain comptutety discharged,
so that thé charge of C is doubled.
If this process is rcpcatcd~ it \vin he found that howcvcr hig'h)y
C is previousiy chargcd, and in whatever way 7~ is chargcd, whcn
is first entirely cnc!os<Mtin C, then madn to touch C, and finaDy
removed without touching C, the charge of' is comp!etc)y tt'ans-
fcrred to C, and j9 is entirc]y free from cteetrification.
This expcrimcnt indicates a mcthod of cl)arg'ing a body with
any ntunhcr of units of clectricity. \Vc shall n!id, whcn we corne
to the mathematical theory of electricity, that thé result of titis
expo'iment at!ords an accuratc test nfthc truth ofthe theory.
33.~ Before wc proccfd to thf investigation of thé law of
elcetrical force, let us cnumerate thé tacts \ve )tave already esta-
b!ishcd.
By placing any clectrified system insidc an insulated houow con-
ductin~ vessel, and examitung the resultant effcct on the outside
of' the vessel, we ascertah) the characier of thc total e)ectrifieatiou
of the system placed insidc, withont any communication of elee-
tricity hetween t!te different bodies of thé system.
Thé electrification of thc outside of thé vessel may be tested
with gréât dehcacy hy putting it in communication with an eIec-
troscope.
Wc may suppose the electroscope to co~~sist nf a strip of g'o]d
34"] EIjECTRtCYTY AS A QUANTITY. 35
!eaf hanging bct\veen two bodies chargcd, onc positively, and thé
other negatively. If thé g'o]d leaf becomes electrified it will ineHnc
to\\arjs tlie body \vhose eiectriHcation is opposite to its o\n. Hy
incrcasiog thc electrification of thc two hodies :md thc delicacy of
thcHuspension, an ext-cedio~ysmaH cIcctrHicutiou oi'the gold leaf
may ue detcctcd.
Witcn \c cornu to descrihe eleetromctcrs aud multipliers ~'e
shall fmd ihut therc are still more délicate methods of dutocting
ciccti'tfication and of' testing thé accuracy of our theorcms, but at
présent we shiLt!suppose tlie tcsting' to bc [nadc Ly connccting' the
boHow vessel with a gold Ica,fe]cctroscope.
This method was uscd by Faraday in his very adnumDc dc-
mot]stmtion of thc !:n\'s of clectrical phcuomcna.
34-] I. Thé total electrification of a body, or system of bodics~
rcma.tns always thé same, except in so far as it receives clectrifi-
catin!) from or ~'Ivcs electrification to othnr bodies.
I)i ai! eicctrica! experiments tbe electriileution of bodics is foLUK).
to dian~e, but it is always found that Dus change is due to want
of' pL'rfcct insulatiol, and that as tbe means of insulation are im-
provud., tbe loss of electrification becomes less. 'We may thercfore
assert tbat thé electrification of a body placed in a pcrfectly in-
sulating medium would remain pcrfcct)y constant.
II. AVhen onc hody dcctrifics anotbor by conduction~ thc total
ch'etr)f]catio)i of thé two bodies remains the samCj ti)at is, thc onc
loses us much positive or gains as much négative electrification as
thc other gains of positive or loses ofncg'ative elcctrification.
For if thé two bodies arc enclosed in thé hoDow vessel, no change
of thé total c!cctrif!eation is observed.
III. When electrification is produccd by frieHon, or by
any
other known méthode equal quantifies of positive and nc"'ative eicc-
trification are produced.
For the electrification of thé who]c system
~l.in .1'1 may be tested in
thc liollow vessel, or thé process of electrification
may be carried
on within thé vessel itself, and lowever intense t)m dL-ctri~catiou of
tlie parts of thé system may Le, thé e!cetrific:)tion of the w!)olc,
as indicatcd by the gold Icaf electroscope, is invariably zéro.
T]tc electnhcation of a. body is therefore a pllysiea! quantity
c:)pa)~c of' mpasuremcnt, and two or more electnftcations can be
combincd experimentally with a result of' the same kind as wlien
7%~ ~0 /'YK~.
lu thé theory called that of Two F!uids, ail bodies, in their
unelectrified state, are supposed to Le charged with eqnal quan-
tities of positive and négative ckctncity. These quantities are
supposcd to be so great that ~o process of electrification has ever
yet deprived a body of :dl thé electricity ofeither Idnd. Thé pro<
cess of electrification, accord! n~ to this theory, consista in takin~
a certain q~antity P of positive electricity froni thé body and
communicatin~ it to j9, or in taking- a qnantity JV of negative
electricity from 7? and communicating it to or iu somc eom-
bina.tion of thèse processes.
TIie resuit will hc that A will l'ave ~+~ units of negative
which
electricity over and abovc its remaining positive electricity,
is supposed to he in a state of combination with an equal quantity
of négative electrieity. This quantity ~+~ is called thé Free
FIxed elec-
electricity, thé rest is called thé Combined, Latent, or
tricity.
In most expositions of this theory thé two clectricitics are called
Fhuds/ because thcy are capable of being transferred from one
body to anothcr, and are, within condueting bodies, extremely
38 ELECTR08TATIC
PHENOMEXA. [36.
mobile. Thé other propcrties ot' nuids, such ~.s their inertt~
weig-ht~ and clasticity~ arc not attributcd to thcm by those who
hâve uscd thc theory ici' mcrety mathematieal purposcs but the
use ofthe word Fluid bas bcen apt to mislead the vn~~r, incindin~
many mon of science who arc not natural phi!osop)tcrs~ iind who
have seixed on thc word Fiuid as thc only term in thé statemcnt
of tlie thcnry wlm'h seemcd intcHigihtc to them.
Wc st)a!t sec that thc mathematical tt'catmcnt of't.hc subjcct has
hccn ~t'catly dcvciopcd by writcrs who exprcs': themsetves in terms
of the ~T\vo Fluids' tlicory. Thch' results, ho\vc\'cr, )invc been
dL'dnc'cd cnt!rc]y from dat:), which can bc provcd by expérimenta
and which must, thcrefoi'c be truej whct)]cr we adopt the tticory of
two fluids or not. Thé expcrimcnta) vcriH(jatio!i of the mathe-
matical results thercfure is no évidence for or against thé pccu!i:n'
doctrines of this Itteory.
Thc introduction of two unids permits ns to consider the ne~'a.tivc
c!ectrincation of and thé positive electrification of~ as the efrect
of .7~ o/ of thrcc différent proccst-es which would lead to the same
rcsult.. \Vc have aIrcady 8upposcd it producL'd hy t!)e transfor of
l' units of positive deetricity from to togrether with thé
ti-nnsfer ofA~ units of négative cicctricity from to But if
7~+j'V units of' positive electricity had heen tr:msf(.'rrcd frum
to or if.P+./V units of négative clectricity had heen transferred
from J9 to il, thc resultin~' frec cicctricity' on and on 13 \vouH
have hcen thc same as hcf'orG~ ))nt thé quautity of ~comhined
ctectricity' in wou)d hâve hccn h'ss in thc second case a.nd g'rcater
tin t)]u third than it was in t!œ first.
It wonid appear tlierefore, ~ccording- to this theory, that it iti
passible to alter not only the amount offrcc clectricity in a hudy~
hut thc amount of (.'oinhincd electricity. But no ptmnomcan havn
cvcr Leen observud in ciectritied bodies which ca,n Le tra.eed to the
varying- a.mount of their con)))incd dectricit.ics. IIeno'' cither thc
conibincd ch'ctricities )t!).vûno ohscrvaDc propertics~ or thc amount
of thc comhinud ctectricitics is incapable of variation. The first
nf th~-se alternatives présents no diniodty to the mère ma.thema-
tician, who attributes no propertics to thé nnLds except those of
attr.K'tion and répulsion, for i)i this point of vie\v thé two Ouidu
simpty annul one another, and thcir combination is a truc mitthe-
muticat zero. ]htt to those who eannot use thc word Fluid withont
thinking of a substance it is difHcult to conceive that thc com-
bination of thc two Onids shall have no properties at all, so that
37-] THEORIES 0F ONE AND 0F TWO FLUIDS. 39
7~ ~ce~c ~'<
44.J Thé EIcctric Fic]d is thc portion of space in thé
Lourhood of clectrified bodies, considci-ed ~-itit référence neig-h-
to electric
phenomena. It may be occupicd by air or other
bodies, or it
may bc so-ca))cd vacuum, from which \ve h~ve withdrawn
sub~ance. which wc can act upon with thc means every
at our dis-
posai.
If an clectrified body bc placed at
any part of thc clectric field
it will hc !tctcd on a force which will depend, in general, on
by
thc shapc of thc Lody and 0.1 its
charge, if thé body is so highly
charged as to produce a sensible disturbance in t!te
trification or the othcr bodies. previous clec-
But if the body is very small and its
charge aiso very small,
thé eh'ctnhcation ofthc othcr bodies will not he
and we may coi.sidcr tlie sensib)y disturbed
body as indieating hy its centre of p.ravitv
a certain point of the Md. Thé force
acting on thc Lody will
then bc pr.,port.oual to its and will bc r~crscd whcn the
charge,
charge is reversed.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL. 45
~6.]
Let e be the charge of the body, and the force acting on thc
small F is propor-
body in a certain direction, theu when e is very
tional to e, or J'' = .K<
where 7)' is a quantity depending on thé <)t)terbodies in thé field.
If thé charge e could he made equal to unity without disturhing
the electrification of othcr bodies wc should ha,ve F = 7~.
We shall call R tlie Résultant electric force at thé given point
of the field.
~cc~e 7'~CM~.
e be moved
45.] If thc small body carrying thé small charge
from thé given point to an indemnité distance from thc electrified
a force 7~,
bodies, it will experience at each point of its course
where varies from point to point of thc course. Let tbc who!e
work donc on thé body by these electrical forces he tt)en is
the potential at thé point of the field from which tlie body shu-ted.
If thé charge e could be inade equal to unity without disturbing
the electrification of other bodies, we miglit define the potential at
with unit of elec-
any point as thc work donc on a body ebar~ed
infinite distance.
tricity in moving from that point to an
A body electrified positively tends to move from places of greater
or of négative
positive potential to places of smaller positive,
tends to move in the
potentiaL and a body negatively electrified
opposite direction.
In a conductor thé electrification is distributcd exactly as if
it were free to move in thé couductor according to tbe same law.
If tl)ercfore two parts of a conductor have different potentials,
positive electricity will move from thé part having greater potential
to thc part bavmg less potential as long as that difference con-
tinues. A conductor thcreicre cannot bc m electrical equilibrium
unless every point in it lias tlic same potential. This potential is
callcd tlie Potential of the Conductor.
F~?<?/jo/<i' ~M~ce~.
be described m the
46.] If a surface dcscrihed or supposed to
clectric ncld is such that the eleetric potential is thé same at every
surface.
point of the surface it is called an Eqnipotential
An electrified point constrained to rest upon such a surface will
have no tendency to move from one part of the surface to another,
beeause thé potential is thé samc at every point. An equipotential
surface is therefore a surface of equilibrium or a. levcl surface.
46 ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA. [46.
7~/fC~'M~~MM'ÛM.
DIHLECTtUCS.
.M/y;~M of ~<'c/c~.
53.] It is round that whcn an aceumulatoris formed of certain
dielectrics, t))e fol!owing-phcnomcna occur.
When thc accumulator bas ucen for some time
electrified and is
thon suddenly discharged and
again insu]atcd, it becomes recharged
54.] ELECTRIC ABSORPTION. 51
~p. 7PM..
vo).i. seriesxi. ii. 0)tthé .b)iolntt:ChargoofMfttter,'Mtd(1244).
K2
ELECTHOSTATIC PHEXOMENA. f~.
Z'A~<<; ~a~ye
55.] If thé electromotive force acting at any point of a dielectric
is g-raduaUy inereascd, a limit is at
~ngth rcachcd at which therc
is a suddcn electrical
disch:u-ge through thé dielectric, generally
accompanied with tight and sound, and with a tempomry or per-
manent rupttu-c of thé dielectric.
Thé intensiiy of the electromotive force when this takes place
depends on thé nature of tbe dieteetric. It is grcater, for instance,
in dense air than in rare air, and
greater in glass than in air, but
in every case, if tlie electroniotive force be made great cnong-h,
thc dieicctric gives
way and its insulating power is destroyed, so
that a current of eleetricity takes
place through it. It is for this
reason that distributions
of' electricity for whieh thé electric résultant
force becomes anywhere infinite cannot exist in nature.
7~ j~e<e G'~M'.
Thns, when a conductor having- a sharp point is electrified,
thé theory, hascd on thé hypothesis that it retains its charge,
leads to thé condu.ion that as we
approach the point thé super-
ficial density of the
electricity inereases without limit, so that at
thé point itself thé and thcreforc the resultant
snrfaee-density,
See Fftraday, yo). i., Hcriesxii.M)J xiii.
ELECTRIC GLOW. 53
55-]
7~6 F~/M
grcatcr distances is not mue)] less than this. The ordinary pressure
ofthc atmosphère is about K)32 grammes pcr
square centimètre.
It is difficult to exphun \vhy a thin stratum of air should
require
a. greater force to producc a disruptive it than a
dischargc across
thicker stratum. Is it possible that the air vcry near to thc sur-
face of dense bodics is condcnscd, so as to become a better insu-
lator ? or does tllo pot~ntiat of an cjeetrificd conductor dinbr from
that of thé air in contact with it by a quantity havin~ a maximum
value just bcfbrc dischargc, so that the observcd difTercncc of
potential of thé condnctors is In every case greatci- than thé dif-
férence of potentials on tlie two sides of thé stratum of air
by a
eonstimt quantity equivalcnt to thé addition of about .005 of an
inch to the thicimcss ofthc stratum ? See Art. 370.
AU thèse' phenomenn. diftcr considcrab!y in difTerent gases, and in
the s:).mRgas at (ll(ïere)it dcusities. Some of thé forms of dectrical
discharge through r~rc gases arc cxecedingly rcmarkabic. In semé
cases therc is a rG~thr alternation of lnminous and
dark stratit,, so
that if thé electricity, for example, is passing a tube con<ain-
a]ong
ing a vcry small quautity of gas, a number of luminous disks will
be "cun arranged transverspjy at nearly cqnal hitcrvats
a!ong the
axis of thc tube aud separated by dark strata. If the strength of
the current be increased a ncw disk will start into existence, and
it and thé old disks will arrange themselvcs in closer ordcr. Iti
a tube described by Mr. Gassiot* the Hght of each of the disks
is bhush on thé négative and reddfsh on the
positive side, and
hright rcd in tlie central stratum.
T)tese, and many other phenomena of electrical disekargc-, are
exceeding-Iy important, and when thcy are bettcr understood they
will probably throw great light on the nature of
electricity :Ls we!l
as on tlie nature of gases and of thé mcdium pcr\-ading space. At
présent, however, thcy must be considered as out~ide thc demain of
thé matbematical tlteory of electricity.
/n~~fc(~ft<OfMe<<;)-,
Mttreh, 1866.
59. ELECTMFICA.TION OF TOURMALINE. 57
and tbe othcr end neg'atively electrified. Let thé surface bc de-
prived ofthis apparent c1cctrinc:Ltion by means of a flame or otbcr-
wise, tben if thé crystal bc made still botter, eh:ctrincation of' thc
s:tme kind as before will a.ppcar, but if thé crystal bc cooled thé
oui which was positive when tbe crystal was heated will become
négative.
Thèse elcctrifications are obeerYed nt thé extrcmities of thé nrys-
tit.Hog't'aphic axis. Some erystti!s nre tcrmln:ited by a six-sided
pyramid at one end and by a threc-sidcd pyramid at thé other.
In thèse thc end having the six-sidcd pyramid becomes positive
when thé erystal is I)cated.
Sir W.Thomson supposes evcry portion of thèse and other hemi-
hcdra.1 crystals to have a dcfinite clectric polarity, the intensity
of which depends on thé tomperature. When thc surface is passed
through a itame, evcry part of thc surface becomes c~ctrincd to
sueh an extent as to exactly Hcutmhxe, for ail cxternal points,
thé cffect of thé internai polarity. Thc crystal then bas no ex-
terna.1 electrical action, nor any tcndency to change its mode of
ctc'ctrin.L-ation. But if it bc heated or cooled thc interior polariza-
tion of each particlc of thc crystal is altered, aud can no longer
bc balanced by thé supcrncial electrification, so that there is a
resultant external action.
VOL.I.
CHAPTER II.
HLEMENTARY
MATUEMATICAL
TJIHORY0F STATfCAL
ELECTMICfTY.
ON EI.ECTRÏCDENSITY.
j9~K~M a~ Z~2e.
It is sometimes convenicnt to suppose electricity distributed
on a line~ that is, a long narrow body of which we neglect tlie
F 2
68 )';LECTROSTATJL'S.
f~e ·
Inckness. ln this case wc may dcfinc t]~
te bc thé Inniti,~ linc-dcnsity at any point
.ati. 0)- th.. c-h-ch-icity on an dément' o!-
the
line to in. )e,,g.th of O.at .h.m..nt ~)~cn <he
élément is diminished
wj~unt Iimtt.
If~ denot.~ thé !ii.G-dcnsi<y, tlion t)ic w).o!c
quantityof cicc-
tricity nn a cn.-vc is ~.I,cre is tho dément of thc curve.
= A
Sinu)nr]y, ,f is the
surface-dcn.sity, the who)e quantity of e)ce-
t'-tofy on thc surface is
6
=~ rr
c=~/p~
vhcre is the clément of volume. Thc h-mits of in~ration
in cac.I. case ~rc. thosc of t).c
curvc, thc surface, or thc portion of
spacc cmis)de)'cd.
It is ~anifcst that A, and arc quantities diffbring in kind
c.K.h in space lower than t!.c
prccedi~.o ~at
bebcn~oncehmcnsion
a hnc, t).c quantifies
~A, and will bo of thc
same I.nd, and if Le thc .nit of
length, and A, p .ch the
unit of thc d~nt H..Is of dcnsity, aA, and /'wuieacn cach
dénote oue unit
ofcJcctrk.ity.
body of any form, but on a.n indefinitely smnll body, charged with
an Indefinitely small amount of eh'ctrieity, and
ptaced at any point
of the space to whieh thé electrictd action extends.
By making
thc chnrg-c of tilis
body Indefmitety smaU we rendcr insensible its
disturbing- action o)t tlic c)m)'~u of the nrst body.
Let e be thé chitrgc of this body, and let thc force
acting on
it when placcd at the point (: and let
~)he7~, thc dircction-
cosines of thc force hc M, then we may call thé résultant
force at the point (;~ ~).
Jn spcitking- of thé resnKant electrical force at a
point, we do not
n<-eL-ss:tt-i)yimply that any force is actually exertcd thcre, but. only
that if an electrified body were
ptac-ed therc it would be acted on
by a force ~c, wherc e is thé charge of the body.
.2~ The Résultant electrical force at
any point is the
force which would bc exertcd on a small
body charged with t)ic unit
of positive electricity, Ifit were
placed thcre without disturbing- thé
actual distribution ofeicctricity.
This ibrce not only tends to move an electrified
body, but to
move thé electricity within the so that the
body, positive eh-ctricity
tends to move in t]te direction of and thé négative electricit.y
in the opposite direction. IIenee thc force Il is also called thé
J~eetromotivc yorce at thc point (~ r).
~hen we wish to express the tact that the resultant force is
a
vector, we shall dénote it by the German letter (S. If thc
is a dielectric, then, body
according- to the theory adopted in this
treatise, thc electricity is disptaced within it, so that thé
quantity
of electricity which is forced in thc direction
of @ across unit
of area fixed pcrpendicular to @is
~=~; .lï~;
whcre D is the déplacement, @ th.. résultant
force, and Â~the
~t~cinc inductivc c-apacity of the dielectric. For air, = l.
Jfthe hody is a conductor, the state of eonstraint is
continuaHy
~vi!)S- wav, so that a curre)~ of' conduction is produced and main-
ta)!)Gd as long- as the force @ acts on the médium.
r== /cose~,
''o0
extended from thc bcginning to thc end
the in~ratiort bcin~
of thc nrc.
If we nmkc usc of thc componcnts of thé force R, we find
r == =
(A~i.- -t- r~ + Z~)
A
where thc integration is pci-formed in any way from the point A
to the point P, whether along thé given curvc 01- along any other
Une hetween A and 7-
In this case ris a scalar function of thc position of a point in
of thé point, the value
spaec, that is, when wc know thé eoordinatcs
of r is determinate, and this value is ilidependent of thé position
and direction of thé axes of i-efercnec. Sec Art. 1G.
On Pû~M~ ~<MC/;OM~.
70.] Thé quantity A'+J~+~ is an exact dinerential
whcnever the force arises from attractions or
repulsions whosc in-
tensity is a function of thé distance only from any number of
points. For if be thé distance of one of thc points from the point
(~ z), and If /)'j be thé répulsion, t!ien
in thé direction ~7~, that is, positive clectrieity will tend to pass
from thc conduc'tor ofhig-hcr potenliat to thc ot))er.
Potcntial, in electrical science, lias thc samc rctatiott to EIcc-
tricity that Pt-essnr~, in ITydro.sh).ties, )ms tf) F)tud, or tliat Tem-
pérature, in ThermoJynamics, bas to IIcai. Etuetricity, Fluids,
and lïcat :d) tend to pnss from one place to another, if thé Potcn-
tial, Pressure, or Tonpcratm-e is greatcr in thé first p)ace than in
the second. A fhud is eer<ain)y a substa.nœ, hcat is as certain)y
not a substance, so that t!tou~-)t wc may find assistance from ana-
logies of this kind in fnrmin~- clear idcas of forma! electrical rela-
tions, wc must Le caref'ut not. to let the one or the other &na.)op-y
sn~gcst to us that clectrieity is cithcr a substance like water, or
a statc of agitation !ikc hcat.
r=s(').
Let the clectric density at any point (~, <-)within an e)ec-
trified body hc thcn the pntcntin! duc to the hody is
~=~
Wh. )-={(.t–)~)2+(~~)~~
thé intcgraiion hcing' extended throughout thc body.
potential~ let us write 'LLJ for thé potential function duc to a unit
of clectricity at a distance
Let thé radius of thc sphcrical shell bc and let thc surface-
density he n-. Let 7~ Le any point within thé shell at a distance
from thc centre. Take thc radius throug'h P as the axis of
spherical coordinates, and let he tlie distance from J? to an element
<7~nf thé shell. TItcn the potential at P is
8,
.=~
T ?' a~
r=/00~n sm
/<y'sm6~0de
Now ==
~–2~cos~-}-
?'=~sin6~0.
Hpnce TT = 2 'TT /(,.)
/(.)~ (Ir
F=2~<r-~ /+;'
y~~«–;)
and must be constant for aiï vaines of~j less tlian a
.Mulupiymg both sides t)y~an(i uittcrenttatingwith respect to~j
r= 2~a {/(~+~)+.(a-
Differentiating again with respect to~~
0 =~(~+~).
Since a and~ are independent,
(?-) = C, a constant.
Uencc /(r) = C)'-}.C',
and thé potentia! function is
.= c~.
y.
The force at distance is
got by dinercntia.ting this expression
with respect to and cha.nging' tlie sign, so that
cos 6
fm
and it appears by Art. 21, that if -ï, 7, are thé components of~
and if thèse quantities arc continuous within a région boundcd by a
closed surface S, thé induction reckoned from within outwards is
f/'T, 7. /T/ ~\7 7 7
d,v + il~ + ~)~
ri;
u(
~ccs~=~(~
thé intégration being extended through thc whole space within the
surface.
and therefore 0,
~7~cose~'=
thé integration heing- extended over thé whole closcd surface.
If tlie point 0 is within the etosed surface the ra-dius vector 07~
first issues from the eloscd surface, givin~ a positive value of' e~,
and then lias an equal iiumber of entrances and issues, so that in
this case 7)'cos E ~'S' = e </M.
.ITTC;
~7~COS6< =
4 TTC= -1-n-
~~p~'</y~,
andhyArt.75,
/y~=~'(~+'
If we take as thf closod surface that of thc etonent of volume
<<- wc slutll liave, by uqu~ting- thcse expressions,
dX r/y
~+~+~=~~
and if a potential ~cxists, wc find by Art. 71,
~'V ~~F ~~F
-7? +-+- +4wp=0. 0.
r/ .7~"
This équation, in tlie case in which tlie density is zero, Is called
Laptacc's Equation. In its more général form it was first given by
Poisson. It enabtes us, wlien \ve knowthe potential at every point,
to détermine tlie distribution of electricity.
80 EIjECTROSTATICS. [78.
r/
~+~
and we may express Poisson's equation in words Ry sayijig- that
thé clectric density multiplicd by 47r is thé concentration of thé
tlie potential has no
potential. Wherc there is no ctcctnHcation,
concentration, and this is thé interprétation of Laptaee's equation.
If wc suppose t))a.t in thé superficial and hnear distrilmtions of
thé elec-
electricity thé volume-density p remains finite, and that
tricity exists in the form of a thin stratum or narrow fibre, then,
of thc stratum or the
hy increasing p and diminishing thé dcpth
section of the fibre, we may approach thé limit of truc superficial
or lincar distribution, and thé équation being- true throughout tite
if interpreted in accordance
process will remain true at thé limit,
with thé actual circumstanees.
length v, till it meets thc surface F = a+~ then the value of.~ at
thé extremity of the normal is
~= C~ (12)
~~t
J
where C is a quantity to be determineJ.
rl,Y
Next, let us consider the variation of F and along thé
ordinate p&raUel to x between thé surfaces F= a and 7~=s+~.
Wc hâve 7~ = + + ~'(~)' + Sec., (13)
~ï'ï*
~~+'~+~ ('~
VOL.T.
82 ELECTROSTATICS. [?o.
r/~F'
whence ,+&;c.==C' (](j)
Simihu-ty 7r CTi. 2
~/=C7~ (
(~)
rl'=T''
and
~=6~M~. (20)
~1-
Addiii-
Add.~ + + _Ic = CTI;
c7?;
(- + + ~~)~ (21)
(2,)
~2 ~2
lmt + = 7 aii(l k = vI?
(eX- ( ,Ir r (~
hcncG C'=–47r~=–47r<T, (23)
whcrc <r is the surfacc-dc-nsity; or, muttipiymg- t!te equations
( 12) by M, 1l rcspectivdy, and addin~
,~7~ 2 P2 ~r
r17~ d 1 )+~( rl __)i '~2 rl l i +~~? o. (2~)
~) 1
-)~(~)+~)+4-=~
Tins equation is called the nf 7' at a surjet.
6'M
This cquatinti may also Le u'rittcn
~F, ~7~,
~+~~=~' ( )
(25)
where arc the normals to the surface drawn towards tlie
first and thé second médium respective, and thé potentials
at points on thèse normes. Wc may also write it
7)'~cosf~+jPjCOSfj+47T(r=n; (2(!)
whcre j?~ 7?~ arc thc resultant forces, and
fj.fg thc ang-Ies which
they make with thc normals drawn~o?~ thé surface on either
side.
79.] Let us next determine thé total meclianical force acting on
an ctement of thc c!cctrined surface.
Thé ~encrai expression for the force parallel to x on an element
whosc vu)umc is and volume-density p, is
~7
rl,r, (27)
8<).] FORCE ACTtNG ON AN ELECTIUFtED SURFACE. 83
x = dS + &c.);
~=-(~+~). fi Cv 2 -}.- <~)
(30))
~F, ~r'
silice
or~mee
or, l- Ó) +~-&e.
-~=-~+~ (31)
(~ o/' 7~cc
82.] Ii :t Mue bc drawn whose direction at
course comci~s with tliat of the resultant cvery point of' its
force at that point, thé
line is called a Ijiac of Force.
82.] UNES 0F FORCE. 85
l
IIc-nce = 7~ and~F.. +- = 0,
~f A.~
.[~c/A\
r/f Aj–A.; < A~–A~
Thc sui-facc-dcnsity a' is tiiat of U)L- appiu'eut eicctriftcation
It
prndticcd at thc surtace nf the solid dieicctric by induction.
disfn'peurs entircly w)icn <~e inducing' force is l'cmovcd, but if
duru)~- tLc actiou of thc- luducin~ force thc apparent c-!cctrIRe!),tion
of thu surface is discharg'ed hy passin~' a ihune over the surface,
thun, w!)cn tho inducing- force is t:tkL-n away~ therc will appear an
(;]cctri(!cation opposite to (/
In a hcterog'cueous dieiccti-lc in which varies couLtiuuousIy, if
be tlie apparent volume-dcuHity,
~r
+ +
~c:- +-l7Tp=0.
+.1~~<-n.
SYSTEMS 0F CONDUCTORS.
cy~M.c~M.
85.] Let the system be divided into parts,
that tho potcntial in eaeh ~,&c. so small
part may b. considered constant through-
cut its cxtcnt. Lct &e. be the qnuntities of
c.ac!iof these parts, and let electricity In
&c. bc thcir potcntials.
JcJ: then the potentials will
hecome ~t1i ~tl &c.
Lot us corder thé enect of
change in~ in all thèse
.? css,ons. It will b, equivalent to
charging with a quantity
oF.Icctr~ty &~ These charges must he
po.scdto hc Lrought from a distance at which thé sup~
of the system is .nsensihic. The eleetrical action
work donc in of
brin~
electricity to who~ potential hcforc the is
charge ~.andaftcr
r
theehar~(M+~)/~must]icbetwccn
and (M+ ~) dit.
In the limit we may neglect the
square of and write the
expression
~~M~.
COEFFICIENTS 0F POTËNTIAL AND OF INDUCTION. 89
86.]
S(~)~~=~(~)(~);
wherc 2 (Fe) means the sum of all thé products of thé potential of
cach element into the quantity of clectricity in that element when
M = 1, and M~is thé initial ~nd thc final value of M.
If wc m:tke M~== 0 and ?/~= 1~ wc find for the work required te
chiu'g'c an nneleetnned systcm so that thé electricity is e and thé
potential in each elemont,
<2=~2(~.).
~=~+~+~ (,)
= ~).. + ~r + 7~
Wc have hcrc M lincar cquations eontainin~- cocfHcients of
p'~oitinL
87.] By .so!vin~- t!.csc équations for 7,~ &c. we should ohtain
Mcfjoattons of tlic form
~=~i.+~+?,7;
=
~i /"t .+ /+ f (g)
~.=~i -+~+~ ·
Thé cnemcients in thèse
équations inay bc obiained direcDy from
those ni tlie former
équations. They may be c~ted CocfHcients nf
influctton.
Of thèse is numerically cqud to thc
ou quantity of dccti-icity
when is and aH thc. ot)ier bodu.s aro
potcntial uni<y
at potential zero. This is ca]]<-d thc
Capa<-itv 0!' It dépends
on tlie fnrm and position nfaU thc
conductors lu thé systcm.
Of thc. rest is ti.c <.har~. induecd on
whcn is main-
tai~c-d at. potcnt.al and all thé other
unity c~iductcrs at potentia!
zero. This is called the CocOIcient of
Induction of on
T))c mathcmatica! détermination of the cocniclents of pntfntia)
of capacity from thc known forms and
~nd positions of thc con-
ductors ,s in ancrai dinic~t. We shall af-tcrwards prove that they
ha~ ahvays determinate
values, and wc shall détermine thcir values
in certain special cases. For thc
prient, howevcr, wc may suppose
them <o he detcrmined
hy actual experimcnt.
.CM~ ~f ~~C~
Sincc the potential ofan electrified
point at n distance 7. is thé
charge of electricity divid.d by tlie distance, the ratio ofa
of electricity io a quantity
potential may bu rcprescnted by a line. Hencc
<hc eoofnc~-nts of
capacity and iuduetiou arc orthc nature cf
lines, and thc coefficients of potential
(~) arc of thé nature of the
rcciprocals of lim-s.
88.] I{ECir.HOCAL PROl'ERTY 0F THE COEFFLC1ENTS. 91
~=0==~+~.
Hence =-=“
-yrr
From this foUowsthc important
thcorcm, due to Green
If a charge unity, placcd on the conductor
in prosence of
conductors &c. at potential zero indnces
charges
&c. in these conductors, then, if is discharged and i)~
sulated, and these conductors are maintained at
potentials F
&c., thc potential of~ will be
Kj~+M~~&c.
The quantities (M)arc evidently numcrical
quantities, or ratios.
Thc conductor Ao may bc
supposed reduced to a point, and
~&c. need not be insulated from each
other, but may bc
dificreut clemcntary portions of thc surface of the same
conductor.
We shall sec t!ic application of this
principle when we investigate
Grecn's Functions.
~=~(~7~), (c)
whcre the symbol of summation X inc)udes a)! tcrms of thc form
within the brackets, and )- and
may eacli have any values from
1 to M. From this wc find
(1) rl = sr (E 7s~rlJ~r,1
l ()
''=-~=-~(~~)
as thé expression for the
component of the force which produecs
variation of ~hc gcncrahxed eoordinate <
12 %-r
"'=-(~')- (J;rLR ..l ?(8)
where in thé summation r and hâve each cvery vaine in suc-
cc'ssion from ] to M.
Now~= X~(~~) wherc may ])ave any vniuc from 1 to ?/,
so thatt
93.] RESULTANT FORCE IN TEKMS OF rOTENTIALS. 95
CI)== –~2
*J' S 2 f.F F/7
~-r~j~ (9)
Now the coefficients of potential are connected with those of
induction by ? équations ofthc form
~r(7~r) = (10)
and ~M.(M-I) ofthe form
~(~)=o. (n)
"=~(~)' rl ~p
wherc and may have cach every value in succession from 1
to This expression g-ivcs the rcsuhant force in tcrms of thc
potentials.
If eac!) conductor is comeeted with a battpry or othcr co!)-
trivanee by which its potential is maintained constant
during- ttic
displacement, then this expression is simply
~<3y
(10"=~' (~)
(1J)
under thc condition that all thc potentials are constant.
The work donc in this case durmg- the
displacemcnt 8~ is S~,
and thc eicctrical energy of thc systcm of conduetors is incrcased
hy o~; lience thc energy spent by thé hatterics during- thé dis-
phtcen~nt is
'~8~+8~ = 2~8~ = 28Q. (iG)
h appears from Art. 92, that thc resultant force is equal to
under thé condition that thc charges
(11) L~ of thc conductors arc
constant. It is also, (IQ under the con-
by Art. 93, equal to
ditiou tliat thé potentials of the conductors are constant. If thé
f'onductors arc insulated, thcy tend to move so thnt their energy
i.s diminished, and thc work donc hy thc clectrical forces
daring-
t)ic dis])taccmcnt is equal to thc diminution
ofenerg-y.
ïf thc condnctnrs arc conncctcd with hattcrics, sn t.hat thcir
96 SYSTEMS 0F CONDUCTORS.
fo~ ·
OM<& Co~~?-~oMo/MM~?-
~ee~M~.
94.] If two electrified systems are similar in a geometrical sensc
so that thé leng-ths of
corresponding lines in thc two systems
are as L to Z', then if thé dielectric which
separates the cnnducting
bodies is thc same in hoth systems, the coefficients of induction
and of capacity will be in
t)~e proportion of L to For if wu
considcr con-cspcnding- portions, A and of thc two Systems, and
suppose tlie quantity of clectricity on to he and tbat on
to be then the potentials and r' at eorresponding points
and j~, due to this electrification, will bc
~ind r'
Dut is to ~j~ as L to so that \vc must have
Z~:Z~
But if thé inductive capacity of thc dielectric is different in thc
two systems, being- in the first and in the second, then if thé
potential at any point of the first system is to that at thc (.01--
responding point of tlie second as F to and if thé quantités
of electricity on corresponding- parts are as to we shall have
Z~A':Z~~
Bythis proportion we may find thé relation bctwcen thé total
electrification of corrcspondmg- parts of two
systems, whicti are
in the first place g-eomctrieaUy similar, in thé second
place com-
poscd of dicicetnc mcdia ofwhieh thc die)cctrie inductive
c-apacity
at corresponding points is in the
proportion of K to A" and in
thc third place so electrified that tlie
potcntials of corrcspondin~ °
points are as to F~.
From this it appcars Diat. if q he any cocfEcicnt of
capacity or
induction in thé first System, nnd thé corresponding one in thc
second,
<?=/=.. Z~
and If and denote corresponding- coefficients of potenti:).! in
the two systems, 1 1
~=T~'
94-.] COMPARISON
<)F StMILAI!SYSTEMS. 97
or T.
7'
T~À' /À"
Thc first oi' these proportions shews that in similar systems the
force is proportional to the square of the electromotive force and
to the inductive capacity of the dielectric, but is indcpcndcnt of thé
actual dimensions of the system.
Hence two condnctors placed in a. liquid whose inductive eapacity
is greater than that of air, aud ficctrified. to g'ivcn potentiais, will
attract cach othcr more than if they had been ehcc'tl'ined to thé
same potentials in air.
Thé second proportion shcws thnt if thc quantity of electricity
on cach body is g'Iven, the forces arc p report iona! tu thc squares
of tlie cleetrincations and inversely to tbc squares of the distances,
and aiso invcrsety to the inductive capacities ofthe média.
IIcnce, if two conductors with givcn charges are placcd in a
llqnid w)iose inductive capacity is greater than that of air, they
will uttract each other less t!ian if thcy had bcen surrounded with
air and e)cctrined with the sarne charges of e)cctricity.
CHAPTER IV.
OENEHAL
THHOKEMS.
~=/ r
~+~ ~w~. d,~ ~tz.
Y-J /'+<.
'aom
J_~
~–m/-+00*co
J_m
In the di~.rential equation we
express that thé values of the
second derivativcs of V in the
neighbourhood of any point, and
~6.]] CHAHACTEHISTICS0F THE POTENTIAL. H9
)) 2
100 GENERAL
T)f);<)I!)~)S. [0~
(.) At any point of an ciectrined surface at which thé sm-face-
density is <r, thc iirst duri\divc of/ tahen with respect to tho
normal tu thc surface, changes
i~vaiuRabrupttyatthc suriace
sottie
7~ +~.=0,
whcrc and are thé no-mais on eiOn.r side of thesnr~ce, niid
/"at)d arc thc corr~pondm~- potcutiaJs. We sha!) refer to Dus
L-qaatio)) as thc- SupeHiciat Chai-actc;-istic cq nation.
('!) If dL-not~ Oie p<.t<.ntia! at a point whosc distance i'rom
anynx..<) point in afinit~ c.k.L-trica!ystcni is/ th<;nO)(.pro(hK-t
whL-u inc~.ascs IndcfmitcJy, is
u!<imatc!y cqnal to t)tu tota.)
charge m thc finitc sy.sf.cm.
~7'.] ~~w~. Let r hc any continuons fnnction of and
y,
let M, Le functions of snhjcct to thc gL-no-n! sok.noida)
condition
(~
~+~="~
who-c H.csc functions are continuons, and to <!)c superficial so!c-
noida! condition
(~j ~~+M(rj rj + (~ ~) == o, (~
at any surface at w)]ic]i thcsc fnnct.ions nceome
discontinuons,
l, M, M bcin~- t)K' direct ion-cosincs of thé norjna! to thé
surface
tmd xt, < 7~ {i,,d ~}~ y~g omettons 0)1opposite
sides oft)x' surface, thcn the
triple intcg'ra!
rll' r7l' rll
~=/
vanisl.cs whe.i t!.e intégration is extended overa spuee bounded
by
surfaces atwhicheitho-ris constant, or
/~+~+~==0, /j\
w, M, bcing- thé direction-cosincs ofHic surface.
Bcforo proceeding. to prove this Hicorem
ana)ytica!)y wc may
observe, that if~, r, 7~bc takeu to reprc.sent thé
components oftiic
a homogeneous nnid
veiocity~of ineompressibtc of density unity,
and if be ta!<en to represent tlie
potcntia) at any point of' spaee
of forces acti~-on thc fhu'd, tlicn the ancrât and
superficid ~ua-
tions ofeontinuity ((i) and (2)) indicate t!.at every p:u.t of the
space i~ and continues to be, full of thé nnid, and
equatioa (.1)
is thc condition to Le fulniied at a surface
throu~h. ~!iic)t thc nuid
doesnotpass.
Thé intégra! represents tlie \vorh donc bv t!)e Ouid against
tlic forces acti)~- on it in nnit of timc.
97. ] LEMMA. 101
No\v, sinec thc forces winch act on thc fhnd are derived from
thé potentia) funetion thc work which they do is subjcct to thc
javnf conservation of('ner~ and thf work donc on thé whote
f!uid within a eertaiu sj~aee <nay be found ifwe know thc potentia)
:)t thc pomts \vht're caeh linc of How cntors thc space and whcrc
it issues t't'om it. T))c cxcess of thc second of thcsc' potcntiids cvcr
t)t<' fh'st, mu)tipHed hy thé quantity of fhnd wltich is transmittcd
:t!nng' cnch linc nf f)o\v, will ~'i\'e thé \vork doue by that portion
of thc ftuid, and thc sum of all such prodnets wi!l givc the whole
wcrk.
Nn\v, if thc spacc bc boundcd bya surface ibr windi r==C, a.
constant quantity, t!ic- potentiel wiH bc tlic same at thé place
whcrc any line of uow cnters thé space and wherû it issues from
it~ "0 t)):tt in <his easc no work will bu donc hy thc forces on the
<h]?dwithin thc spacc~ and .= 0.
Sccondty~ if thc spacc bc boundcd in who!e or in part by a
~u'faœ satisfyin~ équation ()), no ihnd will enter or h'avc thc space
throu~h this surface, so that no part of thé vahic of~/ c-au dépend
on tbis part oftbe surface.
T)K- quantity J/ is thercforc xcro for a space houndcd externally
hythc dcsed surface /'=C,and it rcmains xcro titou~h any part
of tbis space bc eut of!' from the l'est by surfaces fuHH)mg' t))e
condition (J).
Tt~c a.na!ytic!d expression of thé process by which u'e deduce the
wcrk donc in thc interior nf the spaee from that \vhich takes place
:)t thé Lom~din~ surface is containc(t in the foHowin~' method of
iatc~')'ation by parts.
Takiug' H)e iirst tcrm of thc intégral J!
.~A =~ ('~ ~)
when' ~('~
) = ~[~i-+M:)–r<
and \vherc 7~1 ~7~ &:c. are thc values ofy/and <' at ihe points
w))osc c'ooi'dinates arc (.?,, r), (. ~), &c., a' &c. heing thc
v:))ucs of \\hcrcthc ordina.te cuts the bonnding' surface or surface~
arran~'ed in dcscendin~' order of magnitude.
Adding' the two othcr terms of thc intégral we nnd
J!/
= S (K F) + f~ ('' ~) + ? («' ~')
/f-f/K ~\7 rl.r~ rlz.
7
J~J^ l \~l.l ,¡ + rh~ rl~
-+~+J~ J
102 GENERAL THEOR-ËMS.
f'n?.
IfY, M, M are the dircction-cosines of' t)ic normal drawn imvards
from thé hounding~ surface at any point, and an clament of th~t
surface, thoi \ve ntiiy writc
+ ~)
wh<-rethé snfUxcs and applied to
any symbo!, indicatc to which
of the two spncos s~parated )j~ the surfucc thé
symbn! belotes.
Now, sincc is continuous, wc )iavc at every point of the
surface,
= = r;
wc have a]so
but since the normds arc drawn in opposite
directions, wc hâve
Il = == =
= w~ w, ?~ = = M
so that the total value of~ so Hu-as it
depends on the surface of
discontinuity, is
~~t +
= r (~ (,~ ~~) + ( (~~
T)!e quantity undcr the intégral
sign vanishes at cvery point in
virtue ofthe supcrnoa! solenoidn) condition or characteristic
(2).
Hence, in determini)~ thc value of~ wc have only to consider
thc surfacc-intpg-ra! over thc actua!
bounding surface of thc spacc
considcred, or
= Cn (~~ + + i.~)
The p:n-t of this expression under thé
sign of double intégration
rf-presents thé eurfacc-intcgrat of thé nux whose
eomponcnts arc
7~ ?., and hyArt. 21 this sur~cc-int~ra) is zero for thé closed
surfa<T.n virtue of' thc geucm! and
snperncia) sol~.noida! conditions
f))and(2).
THOMSON'S THEOREM. 103
ç8.]
,+,-+-+47rp=0, 0, (.~
~.t'
where p lias given values within a certain space. Tins is thé général
cliaracteristic of<?, c.
Lct us aiso suppose that at certain surfaces (8) <?.,b, and c are
disaontinuous, but satisfy thé condition
~(~i–~)+M(~+K(~–c~)+47ro- = 0 (6)
where 1,M, M are thc direction-cosines of the normal to thé surface,
< Ct thé values of a, b, c on thé positive side oftbe surface, and
c~ those on tlie negative side, and o- a quantity given for
every point of the surface. This condition is the superficial charac-
teristic of a, &,c.
Next, let us suppose that is a continuous function of .p,
which either vanishes at infinity or whose value at a certain point
is given, aud let satisfy thé general characteristic equation
yoxr/if~,Fcbrunry.18.18.
Cfn)~rM/c«)f~Df~ot Ma//<etM<t<'(t!
10~ OMNEHAL THEOI{J~)S. ~C)8
x-~ r/
"7- + A + A + -j T/)= 0 (7)
~j/
and thc supei-Hoal charactenstic ~t. t!te surfhccs (~),
x- Fl r-
~J~
~)~<)
8 '2 =
y ( + + c~) (9)
exiended over a, space boundcd by surfaccsj for cacii ofwhic]) cither
= constant,
or + + ),c + A~ =
=
A~ ((..1) ( 10)
rl~ + clw
Z
wLere t!)c va))ie o~ is given at cvery point ofthc surface, tlicn, if
c bc supposed to v:u-y in any manner,
snbjcct te the aboyc
couditions, ~he value of will be a ~i~Mo M~MMM, when
.=~. (.“
7-ao/:
Jfwc put for thé gcuo'a! vatucs o(' <
f(~ I l'~rl2
r! rlb' j 1
(.+,~)~~ (IX(l 'l-
o = (~+ ~r)~ +
<
~("fj+"
The last term of Q may bc writtcn 2 .V, where is thc quantité
considcred in thc lemma, and whic)i wu proved to bc zero whcn thc
which is cilher e~uipotcntml
spaec is hnunded by surfaces., cach of
or sutisfics thc condition of équation (10), whieh may be written
(4) ~+/+KW = 0.
second terms.
Q is therefbrc refUtccd tn thc sum ofthe first and
In each of these terms tlic quantity under thc sig-!i of Intégration
consists of thc sum of three squares, and is therefore esscntiany
cf intégration can only bc
positive or zero. Hence tlie rcsutt
positive or zero.
Let lis suppose tlie function known, and let us nnd what values
of ?/, r, 7~will mal~c Q a minimum.
If we assume that at every point w = 0., v 0, and 7~'= 0, thcse
values fulfil tlie solcnoidal conditions, and thé second term of
is zero, and Q is thcu a, minimum as regards tlie variation of
7/, ?.
For if any of tliese quantifies had at any point values dincring-
from zéro, thé second term of Q would hâve n. positive value, and
assumed.
wou!d be greater than in the case which we hâve
But if u = 0, = 0, and w 0, titen
.~F
'=~ ~=~ '=~
dr l,tlr
M =
C=K- (IF
-A~ (1.1:' <=~ rlJ rl.,
~r+,,
withthccoadition(l)
~M
+--+-0 03
=
thon /,?<, ? can be found without from t!)cse four
ambiguity
équations.
~ry The générât characteristic
équation
/r~~jL ~x-~
~+ ~+~~=
wherc r is a finitc quantity of single value whose first
derivatives
nrc finite awl eontiaucus except at thé and at th~ surface
sur~cc
fulfil thc su~crnci:)! characteristic
~«~)
~)~-=~
C!m bc satisfied by one value of and by one only, in thé
following
cases.
C7.M'1. ~hcn the equations apply to the space within
any closed
surface at every point of which /'= C.
For we have provcd that in this case hâve rca! and unique
vahtcs which determine tlie first derivatives of and hence, if
difTGrcnt values of Fpxist, can
thcy only dîner by a constant. Lut
a.t the surface /'is given equal to 6', and therefore ~is
detcrminatc
throug-hout thé space.
As a partiodar case, let ns suppose a
space within which == 0
bounded hy a eioscd surface at which l'=C. Thé characteristic
equations arc satisncd by making /"= C for every point within thc
space, and therefore r=C is thé only solution oi'Dte equations.
~M' 2. W)ien thé équations app]y to the
space within any closed
sur~cc at every point ofwhich /'is given.
For if in tliis case thé characteristic
cquations cou]d bc satisfied
bytwo diftt'rcnt values of say F and F', put ~=r–~ then
suhtracting- the characteristic équation in (rom that in we
find a characteristic équation in At the closcd surface ~= 0
bccause at thé surface /'=y, and within the surface thé
density
is zéro hccausc = p'. Hence, by Case 1, ~== 0 thronghout thé
<~nc)oscdspacc, and thereforc /'= throu~hout this spacc.
99.] A1TLICATION CF THOMSON'S TI1EOREM. 107
C~'<'cM~7Xe'o~'e~.
100.] Thé following remar)<ab!G theorem was ~iven
(Jrccn in his cssay On Dtc Application of Mathc-matics to by (~eor~e
]<:)c-ctrici't'v
and Mngnct.isn).'
1 I)ave madu use of tho cocHicient introduccd by Thomson, to
givc ~r gpncra~ty to tbc staiemcnt, and we shaïï find :wc
procccd that <h~ thcorem may be modinc-d sn as to
apply to thu
most ~-ent-)-al c-onstitutio;i of(;rysta!)ixed média.
~(- shaH suppose that and arc two functions of .?-, r,
which, with <Iicir first dcrivativcs, are nnitL. and continuons wi'thm
<]'c' spaco bonndc'd by thc doscd surface .S'.
~Vc shall also put ~br concisencss
rl rl
Â- U=
+ + C)
and
ancl rl
~.A-+rll~ +- ~A-
A rllr rl A~
l\. rll n -,1 <7T
+ = -~P r, (2)
whc-r<- is a rc-a) quantity, g.Ivcn for cach
point of space, which
may bL. positive <n- zéro but not n.g-ative. Th. <juanti<i.s p and
~o va)umL.-densiti..s in t))c
corrL-.spond thcorv cf po~.utia!s, but
in t)n.s tnv~ti~.a<io.t thcy :u-c to bc
consi(h.r<~d shnph' as' ab-
brcv.ations for Oie functions of and to ~hic.h thL.y arc hère
C(n)at<d.
ln thc samc \ay we may put
~V'
='
)7rJ/ =
H i~A <(~ +M, +M < )~
~U <7/
-(-A-+ A )~ (.
~J (/ <
or (7)
.l7r~=~.tTi~r~+~-l7r~
hi prcciscty the same mamicr by cxchauging ~und wc should
fiml
find rrr
.~J/' = (8)
+ i Tia ~~+ .1~~
Thc statemcnt of Gréent Thcoi'cm is that thèse thrcc expressions
for --Va.rc ideuticat, or that
~+
bas also a definite value.
Thc expression involving bas no dennitc value as it stands,
for F is a many-valued function, and
any expression eontaining 1~.
is many-valued unless some rule Le
given \vherehy we are direeted
to select one of thé many values of Fat eaeh
point of thé région.
To make thé value of r definite in a région of M
cycles, we must
conçoive Mdiaphragms or surfaces, cach of which
completely shuts
one of thé ehanne!s of communication bctwecn thé
parts of thc
cyclic région. Each of thèse diaphragms reduces the numher of
cycles by unity, and when M of' them are drawn thé region is still
a connected region but aeydic, so that we can
pass from any one
point to any othcr without cutting a surface, but on!y by recon-
ci!eab!e paths.
JOO.] INTERPRETATION0F GREEN'S THEOREM. 111
~p~W~ +~ +~ +~+&c. +~
The addition of these terms to thc expression of Green's Theorem,
in thé case of many-valued functiotis, was first shewnto be necessary
by Helmhoitz*, and was first applied to thé theorem by Thomson.
the whole system which is duc to thé action ofthe first system on
thé second.
If wc dcfine whcrc is the distance of tlie quantity e
7'as S(-),
of elcctricity from thc given point, then thc fquality hetween thèse
two values of may bc obtaincd as foDown, without Grcen's
Thcorem–
~Y) = = S
~(~(~) = ~(~) (~Q.) = S(~).
1
.==~ .17T~~(A'/t'ccs~)~ (to)
f5
a
ICI.] GREEN'S FUNCTION. 113
<'=~y~
and this is thé unique minimum value of' thé integral considered
in Thomson's theorem.
G'M~ 7'~MC~'OK.
~=~~
wherc ~6'~is an element of thé surface .9 at and thé integration
is to bc cxtcnded ovcr thé whole surface A
But if unit of
clectricity had bcen placed at (?, we should hâve
had by équation (l),), 1
~7" (s)
whcre
=-
is thé density induccd
(~
by (2 on an élément at il, and
is the distance betwccn and Substituting this value of
1q«
in t)tc expression for <7~, wc find
v. (.)
'M~ ~'n,l
Sincc this expression is not altered
by changing into '<
and
tnto, wo find tllat /-Y
a resuit which we
."w (G)
(G)
hâve aiready shcwn to be necessary in Art 88,
but which we now sec to bc deducible from the
mathematica! process
by which Green's function may be eatculated.
If wu assume any ()istribution of
elcctricity whatever, and place
in thé ucld a point charged with unit of
electricity, and if t).c
surface of potential zt-ro
completely séparâtes thé point from thé
assumcd d.stribution, thon if wc take this surface for thc
and the point for 7~ Grecn's surfice
funetion, for any point on thé samc
side ot thé surface as P, will be thé
potential of thé assumed dis-
tnbut.on on thc other side of thé surface. In tins
construct any numbcr of cases in which Green's way wc may
function can be
MINIMUM VALUE 0F Q. 116
102.]
M
8 TT~J~
/(~?+~
taken over thc whole region, bas a unique minimum when F satisfies
the equation d
A + A + A = U 0
r/~ d~
throughout the region, as well as tlie original conditions.
We hâve alrcady shewn that a funetion exists whieh fulfils thé
conditions (1) and (3), and that it is determinate in value. We
have next to shew tbat of all fonctions fulfilling tlie surface.eou-
ditions it makes Q a minimum.
Lct /"obc thc function which satisfies (1) and (3), and let
~= ~+~7 (4)
bc it.function which satisfies (1).
It follows from this that at tlie surfaces &c. ~=0.
The value of Q becomes
8 TTJ~
~±/(~)~(~+~.)
~(~~ rlx~.c +
.W~rl,u rly
1.
~lJ
+ ~f~)~ (tX
LJ J ( )(6)
thé first intcg-ral of thé second member
being extended over titc
surface o(' t)ic region and thé second throug'hout thc enclosed
space.
But on thc surfaces &c. ~= 0, so that these contribute
nothing to the surface-integral.
Again, on tlie surface that this surface contributes
°' –~==o,so
dv
nothing to the Intégral. Hence the surface-integral is zero.
Thé quantity within brackets in thé
votumc-integral also dis-
appears by equation (3), so that tlie volume-intcgrat is also zero.
Hence Q is reduced to
~= 7T,,)~~(~+~+~)~~
t (14)
911
~iQotlessthan~– (is)
and we had before
net
not great~r than2 Q2 Q'
less tlian (is)
( (18)
)
so that we conclude that thé truc value of thc
lu, capacity of thé
internai conductor, lies between thèse values.
This method of fmding- supcrior and inferior limits to the
values
of these eoefRcicnts was
suggested by a memoir On thé Theory
of ResoMnee/ by the lion. J. W.
Strutt, ~<7. ;?~ 1871. Sec
Art. 308.
CHARTER V.
and on thé inside the derivatives of F' vanish, so that the superficial
characteristic
~7' ~F,y1 ~f~ 4
~(–)+~(,)+M(- ––)+47TO-=0 (5)
~;f f/~ fM
is satisfied at every point of thé surface.
Hence thé new distribution of potential, in which it bas thé
old value on thé outside of the surface and a constant value on
thé inside, is consistent with thé new distribution of electricity,
in which thé electricity in thc space within thé surface is removed
and a distribution of clectricity on thé surface is substituted for
it. Also, since thé original value of vanishes at infinity, thé
new value, which is thé same outside t!)e surface, also f~fi)s this
condition, and therefore thc new value of F is thé sole and only
value of F bebng'ing' to the new arrangement of electricity.
io4.]] EQUIVALENT ELECTRIFJED SURFACE. 121
8 7r
~=8~~=~. 7r
thé mechanical action betwccn and is équivalent to that
bctwecn the shciïs 'S', and <S~ supposi)~g' every point
of presscd
in\n.rds, that is, towards with a pressure jUj, and evcry point of
prcsscd outwards, that is, towards witli a pressure
105.~] According to thé thcory of action at a distance thé action
hctwccn and j~ is rcally made up of a system of forces
acting in
straight lines betwcen thé clectricity in ~') and that in and thé
actua! mechanical enect is in complète aecordance with this
theor~.
T)]crc is, howevcr, another point of view from which we
may
examine thé action hetween and Whcn wc sec one body
aeting- on another at a distance, beforc we assume that thé o!)c
acts dircctiy on thc othcr wc g-enera!)y inquire \vhethcr there is
any matcrial connexion between thc two bodies, and if we find
strings, or rods, or framcwork of any kind, capable of accounting'
for thé observed action between thc bodies, \vc pi-cfer to
cxplain
the action by means of thé intcrmcdiatc connexions, rather than
admit thé notion of direct action at a distance.
Thns when two particles arc connectcd
by a straight or eurvcd
rod, thc action bctwccn thé particles is ahvayB along- thé line joinin~-
them, but we account for this action by means of a system of
io6.] INTERNALFORCES. 123
mternal forces in the substance of thé rod. The existence of thèse
internal forces is deduced entirely from observation of thé eHcct
of external forces on the rod, and thé internal forces themsclves
are genera!!y assumed to be thé résultants of forces which act
between particles of the rod. TIius thé obscrved action between
two distant partîmes is, in this instance, removed from thé class
of direct actions at a distance
by referring- it to thé intervention
of thc rod the action of thé rod is
expiai ned by thé existence
of internal forces in its substance; and thé internal forces are
explamed by means of forces assumed to act between thé particles
of which thé rod is composcd, that is, between bodies at distances
which though smalt must be finite.
Thé observed action at a considérable distance is thcrefore cx-
pkined by means of a great numher of forces acting between
bodies at very small distances, for which we are as little able to
account as for thé action at any distance however
gréât.
Nevertheless, thé considération of the phcnomenon~ as cxplained
in this \vay, tcads us to
investigatc thé properties of the rod, and
to form a tlicory of elasticity whieh we should have overlooked
if' wchad heen satisfied with thé explanation by action at a distance.
~05.') Let ns now examine the conséquence of assuming- that thé
action between electrified bodies can bc
explained Ly thé inter-
mediate action of thé medium between them, and let us ascertain
what propertics ofthe médium will account for thé obscrved action.
Wc liave first to détermine thé internal forces in thé
medium,
and afterwards to account for them if
possible.
In order to determine the internal forces in
any case we procecd
as follows
Let thé system 2!f be in equilibrium under thé action of thé
system of external forces F. Dividc by an imaginary surface
into two parts, MI and Jt~, and let tlie
systems of external forces
acting on thèse parts rcspectivcly be 7~ and 7~. Also let t!ie
internal forces acting on in consequence of its connexion with
be called the system
Then, since is in equilibrium under thé action of and I,
it Mo\vs that I is statically équivalent to reversed.
In thé case of thé electrical action between two electrified
systems
7~ ~nd wc described two closcd equipotential surfaces
entirely
surrounding and cutting it on' from 7~ and we found that the
apphc~tion of a certain normal pressure at every point of thé inner
stds of the inner suriacc, and on thc outer side ofthc outer
surface,
124 ELECTRIC ATTRACTION. [io6.
would, if these surfaces were each rigid, act on the outer surface
with a résultant equal to that of thc electrical forces on
the outer
system 7~, and on the inner surface with a resu)tant
of tlie electrical forces on thé inner equal to that
system.
Let us now consider the space between t!)e
surfaces, and let us
suppose that at cvery point of this space there is tension in thé
direction of and cqual to pcr unit of arca. This tension
will act on t!iu two surfaces iu the same
way as thé pressures on
thc other side of thé surfaces, and will therefore account
for the
action between and so far as it dépends on the internal force
m the space Letween and
Let us next investigatc the
equilibrium of a portion of thé shell
bounded by thèse surfaces and separatcd from thé l'est
by a surface
everywhere pcr])endicu!ar to thé equipotential surfaces. We
may
suppose this surface generated by deseribing any closed curve on
<S' and drawing from evcry point of this curve liues of force till
they mcet '?.
Thé figure we hâve to consider is therefore bounded
by the two
equipotential surfaces and &, and by a surface
there is no induction, whieh wc through wilich
may call
Lct us first suppose that the area of thé closed curve
on is very
small, call it dSI, and that <~ = C~
The portion of space thus bounded
may be re~arded as an element
of volume. If v is thé normal to thé
cquipotcntial surface, and
thé element of that surface, then thé volume
of this element
is ultimately f~r/f.
The induction throngh is 7~ and since thcre is no in-
duction through and no free electricity within thé
space con-
sidered, thé induction throug-h thé opposite surface will be
equal and opposite, considered with reference to thé
thé closed surrace. space within
There will therefore be a
quantity of elect,ricity
~=-1~
on tlie first equipotential surface, and a
quantity
1
~== –7~
e,,
471
.1?.,(1S,
on thé second equipotential surface, witli thé
condition
6',+~= n.
100.] ] RESULTANT OF ELECTRIC TENSIONS. 125
Let us next consider the resultant force due to the action of thé
electrified systems on these small electrified surfaces.
Thé potential within thé surface is constant and cqual to CI,
and without thé surface it is constant and equal to (~. In thé
shell between these surfaces it is continuons from CI to C2.
Hence thc resultant force is zero except within thé shell.
Thé clectrified surface of the shell itself will be actcd on by forces
which arc thé arithmeticat mcans of the forces just within and just
without thc surface, tha.t is, iu this case, since thé résultant force
outside is zero, thé force acting on the superficial eleetrification is
one-half of thé resultant force just within thé surface.
Hence if be thé total movin~ force resolved parallel
to due to thé electrical action on both thé electrified surfaces of
the element <f,
Z~~=-~(<+.), dx
where thé sufHxesdénote that thé derivativca of are to Le talœn
at and ~& respectively.
Let ?<be thé dircction-cosines of thé normal to thé
equipotential surface, then making
</a;= < r/y == ? < and = M
~F. .F r~F 'r/~
(-, ) 2 = (,) + (~-y-~ +?< +
M-)~&C.
and since <~= \ve may write thé value cf
J~~r~ = y +M,-
~~r~(~ ~c +M-)~t'.
~='
and thé second surface so that thc surface-density is
4 ri
then, if we suppose that thé value of Fis Ci at every point within
'S' and at every point outside of~, thc value of /'bet\veen these
surfaces remaining as bcforc, thé characteristic
equ:ttion of' r will
be satisfied cverywlicrc, and r is thcreforc thc truc value of tlie
potential.
We bave ah'eady shewn that thé outer and inner sur~ces of thé
she)l will be pulled towards cach othcr with a force the va)ue of
which referrcd to unit of surmce is or in other words, thcre is a
tension in thé substance of thé shell in tlie direction of thé lines
of force.
Sec F~radity, J?M.(~4) !tnd(1297).
128 ELECTRIC ATTRACTION. [io8.
If we now conçoive thé shell divided into two segments by a
surface of no induction~ thé two parts will experience clectrical
forces thé résultants of wluch will tend to separate thé parts with
a. force équivalent to thé résultant force due to a pressure acting
on evcry part of thé surface of no induction which dividcs thcm.
This illustration is to be taken mcrcly as an explanation of what
is tncant by the tension and pressure, not as a physical theory to
accouut for them.
108.~] We hâve next to consider whether thèse internal forces
are capable of accounting for the ohscrved clectrical ibrecs in every
case, as weH as in thé case where a closed equipotentia! surface ean
bc drawn surrounding one ofthe electrified systems.
T)ie statical theory of interna) forces bas been investigated by
writers on thc theory of elasticity. At present \e shall rcquire only
to invcstigatc tbe cncct of an oblique tension or pressure on an
element of surface.
Lct be thé value of a tension rcfen'ed to unit of a surface to
which it is normal and let thcre be no tension or pressure in any
direction normal to Lct thé direction-cosines of be m, M.
Let be an clement of surface normal to thé axis of~ and let
the cfffct of thc internal force be to urge thé parts on thé positive
side of this clément with a force whose components arc
~</j in thé direction of~
j~ and
7~ z.
From every point of thé boundary of thé clément let lincs
be drawn para,llel to thé direction of tlie tension forming a prism
whosc axis is in thc line of tension~ and let t)ns prism be eut by a
plane normal to its axis.
Thé area of' this section will be ~F, and the whole tension
upon it will be ~~</y~ and since there is no action on thé sides
of thé prism, which are normal toj~, thé force on thc base ~<~
must bc equivatent to the force ~~r/c acting in thé direction
(/, M,;<). Hence tlie component in thé direction of a',
7~~ = 7~~ ) or
~~r =
Similarly =~/M~ (i)
=~
~,=~+; -)-Y~,
= + + (2)
~,=~+~+~
In thc case of thé clectrical tension and pressure thc
pressures
are numerieaDy cqu:d to thc tension at
every point, and are in
directions at right nn~es to thé tension and to each other. Honcu,
y =~=-~ (3)
+ -)- = i, + + 0, ~M+ + r~ = n, (.t)
~<- <!nd = (2~)~,
= 2/ ~)
7~ = 2/
for the action of thé comhincd tension and
pressures.
Also, since = where 7)' dcnotos thc resnltnnt
87r 7~,
oTT Force, and
sincc /t'/ = 7t'~ = 7~~ =
~=8~
= 1- 2 X =
j);¡V
= g~: 2~=~, }ly;n r (Ii)
('!)
>
~=~2A~=~; 071"
+
(~ ~~)
and this tension tends to draw the element in thé
positive direction.
If we next consider thé two faces //c~.)' with
respect to the
VOL.t. K
130 KLHCTIUC ATTRACTION.
[io8.
+ ~) ~.e
(.
Similar!y for thé faces wc Und that a force -c~ acts
on thé nrst face, and
+
(~ ~~)
on thé second in thé direction of x.
Jf ~< dénotes thé total efrect of all thcse internai forces
actnig pa)'a.)iel to the axis of x on thé six faces of thé element, wc find
=
(~ + + ~~)
< denoting- by thé internal force, rcferred to unit of volume, and
resolved paratlel to thé axis ofa,
d d r/
'=~~+~~+~- (7)
with similar expressions for and thc component forces in thé
other directions*.
Diflérentiating the values of~ and~ given in équations
(C), we find
r~
0
~=~~(~+~+~-
But by Art. 77
~Z
~t)\
(-+-+-)=4Tr~.
Hence =p
Similarly ??=p~ (10)
~=P~.
Thus, the résultant of tlie tensions and pressures which we hâve
supposed to act upon thé surface of thé element is a force whose
components arc thé same as those of thé force, which, in thc
ordinary thcory, is ascribed to thé action of electrified bodics on thé
electricity within the élément.
If, therefore, \ve admit that there is a medium in winch there
is maintaincd at every point a tension in thé direction of thc
~= ~D@ = 7C~ =
STT
whore~ is the electric tension, S) thé 0 the etcotro-
dispkcement,
motive force, and thc spécifie inductive
capaeity.
If thé medium is not a
p.-rfect insulator, thestate cfconstraint
wh.cli we t.al) eh.ch.ie
polarization, is eont.iu~Dy ~-iving way Thc
mcd.um y~etds to the ck.ctromotivc
force, the electric stress is
r~xed, and thé potcntial ene~y of the state of constraint is
con-
vcrted into heat. Thé rate at which tbis
deeay of the state of
po)a.at.on takes p]aœ dépends on the nature of thé
medium.
Jn some kinds o( ~tass, days or
ycars may clapse before the po]ar-
ization .smks to )ialf its ori~in~ value. In eopper, this ehan~e
may occupy less than thé bil!io.,th of a second.
We hâve supposed thé medium after
being-potarized to he simpty
!eit <o itse!f. In thé phenomenon called
the eiec.tric cnrrcnt Dm
codant passade ofeteetricity thi-.u~-h thé n~diu,n t.nds to restore
thé .state of polar~ation as fast as thé
of the médium
aHo~ it to dc-cay. Thus thc ..xtcrna] c.on<h~.tivity
a~.ney which maintains thé
eurrent is a]~-ays dom~ work in
rcstori,~ the pohu-ixatio.t of thé
mcdnun, w!neh is continuaHy hecomin~ rc)axcd, and the
potcn<i:d
ener~y of Uns polarixatinn is continuaHy Lecomi. transfnrmed
.nto heat, so that thc final rcsult of thé
c.ne~v expend.-d in ,nain-
)ai.n~. thc eurrent is tu raisc the tempemturc ofthe conductor.
CHAPTER VI.
112.] Il'' nt any point of thé electric field the resultant force is
zero, the point is called a Point of eqninhrium.
If cvcry point on a certain line is a point of equilibrium, thé line
is called a Line ofcquilihrium.
The conditions that a. point shall be a point of cquilihrium arc
that at that point
~r ~F ~r
== 0~ = 0, = 0.
r~ ~y
At such a point, tl~erefbrc, thc vahtc of is a maximum, or
minimum, or is stationary, with respect to variations of thc
noordinatus. The potential, however, can have a. maximum or a
minimum value only at a point char~'ed with positive or with
negative electricity, or throughout a. finite space bounded hy a
surface electrified positively or negativety. If, therefore, a point
nf equi!ihrium occurs in an unclectrificd part of thé field it must
!)c' a stationary pointa and not a maximum or a minimum.
In faet, thc first condition of a maximum or minimum is that
~r
and
~M.s'~aw'.s' 7'~c&/v?/
(
~-7/7~=~
taket) over thc surface of thc spho'e.
and thé forée tundins~ to hring' A hue~ towards ils orig'inat positiot
will be
C'
where C'is a!n.ys positive.
Now we h:ive shown that is négative fur cert:tin direc-
H' \c consider points on the axis on thé fm'ther sidc of the point
\vc fmd that thé resu)tant force diminishes to thc double point jP,
\hL'rc it vanishes. It tben changes si~n, and reaches a maximum
ai. J/j aftcr \hich it continuatty diminishes.
This maximum, howcvcr~ is on)yamaxlnnnnre!ative]y tootfter
points on the axis, for if \c draw :t. surface perpcndicular to t))G
:Lxis, 7!/ iH a. point of minimum foi'c~' rctativciy to nci~'hhouri))~'
points oa that surface.
1~0.j yi~m'c 111 reprcsunts thc u~uipotcntial surfaces and lines
of force du~ to an <'lectrin(.'d point \vhoHc charge is !() ptaccd :Lt
and surroLuxk'd hy a fk'M oi' foroc, which, hcf'ore thc intro-
duction of t.)K' ch'('f,)'if!(.'d point, \a.s uniform in direction and
magnitude at e\'t'ry part. In tins case', thosf lines of force which
))t'!on~' to arc contai)~d wiihin !Lsurtacc of révolution whi~'h
has an asymptotie cytindc)', iiavin~' its axis paraUc) to thc un-
disturLcd lincs or' force.
Th~ cqnipotcntiat surfaces t]avc cach of thcm an asymptotic
p)aac. Onc of th~n, indicatcd hy a dottcd linc, bas a eonit'i).)
poiat at~d a )o))c surrouudin~' tt)c poittt Dtosu hcdow this surface
liave one shct't \H,h a dépression nc:n' the axis. Thnse ahovc hav<'
:) c]nst'd portioti surronnding' and !) scparatc shcct \vit!i a s]i~'ht
dépression nciu' thc axis.
If w<' ta~c onc of the surfaces t)c]<)\v as the surface of n con-
ductor, and anothcr a !on~' way hc)ow as thc sni'fucc of anothcr
conductor at a diu'crcnt potentiat, t!)c systcm ofHncsand surfaces
hettvcc)! thc t\o conductorswiti Indicatc thc distribution ofc!ectric
force. If thc h'wcr coaductor is very far from its surface will
hc vcry ncar)y plune, so <h:u. wc hâve hcrc thc solution, of thc'
distribution of Ldcctricity on two stn'facci- ho<h of thcm nearly
p)anc and pnra)hd to cach othcr, cxccpt that the uppcr one bas
a protubc'rancc ncar ils middic point, wbicb is more or less prn-
mincntaccordin~ to thc particularcfpnpotcntial iincwcchoosefor
thc surface.
l!~l.] l'i~'ure IA~ rcprcscnts thc cfjuipotcntia! surfaces and Hncs
of force duc to Un-ce eb'ctrificd points 7~'nnd C, thé charge of//
bci! 15 units of positive c)ectricity, that of j~ !2 units of négative
clectricity, and that of <7 20 units nf positive ctectricity. T))csc
points arc p)accd in one strai~'bt )ine, so tbat
= '), 7~6' = Ki, ./C'= 25.
In tins case, thé surface for which thé potcntia) is unity consistH
of t\vo spncrcs \vh<~e centres are attd and their radii 15 and 20.
V") 1
MG nQU])'OTENT)AL
St~FAC'RS [l2.2.
Th~' sphcrps interscct. in th~ ..ir.-h. wi.i<-h euts thc pian~ of Ou.
papcr in and 7)~, so U.at is the centre of tl.is cir.-lc and its
rad.ns is F2. T))is (-irctc is an
<-xan.p1~ of n )i,K. ~fcqnihhrium, for
thc t~snitant. force Yanish~s at
cvo-y ]~int nfOns li;ic.
Jfwc suppnsc <~L- sp)u.-)~ wlmsc (~ntr~ is./ tn hL- a
co.uhctor
with n char~ <,f 3 units oC
pr,sihvc ~cciricit~ phx~d und~r
th.. mOucnc~ -JO t.nUs nr p<,si<iy~
L.)~<ri<.ih-at 6', t),~ sh.tt. of
i.hc o~. will )~ ~)n-n<(.<1 hy OR- if ~-c
din~-r~n h~vc «ut n)) <],t.
lincs ~i<hin <h~ sphc~ Thc pnrt.r<his sp),cri..a] surfa. within
thc. srnal) oirc!~ wi]) hc n~t.iv..)y dt.ifi~ ),y ~hc- I.)f!ucn<.<.
f C. A)! thc rest nf t)K.
sphcr<. wi)t positivc.iv c)~tri(k.<L an<i
thc s.n:.]) ci, 7~~ itsolf will L<. a )in<-nf no L.)<.ch-in<-atmn.
A\~ nu.y a).s<. ponsid~- the di~nun t. r~j.n.s.-nt <h.. d.-(.)nn.ation
of <)).- sphcn. who.sc pent~ is <
c.).f,~t-d wi(.), 8 unit.s <,t' )-sitiv~
~t)-io)h-, a.nd inOuL-n~cd hy ]. uni<s
..f),si<.i~p]~t)-i(.ih- ).)a~.<!
at
'i'I.(- dia~-am maya]so he <aL-<'nto
rf-pi-cs.-nt t).c f~asc nra (-n-
thK.tn)- whosc .sur<:t<~ consists nf <),(.
tarder s~mcn<s .,fth. t~-o
sptK~.s inL.ctin.n. i.i 7/ c.har~t ~ith 23 units nj' p~Hiv.. ~.o-
tricity.
shal) return to ihc (-nnsideraf.tnn nf ihis
dia~ram as an
ilh.s< ration Tfiomsnns 7~ Sc.c Art. ] (~.
1~.] 1 a]n anxious t)iat <hcs.'
(Ha~a.ns shoidd ht. ~udit-d a~
illustrations of th<- hu)~.ua~ nf
Faraday in speahing nf ]in~ of
force,' t)K- forces ofan ctcctrificd Lody,' ~f.
In strict mathem~ticat ta~-ua~tho~Tord F<n.~ is nsod tf~i.rni~-
t!K. snppns..d cause of<hc
t.~dt.ney which a matcria) hody is ~un'd
to Itavc towards alturati~n in its state nf
rcst or mnti.,u Jf is
md.if.r..nt ~hcD.cr wc sj~a~ 0)- this ohscrved
tendency or of its
Jm.n..d]at<- cause, since tlK- causn is
simply ini-crn-d from thé cf)bct,
and )ias nf) othcr c'i(t(_'n<'c to
supjtort. it.
Sinco, ho~-vcr, ~-0 a-c nnrsctv.-s In thc pra<.ticc of
dircctino- thc
mot.n ot uur own bodic.s, and <)(' ot).
in<.v; thin~-s in Dus~-ay
wc i.av~ aoquin-d a c.,pi.,u.s .t~-L. of
rL.nu.inherc.d scnsatim.s rdatino-
to UK..s<-a.t,ons. and th<.rc(n,~ nur ide-as <.f-
furœ an. oonnf.ctcd
our mmds w.)h id~s ~'consdn..s
pnw< nf<.xcr(ion,a:.d cd' f..ti.~<-
and of cvcrcnm.n~ or
yi~din.n- to pressure. Th~- id..as, which ~iv~
a c~unn~. and viyidnL.s.s tu thc
purclv abstract idea or f.rce do
not in n)a<hcmatlca)!y trai.~d minds !ead ~o
any practi~ crmr
But in the vu~-ar
langua~. 0)- th<- timc whcn dynamica) .sf.icnc..
was unknown, a)) thc. words
r~atin~. <n pxertinn, such as fnrœ
J23.] .\KD DNKS 0F !NJ)t!CTJON. 147
cnerg'y, ])o\vcr, &c., were confoun(]c() with cach othcr, thoug'h somc
of <hc .scitoolmcn cndcnvourcd to introducc agrcatcr precision into
~hcirtang'uag'c.
Thc eulLivaiion inul ]~pu!:i]'!z:)t!on ofeo)')'pct dvnamicnt idcas
Hince thc timc of Ca)i)cn and Newton has effcctcd an imim'nsc'
change in t.hc hm~'uag'c and idc'ns of e~mmott ]i(b, Lut it is on!
wiihii) rppent times, and in conscquoncc of t!!c innrcasin~' im-
portance oi' madiincry, that the idcns nf force, encr~'y, and pn\o'
))avc hpcomc aecuratcly disiin~')n~))cd from (.'ac'h other. Vcry f'L'\v,
))owGVc)', cvcn of scit.'ntific mcn, aru care!ut to oh.servc thosc dis-
tinctions hence wc oftcn hcar ci' <hc force o(' a cannon-b:d) witcn
cithci' its cnerg'y or ils momcntun) is meant, and of' thc i'orcc of an
ctcctrincd body when thc tpmntity of its ck'ctnfication is mcant.
New thc quantity nfeteetririty in n bndy is mcnsnrc'd~ according'
to Faraday~ idcns~ hy U)c K/f;' of iine.i of forcc~ or rathcr of
induction, \vhich prncccd from it.. Thcsc lines of force must a!)
<(')'min:)tc Homcwhcrc, eithcr on bodics in thé ncig'hhour))ood, or on
thc walls nnd roofof<he ronn~ or on t!)c c:n'th, or on thé hcavcnfy
hodies,and whereverthcy terminale thcrcis a.quan<Ity ofc!cc-
tricity cxaeHy cqua! and oppositt; tu that on thé part ofthc hody
from whicit they ])roceeded. By examining' the diagrains t))is will
bcsccntobcDtccasc. Titcrcisthci'cf'oyc no contradiction hct.vcL'n
Faraduy's vit-ws and thc mnthematieai rcsitHs of thé o!d DK'ory,
Lut, on thé contrary, thc idfa of lincs of i'orcc t)n'o\s g'rcat If~'ht
on thosc rebuts, and secms to aitord ttu' menn-~ of nsin~' hy a con-
tinuons proccss from Hiu sûmc\hat, ri~d conceptions of' thc o)d
thcory t'~ notions which may bc capaLlL' of g'rcatcr expansion, .o
as to prnvidc room fnr thc ittcrcasc of onr knowh'd~'c bv furt))er
rcscarchf.s.
123.] Thèse diagrams are construc'tcd in thc foHo\in~' manner
First, takc the case of a sin~'h' centre of force, a smat! c'Iectnncd
hence, ifwc makc \ve shal) iind thc radius of thc sphère
;'=
for which thc potentia) is If wc now ~'ivc to thé vaincs
t, 2, 3, &:c., and draw thé corrc~pondin~' sphères, \ve s)ia]i ohtain
a scrics of cqnipotential surfaces, titc potcntials correspondin~' to
whic)):ircn]casu)'('dhyt))cnatura,1nun)he)' Thc sections of thèse
sphères hy a plane passin~' throu~h ihe!r common ecntre will he
circh's, which wc may tnarh with <hc jjumi'er denotin~' thc potentia)
[. 2
J48 H'jt'H'uTE~'DA).St'KF.ACHS [123.
nfca.ch. Thèse-an' tndicatodhyth~dot<('d<')!'ch's<)n(.hcri~ht
)):uidofFig-.(!.
If there bu anothcr ccutrc of force, we may in tlic samc way draw
thct'quipotentiul surfaces hc)on~in~'toit,and if wuno\v\vishto
iindtitcformofthe cqui]~tp)tt.i:d sur(:K't'sduti to botil con~'cs
tog-ether, wc musL rumL'tni~r t!)a<jif hc the potcnti:~ due to one
cu)t<rc,:md/~<~at.dn<jt<)tht;()thut',t.hcpu<(.'nt:ialducto))ot.)t\vi]]))('
/j~ /~=/. IJ(;nce,iiKjc':[<,cvf!'yint(']'scction or~hccquipoic'ïitiid
surfaces bc!on~m~' to ~hc two séries wc knn\v hotit :md \c
aiso kilow thc value of/ H'tJtcrcfoi~ wc dra\v a surface winch
j):MSL'sthrou~'h aH thosc intersections fur whirtt thu value of is
thé same. this surface \i![ coineide \vit)i a h'uc <([nipntcniia) surface
at :d) thL'sf in~rst'ctions, at)d if thé nri~ioal systonn of surfaces
)x'drawns))j!iciunt!y close, thon~v surface may Le drawu whh
axy rL'(p)ircd d~rcc ofuccum.cy. T))<; cquipotx'titia! surfaccs duc- to
hvo puints whusc charg'cs arc cquat and ojtpositc nrc rcprcsentcd by
ihu continuons lines on thé i'ig'!it, t]and sidc of Fig-. (i.
This mothod may hc aj'plicd to the drawing of any system of
(.'quipotcntial surfaces \hcn thé potfntia) is <)~ smn nf two po-
tentials, for which we Itave ah'cady druwn tlicequipntcntia] sur~ces.
Thé Unes of force duc to a. sin~f cottre of force are strai~tt
lincsradiaiio~'f'rornt.hat. ccnt.tv. If'\Ycwis]tt<)U)dieatL'L\-tt)(~
Iincst))('in<cns]ty:(s\L'!) as t))edi)'('c-(io))())'t)k'iu)-(;c!tt:u)y point,,
wc must draw thon so that t))cy mark eut ou t))u ~jnijiut~Dtii))
Hm'fuccs ])orttons uvo' whict) thu surface-int.c~TiL) of inductimi haH
dcfinitc vaincs. Thc b<jst way of d'nog this is to suppose nur
ptanc figure to ho thé scctin)) of a fi~-u)'t' in space fot'n~'d Ly thu
révolution uf the p)anc u~'nrc ahnut an axis passin~- t]n'ou~'h tItL'
cc'utrc of' force. 7\ny strai~))t hnc radiatm~' from thf centre and
makin~' an an~lu C with thcaxis will then trace out a cône,
nnd thé surfm'c-ijitc~ra) of the induction throu~h tliat part of any
surf:t0t' u'hich is cui ot!' by t))is L'onc on thc' sidt; ncxt the positivt;
direction of thc' nxis, is 2 A'(l –eos 0).
If wc furttn'r suppose t))is surface tn ht' houndcd by its inter-
section with two p)!t))cspas!i))~<h)-<)n~)ttj)(,'axis, und inclincd at
thé an~-le whosL' :)i'e is t'<pta1 to )):).)f t)ic radius, then t))e induc~io))
throu~')i thé snrfuecso hounded is
/;(] –(.ns~ = 2 Mty;
:m(t <? = cfis'~ (t –2 4~ ).
!ig.<
~x <a~
/x~.v <V ~y~
/~<<v/
/x-
~3.] AX!) HXHS uF IXDUC'T!')~. 149
7'7V~
=
thu intcg'ra! ofwhicii is
/'=<+C~j
and sincc whcn = D, = and wt~'n = c, =
/'=~+(~)~.
Fo' aU points hft\VL'L'n t))e phun's, <)n' rcsnitant cfcctrica) force
isuormattotht.'p):).nes,anditsin:)~'nitud<is
=
c
la thu sn))stanc(.' ot' thc conductors thmn.sc!vcs, /t' = '). IIcnce
the distrihutinn of' c)cct)'icity "n thc first p!am; bas a sm'facc-
deusity CT, here
dcnsitvo-v]t<L'ru /j
_t)_ ~t–~
c
t7l<r =–7t=
124.] ~Uli'LH CASKS. i'AHAfjLKfj ['LANHS. 151
=.(-),
'~)~
~'s'.
= 8~
if
A-
=
= 7'
T)if iirst uf ttu-sc expr(.'Hsions is thc g'ctici'.d expression oi' dcc-
<ric:dcm.'r~'y.
Thu sccoud ~'ives t)i(; unuf~-y ni tcrms cf the arca, t,hc distance,
and thu (Ht['cœuce of potontuds.
Thu thii-d givcs it in tci-nis ot' thc résultant i'orcu aud t)ic
volumu Sc Itiehidcd butwcc'u thc arc-as and and s)tew.s tt)at titu
unit. of is whcrc! 8 = 7~.
uncr~y in volume 7r~
Thu attractiou bc-t\CL'!i t!ie planes Is/~ or in ot))cr \vords, thcru
is an cleetrical tension (or ucg-ativu pressure) c<~u:).)t-o un evury
unit of area.
Thc fourHi expression g-Ivcs thc cncrg-y in tcrms of thc charge.
Thc iifth shc\vs tha.t tlic eicctrical cnL'i-y is cqual to thc \\ork
which wuutd bu donc by ttic c~ciric forcu if tbc ~vo sm'fiLccs \<'ru
to bc brought to~thcr, niovin~ ~n'attcl to thcmsdvL's, v'ith thuir
eicL-tric uha.t'c~ cunstant.
152 StMPLE CASES. [~5.
To express thc charge i)i terms of the diftcrencc of potcnt.iats,
wchavc
( IS-.1) (l~I).
~=~=7(~).)
'.=~
DK' tota) cnm'g'y will bc
J
8~-i (,*
27~
7r
(*
=A-;S' il,'l
Thc force hct\vc(;)t thc surfaces will ht'
= A'~(A-~
7<'=~5 = 8TT <
C~
~TT
=7~
IIc'ncc thc force betwcen two sm'f:tecs kept. at. ~'ivcn pntcntia)s
varies directly as A', thc spécifie capacity o(' Utc diefectric, Imt thc
f'nrcc hctwt'en two surfaces chm'ed \vit)t g'i\'en quantifies of u)uc-
triL'ity varies ittvcrscJy ns A'.
'= +
b +~1''
~? 1?
1. = </r_= 2.
-r' lï- 1 1
:l-I~
7~ = ~~(T. = =–
v
a'
~-t~,=~~(~+~.
If \vc put = =o~ wc hâve thé case of a splicre in an innnite
«r it is nu-
spacc. T!ic electric cap~eity cf sucti a spttere is
mt'rica~y cqua1 to its radius.
The cicctric tension on t)~! innt'r sphère pcr unit oi :n'cn )s
1 (~)'
87T '(~)''
Thu rcsnH.iint of this tension ovcr n Iiemisphore is 7r~ ==F
normal to thc hase of thé hémisphère, and if this is hatanccd by a
sui'f':LCGtension cxcrtcd aeross the eircuiar bonuda.ry of thc hemi-
spl)cr~ thc tension on mut of !en~th heing- 2', \Ye I~ve
7''= 27r~.
u ~(~ b J -.13 L
8 8 8<~
(.7~
1(. (~
154 snu'm CASES. [i~6.
If a. sphct'ical scap bubhic is clectrified to a potcntia) J, t))cn~ if
its radius is < thc c])ar~c \i)t be ./< and thu sm'facc-dunsity
u'itibf 1 <
-l7!' f/
Thc resultant ctectrical force just outside t)ttj surfacu wii) be -i'n-n-,
and iiiijidc tl)e bubbic it is xcru, su that by Art. m thc c!<ctrical
t'ot'cc fm unit of arca of thc suri'ncc will )jc 27ro- actin~' ot'twards.
Hcncc thc c)cctri<ieation \I)l ditilinis)) t)tc pressure of thé air
withih t)tc buLbie by 2Tr(~,or
1 2
·
8~r~'
But it inuy hc sbewn that if 7' is thu tension which tlie ti~uid
film exerts :n;ross a Hue of unit Jen~'th, then tlic pressure from
wttc'ncf = ~+ 6~ In~.
Siticu = whcn = and /'==. \vhcn =
f ~)f~ -f-J~Io~
1.~
li' o-~ are thc snrfauc-dctiHities on thc inncr and outer
surface~
.l~r ~1 -J~Z-L
G
Il
~iog'-
ll ~log--b
rG
127.] ] CO.\XAh CYLINDKHS. 155
~T~
~'s'.
If the space bctwccn t)~ cyhndcrs is occupied hy a (iic)cctriu of
spécifie capuclty instcad ci' air, thun thc c:).paeity of thé inner
cylinder is j.
!()"'
M
T))e cner~y ot't)ie cicctrica.] distribution on thc part of thé infinitc
<'yHndcr whic)~ \u have considc'rcd is
Fig..5.
cylindcrs, and near tbe ends of tbc Inncr cyiindcr, thcre will hc
dis-tritjuti~ns of ~-leptricity which wc arc not
yct. able to pa)cu]atc,
Lut thc distribution nc-ar will
t)n.ori~-i.t nnt alh.rcdbythe
moiion nf ihc inn<'r cylindcr pr~'idud n~ithcr of' its
c-nds comes
n~r t]tR ..ng'in, :md 1)10 distributions at the ends of t]ic inner
evHndcr will mnvc wit). ii, that thc on)y cffcct of t]~ moti<m
will tjc <.) nKTcasc or diminish the
ien~.h of those parts of Dm
inncr eyiinder whcro thé distribution i.s simijar to that
0,1 :ui in-
nnitc cyhndcr.
HcncG t)tc- who]c cncr~y of the system will
bL-,so nu- as it dcpcnds
on a',
C= ~(/+.~(~-Y/)~(/(C-~)~+qnantitius
indopcjtdentof;
and tt)c résultant force parafe) to thc axis or thé cyHnd.-r.s will he
==
= ~(~(C'
!<'<hc cy)indcrs and /j' :ti-c nfequ:)! scctinn, a == :u)d
Y== a(/)(C'(~+~)).
It appcar~ th~rcfbrc, <),:)t <hcrc is a constant
forée actinr,. un
thL. tnncr cyh'ndcr ~ndin~- to draw it into that cule
of thc outcr
cytindcrs from ~]ne)t its poicntia) difrers most.
If C Le numcrica~y ]arg.c and ~+7~
comparatively small, thon
thé ~ref is approxinia~dy Y r~) 6''
so t)t:)t thc difrcroicc of thc
potcntiats of thé two cylindct-s can be
mcnsm-Ml ifwe eau measurc .Y, and the
deheacy et'thc measurcmcnt
will be increascd by rfusing- C, the
potcntial or thc h~r eyhndct-.
This prineipie in a modincd form is
adopted in Thomson's
Quadrant Etcch'omctcr, Art. 21!).
Thc h:Lmc an-ans-cmcnt of three
cylin(h-rs may be uscd ns
mesure of capacity by eonnccHnp- and <7. If the potcntial of
is zcM, and that of and C is tl)cn the quantity
ofe-IcetricHy
on~wdlhc
~7-
so that by movin~C to t!ic i-i~hiti!) bccomcs ~+~th<.
thc cylinder C bccomcs increased cup~citv of
hy t!ic dcnnitc quantity a~, where
t
l
2)c~ri
M and bcing t!)c radii of thc opposed cylindric sur~ccs.
CIIAPTER IX.
srnHI{ICAL HARMONfCS.
~=/.)'-)-+Mr.. (~)
T))~op<ratinn
M = +~ + M (:i)
is ca)!ed Dtu'LTentiation wit)) rcsppct to an axis \v))f)sc di)'('ct,if)n-
cosincs arc
Din'L-rcnt axfs are dis~in~-)ns))~d t'y di~L'rcnt snnixcs.
Tfu' cosino of th~- a)~')c bt'twfpn thc vcctor and any :txis
is dcnotcd byA,, nnd 0)L' vcctor r<;sn!v~d in thc ditTction of <I)L'
axisby~,whcrc
= + ~+ (.))
Thc cosinc' of'tfte ang-h' bdw~'n two axe! and is dcnotcd Ly
~c = (,)
From OK'sGdffiniiion.s i~ i. évident, tn!)(
<
~= ,-=~. (<')
~j
(
(~ )
~,=~=~
New )(?t. nsHupp~sc tnat <hc j.otf'n~ia] :)) <hc point du<-
(~
te a sin~tdar puint ofany <h~ru< p]acc(t ai. thc ori~-in is
J/(.).
H' sn<-h a j)oin< hc pinocd at 0~ c-x<)-cmi<y ofthf axis <))c'
poi('n~a1at(.)\i)]))c
.V/'(~),(y-).('));
~9-] fNFINTTK POfNTH. ~{)
and if a point in ail respects equat and of
opposite si~-n Le p)ac'od
at thé ori~-in, thé potei)tial (lue to thc pair of points will he
r = y!{(.r-~), (~ (~- ~.)} -J/(.
= ~'(. .y.. ~)+tcrms contiuni!]~- /s.
If \L' no\ diminish and incrcasc.Vwithout hmi<th<;Ir jtrnduct
J~ remainin~ constant and c(in:d to J/~ thc uitimatc vatuc of thc
potcntitd ()('t)n' pair 0? points wi)) bc
~"=' (~
I~(-) satistit~s Laphfc's c<)untion, th~n which is t.hc-
difn-rctu~ or two functmns, (..ach o(' which
scparatcty satisn.-s t.hc
Mjnat.ion~ must itscif natisfy it.
ïf ~'c h~-)!t with :u) infinitt- pnint f)fd(~rcc
~ero, for which
~~=~< ("') )
\<' sha!] ~ct for a pnint oft)n' first de~rp~
7-1
''=-
ri
=~~=~ l'- OU
A pnint of thc fii-t de~roc mny hc su]iposcd to consist of two
pninfs nf dt'grce xct-f), )iavin~- L'fjual and opposite- char~s J/ and
and p)accd at the extr~mities nf thc axis Thc Jcns'th
ofthc a\is isthoi supposed to diminish and thc
mag-nitudc oi'thc
char~-c-s to ino-pasc, so that thcir produr-t is ahvays cqua! to
Thc ultimate rcsutt of this proccss when thé two
pnints
coincidc is a point of the first (h'rc~ whose moment is and
whosc axis is /j. A point of th~ first dc~rcc may thcrcforp Le
ca1]cd a Double point.
Dy placin~ two cqual and opposite points of thc nrst dc-~rco nt
the cxtrcmitics of thc second axis and ma~in~- J/ = \u
~ct hy the sam< procc.ssapointofthc st-oond de~rccwhnscpntcntia)
IS
is
7' 7
~='
1
-V
il-i .2.
7"' a (1~)
S)'HM):;C.\L ))A)m<)N)('s.
[130.
Wn may ça)) a point nf'thc second
d~cca Qundruphp.~int,
f~imsc it is~nstructcd ibnr
hy mnhin~ points apprnHchcach
nth~- and amnrncnLJ~.
Mha:t\voaxcs,u)d/ Thcr/
~«/A~ of DK.sc two axes and t.hc ~7/ nf Die j~omcnt com-
])L']y<]t'n))c<t)~n!)t un-ofthc point.
130.] Lc< usnnwcnn.si(h'r:u] inii))itcpnln<:f)fdog'rpe/havin"-
/axcs,('a(-horw)ti(.)t isticfjx~dhya marron a.spht-t-cor~vtw~
an~n)!t)' c(.u)-dinafcs,a!)d having- also its moment .V;, so ihut it is
d~m(-(tLy2/-{-]mdL~udent.<juant!tics. Itspotcuti~isuhtaincd
Ly (lincrentiati)~ wit.h )-~])cct to thc i axes in succession, H.)
th:t< i<.)n:)y))(- ~-rittcn
1 o.)
/='
Tht.'t'<'s))]if)fthc(~)(.'ratio)iisot'thpf«rm
~= 'A-' (. J)
\\))c~r;v]n,.))isc:tnud<hcSm-f!t~I:)rmonie,isan)nc<io!]of'<h(;
/c<.sinc~A, .of<in-an~]t-.sh(.t.wt~.n/-andt)~nx(.s,and()r<.h~
~(/-)) cosinu~ ~c.()f<h(.an~!cshrL\ec)) Utcdifferc'ntaxcs
t)K'ms(d\-cs. !)i w])a<fu])(. wc sh:d! MU))).«st.thc moment .V;
nuity.
J~'<'rytt'r!nf)rj',(.()nsist.s(.f'pro(tucts<))'<)K's<.(.(.sIiR-s()i't)')<'rnnn
~')j-A'j-A,,
in ~hicii t)n.'t-t' :)rc-.s- cosincs or:)n~-k'H t~twt'cn two
nx< :n)d /–2.s-
<-<'sinc-.s of angles hct.WL-t.-nthc axt-s :H](t t.Iu- radius vectnr. As ~act)
axis is introduct-d Ly onc of Lhc i pi-oc~ssc-s nf
d:f!br~)itia<;ion. t.)tc
syn))~~ of that axis tnust occur nncc iuni on)y once arnox" t)n-
snftixt's of'tlit~c t'osincs.
ÏL'iK~ in c\~rysu<'h prnduc< n(' c.~mcsuDt))~ indicés <~(.ur
t~nc-c,:md nonc is )'ep<~cd.
Tht-)]um)j~-()rdi~r<nt.i)rod))c<s()r.s-(.ns!n~\vi<.))()ouh)('sunix<'s
:)nd /–2.t c'().im.'s witi) sin~)c sufHxcs, is
S ~~)
S..s.
-{-X~)+&c. (17)
~.=~S(\)}, (18)
whcre '9 i~dicates a sommation in which ail values of.? not ~rpatcr
than arc to Le ta~cn.
Multiplyin~ t)y t ;('+~ and rcmcmhet'in~' that == ~'A,, wc
ohiain hy (14), for the value of the solid harmonie of négative
dcgrce, and moment unity,
~= !~{y/ 2:(y/)}. (in)
Difterentiating' with respect to a ncw axis whosc symhol is
\vc shotdd obtain with its sig'n reveMpd,
= 6'{~(2.<-2/X(~)
+~(~)}. (20)
may Le 1>0l0
h~ni~T two ~i
"Tendent cc~tant~ exclusive of its
moment, dl;,
n~,
131.] Th. theory of sphorica! harmonies was ~rsf.
thc third hcok of his ~Ivcn Lv
L~ce
J~ 6- Tj. ~.non
are ti~eforc often caUcd
~~s.]ves hâve L~accs CoefHcients.
h.y bccn ~csscd in tenns cf thé
pi ..ça! ~ncraHy
cuord.nat.s ordinary
and aud contain 2~1
tants arbitrary c~
G.uss appcars~ to hâve had U. id.a
cf th. haLn c
by the po.ti.n of its p.i.s, but 1 h~
L.~ any
with dct~.ned not~
dcvetop.ncnt of this idca
1 '~c. rcrpk-xcd on ac-
ccc~t~
u of thc apparent want of
dc.nnit.n~ of thc idca of a
Co.ihc.nt or .pher.cal harmonie. Lap!ace's
Ly conc.iving if as dériva by
the successive diffcrcntiation
with rc.pect to i axes, and as
of
cxprcsscd in tcrms of t). positions of its
p, jI
~.t"s. )f'F~c,bd.v. H.301.
J3~-j SYMME'l'muAL SYSTEM. J63
~/w~6'<M~ ~e~
13~. J Thu particular forms of' harmonies to which it is usu:d to
n'fL-r a)l othurs arc dcdm-cd from thc gcneral harmonie
by p)auing'
/–c of thc polus ut ouc poitit, \hie)i \vc s]ud! call thf Positive Pote
oi' titc splierc, and thu runi:uning- c pôles at cqua! dititanc-cs round
ouc haïf of the cquator.
In this case À~,A~ A. aru each of thcm cqnul to eosO, and
A; À. aru of titu furm sin 0 cos(~3). Wc' shall \rltc for
cos !H)d fur sinC.
A~o thu value of is unity if~' and y arc LoUi less than ~–(T,
~(.'ro wltcti om; is ~rcattjr and t!ie other !css tluui this
quantity,
aud cns M whoi botli arc fTcatcr.
o-
Whmi u)l thu pu)cs tn'c concc'ntratcd at the po)c of ~he sphère,
the I~rmonic bucom'j a xona) tmn~onm for which <r == 0. As tlie
xon:d harmonie is of ~'rc~t importance wu sh:dl resurvc for it the
symbo! Q;.
Wc may oLt:un its va)uc L'ithci' froni the trigononjctricu! cx-
pt'c's~iun (27), ur more diructiy by dHIuruiititition, thus
.).)+i ,/t
il i
(~
~=~Ti'~(~
==x,. }(-n"
( 2~M ~a M,t-2yt~ n' )' r~\
(~)
In this expansion the cocfHcicnt of is unity, and ail the other
tc.rms .nvolvc Hcnce at the po)c, wJtcrc = 1 and ~=
0, = 1.
It is shc~-n in tr~ttiscs on
Laph.œ's Cocfncicnts that <?.. t.hc
codhciL'nt of/' in the expansion of
(1–2~. +~)-~
Thé oth~i- ).armoni~ of the
symmctrical sy.stcm ~-e most con-
von.cnUy ohtained by the use of the ima~inary coordinates ~iven hy
Utomson and Tait, vo). i.'p. ng,
7~M~,
~=.p+~]~ ,;=~y. (31)
ihc
opération ofdi~rcntiating- with respect to axes in suc-
cession, whosc directions make with each othc.r in the
an~cs
plane of thé cquator, may thcn bc \vi'itten
~)
~+~-
Thc surface harmonie of dc~rc.c and typ~ is foand hy
with n-speet to of which arc at cqua!
dUrcrenti~in~ axes,
intcrvaLs in th. plane ofthc
cquator, whi)e the re.nainin~ 7-
co~ncKlc with that of~,
mn)tip!yin~. t),c rcsnit by and dividin~
Ly, Hence
v(~n.~ r'~ ~i\
C.3)
.T~+~(,)'
i
IIcnce
IIence Z
~Tc°> + =
~=2~ ~(~
whcrc tl)c ~etor 2 must bu omittcd whcn <7- = o.
The quantity is a f.tnction of thc value nfwtuctt is givcn
in ~~ornson and M's
7~ vn). p. nn.
It may he dorived from
Ly iht; cquatinn
~(°-) r, °
(38)
=~e..
whcre (); is cxprcsscd as n function of on]y.
133.]] SULILHAKMuNKJS
0F l'OSITJVEDECREË. 165
,.Jo
= V
~=~X~tY' -L~Or-J. t-u–2)t~ fJ. v-. 1 /))
,1°)
2~~rt 11
0' n~-r~'
a_ '0 )
1)) this expression thé cocfEcicnt of the Hrst term is unitv, and
<.))cntttcrs tn:ty bc writt~n do\n m order by thé appHcatiun of
L!)]i]:tcc'SL'(juation.
Die foHowin~' 1'ulntious wi!l hc i'ouiid uscfui in E]c(;trodyn:nnicii.
~rhcy may bu dcdueed at once from the expansion of (~
rl~i z '1
n 1
«.)
~=~=~
(..)
~=~='~='
0~ ~~7/<M~/«6'.s'
<:yj~'</ô'<t'e~y~'6'.
133.] Wc h:).vc hithcrto eonsidcrcd tbespheric':d surfaen harmonie
as dcl'ivcd from thc solid harmonie
~=:
This solid harmonie is a. homo~ntjouij function ofthc cooi'dinatus
ot't))u !K'ativc dcg'rcu –(~'+1). Its values vannih at an infinitc
distanc'c and Hucomu infinitc at thc ori~in.
Wu s!taU now shuw that to overy such t'nnction th~rc eorrcspon.ds
annthL'r which vanistn.'s at tlic ong'in and bas infinitu vulucs at an
infinité distance', nnd is thc eorroMponding' solid harmonie of positive
d~'rcc/
A sotid harmonie in ~'unera) nmy bc dcfincd as a homog'cncous
rnnctiott of. :md which saUsncs Laplaeu's équation
rl'=I rl'=l
r_l=
M- <
Lct 7~; bu !).Iioniog'cncous function ofthc dL'g'rcc i, sucti tbat
/A;= ~= (t3)
Thcn !)/i.+ `
<<= (-2~+
r%=I! °" 1 rll' rl~l'
'l'
~=(2/-H)((2;-1)~)~)~+2(2.+!)~ rl,z=
Y6(; 8)')IK){K'AL !IA!~)()XK~. ~34.
H~ncu
~<
r/a~ r/:
r/
ill: r71.` rll' il=l'. rl~l'. il'=1.
)
rl,r rl y rl,. rl~ rJy- ri ~),(.(~).~)
A (<+!)(<+2)
<t'nns. ~[)<
-V-= + +
~.< <7
is n. hnmnn'oncnus function nf de~TCf /–2, nud tLcrt'forc cnn<:uns
~(<–1) icrm! aod tho condition ~7' = 0 r~juir~s that. <wh nt'
t))(;sc must v:))iish. Th~'c arc Ihft'cfore A <(~ ('quittions bchvc'on
the cccffioicnis nf'thu ~(/+~(/+2) terms cf thn homn~'OK'nds
ft)nct!f)n,]cavin~'2t+! it]dcp''ndont constants in ~)c most~'ncra~
Form nf
But wc h~'c sccn <hat has 2/+! 1 indcpcnJcut cnnstan<s,
thcrc'fot'c thé vahtc of'7/, is nfthe most ~'cncra.l fnnn.
~=~, (".)
and makc 7/; thc potcntial function \vithin Hu' closcd sm-face and
KLHCTIMFIKD SPHEHICAL SURFACH. 167
135.]
~7f
:)n()
cl ==-47r(r;
(/.+l)-~+M'y/=47r6';
/=Y/
wi~rc the first, i~cg-~tio,, I. to bc cxtcnded oyer
ort).e s..f.cc cfthc .ver. dc.ncni
.sph~ .nd the
J~
~y electrified system
.r~?2~.r"~ 1)~,ml'ans
d~cnbcd T~
.1, "P~<~manncr:dn.a<Iy
sucll a coinl)otiiid 1)oiiit.
If is the clr~,rgc of' u
sillgle point of dcgree zero, t.llcn .lJ,
:f~~
If tiK-re two .d. points, p~,t,~ ~,j ,tiv. t
of H on the cloublc
point will !Je
'+~`c.l;
rllt~J r//1=
'.h. ,c, ,inel hi .inM. ~),~jt,
~=J/
v.h.c .r ti.. ~)
~llr G~
~7'
< ~i
i. y with
lie
.v.
'~i<
l~oiut uf cle~reu i.
.t..r'°''T~ 'l'hut, `~f'tl:c sin~;ulur
I~y (.~rccu'S Pniut on L' is `l; `ll; ana,
IL'"cc, by équation (;
l'
/=J/.
r!l;
satisti~a
~37-] ~KFACK-I~TEûKALOF T)IE PKODUCT <)F )t.\I:M<)ML'.S. IfjU
-r- (.TJ)
H/y.~6'~ i- 2<+I~<
\vh<rc thc difrcroitmtions ôt' are taken with rospuct to thé ;txcs
of' thc harmonie :md t!)c value of thc difrurcntiat cuL'fHcicnt is
thut :Lt thu cuntru of thc sphure.
136.] Lt't us now suppûëc that is :). solid lnu'monic of positive
d(.'<ruc
clr~;rcu,j uf
ofttie
tllc forni
f«rlll
r '0
f= ) <)
~,y,.
CG~
~)
f/'r~s'
3~rlb'= ~') 1
(50!)
~)~=
~7M./
w]nc!t indicatL's that thurc :u'f .y c~sitics ui' an~c.s ))L't,wcun puirë ut'
axt-'s of t.))c tirst system aod Lut\vc<)) axes oi' thé second sy~-Lern,
thé; rcmamit)~ /–2.y cosnics hfin~- bct\vct.'n axes onc or ~hich
))c!un~-s to thc fir~L and thc othci' to thu second systcm.
lu cacii product thé sufiix ui' cvery onc of t)ic 2/ axes occnrs
onct', and oacu on)y.
170
si'UHIMCA), JLU!A)uMc.S.
[1~.
Th..n.f.,if~ “< ~r, Is
t )~
-=.== 2~'( ~)~ i_ys' (--)
(.i,i)
~t.
tiatiol1 of
2J
'·.1,1 ~'I,1 0'
== 08{(-])'
',1. 2-' J S ~:=N ( j~
< ,3'
//J~<= 1
F~/ [
(~).U(~)2~('=')}'(.7) A) )
L
.f. "h.n.
1111'Ilxes uf t.11(~
.?" ono s ~t.n,,
Il!'al's a ('l'l'tailll'dation 10 1.11(,distr'ihntion
-'r- intcyral '¡lIlishl's' In this easl', the
"t'to), t~ ~,J:
/w~r.t
]38.J If O!1P harmonie Ifi giwJ1, th!' c'onelitinn
Lhal a S('('oluI
n 'i'~
,r" ,),“
.),u,v 2;t,.n,. ~h
'39'] <t)NjL'(!TH ]i.\]f~r<)Nn's. 1711
)'c satisficd in ordcr that it mny bt.' conjn~atc to ihc2/
prcccdin"'
))armotn'cs.
Hcncca System <)f'2/+J ))armoni<'sof(lc~')'o('/mnv hef'nn-
struc~d,cach ofwtnchis ccnjup'atetonn~hcrrst. Anvothur
harmonie of Un' same dcg'rcc may h~ cxprfsscd as tho sum of tins
syst~m ofoonju~atc hnrmonics r'ach tHultiplied hy a (-nk'ic'nt.
T))c sysh'm dcscrU'cd in Art. 132, cf~)sistu)~- nf2/-(-l 1 1)nr-
mnuios symnn'trioal nhout a sin~U' nxis, of\]nc')) thé first is xona],
<h~ ticxt, /1 pairs tcsscr!)!, and th~ last pfLii' scctnt')!, is a ]):u'-
<)('u1:u' cnsc of n systcm of 2/+I harmonies, a)! nf which nrc
conju~'ai~ tn c:)('h ~t.h~r. Sir W. Thnmson has shcwn ]m\v tn
oxpn'ss the pondiHnns thftt 2/+I pcr(t.'c<)y ~'cncra) harmonies,
cnf'h f)f\hi('h,h<-)W('v(')',is ~x~ins a)inc:u- function ofiht;
~/+t harnx~ncH of U)is symmct.ric'id sys1(.'ni, mny ht' pnnjn~ntc
<Q ca<;)) nthf'r. Thoso cnnditinns cnnsist ni' /(2/+1) tincar <ona-
~nns f~onncctin~- thc' (2/-{-I)'\oopjf)!('icnti-!whi<'h f'nicr into t.hc
('xjn'CHsions of Un' ~(.'ncral linrtnnnics in turms of thc syrnnu'tricu]
hnrtnoni~s.
Prof'csst)]' C)if)'~)'d has a)sf) stn'wn hnw t:o fnrm a cr)))jun':tic'sys~cm
~f2/+]s('Rtnri;)th:u']H<T))ios))a\n,H'dureront pôles.
!!oth thL'sc roulis wrc cnmmunic'nh'd h) thc BritisI) Assf)c'iatio)i
in ~7~
13').~ ff \vf hd<c for J'~ thc xnr)~ hnrmoiuc wc oht:)in :t.
n'm:u'k:))~(.' ~rm oi'cqt~ttion (.')7).
In this case all thc :txc's of the second systcm coincidc with ~:u'h
otht'r.
Tho cosim's ofthc form \d] nssume tho r<)t'm A.\v1)(.')'cÀ is t))G
cosinc nf thc nng'k* b~hv~'n tt)c conmon nxis of and nt~ axis of
t])~ fn-st syston.
T))C cosinus ofthc form \vil! a)I bc'cnmc cqu:d to unity.
Thc numhcr of cotnbinations of symbols, c:K'h of which is
disting'uished by two ont of sufnxc.s, no suffix bL'Ing' rcpeatcd, is
Li
~=2'
u'- )-
=
2/+Y (co)
whuru J~ dchotus thc value of r.
m cou.ifin~ ~97~< cnI1l1l1on
l'oie <.fa1! the nx.s ci' Q,.
of (lr~l'ce G\S'110sc
p on t-lie hulc i:; the 1¡oint
tiieil the :mrlace-intL'gml
("I)
\vc )nay (.-xj.a)Kt m t))u form
or ~'=~A~+&c.+j.
If,
~'==.ii~
~lTru= J. ~<?~~+&c. + (. ;+
.l.l.ll~url,f-l,II l~2trlb-f-uc.-l-(~? i-1-!).I //7~j.
Jj,'(~rrl,S (,)
((i3)
This is thc cdL.hratcd fui-mul:.
nf Lap~ec for the
series .f
e surface of' a .~I..r. ovur
In ~-i~ use it
.d~ a cer ,.n p.~ .r.. to0
on ~c sllherc as thc
Larmou.c Ç,, aud to iind the ,.L. of
.urfacc-i.~ra)
~<2.~
'r (. whole surf~c of t)~. sphcrc.. Thu rcsult <).; l11)cl'.1t10I1
-'t.P".d .y ,;i
7 a h:
~c .ph. ft~
.tt .)t)y (,<-)]~rputnt )nav t.L'
fuund.
'4-ï'] sniEniCAL MAliMONIC; ANALYSIS. 173
(G.)
~=~S'. jJ!.
For suppose cxpandcd in terms of sphcricat harmonies, and ~ct
7~~ hc n.tiytci'tn of this expansion. Thon, if thc <lc~)TC nf 7~is
di!!t'rcnt from titat of 7~ or if, thc dc~rec bcin~ thé t-nmc, 7~ is
co))ju~-ateto7, thc result of the sm'faec-intf~mtinn is xcro. Hence
thé r~-suit of tite surfaec-intc~ration is to select thc cocfncieot of thc
'Kmnouic nft)n* same type as 7~.
Thé most rcrna.r~ahie examp~o of thé actual devdopmcnt of a
function in a suries of spherical harmonies is the ca~culatio!i by
(t:)nss of the harmonies of thc first four denrées in the expansion
of thc mag-nctie potentinl nf the carth, as deduced from observations
in varions pitrts ofthe wor!d.
Ile has dctermincd thc twcnty-fonr coefficients of thc threc
conjngate harmonies of thé first dcg'rc'Cj thc fivc of thé seconde
scvcn of tlie third, and nine of the fourth, all of thf symmetrica!
systcm. Thc mcthod of cidcnlation is given in his 6'e~ew/y~
7~6'.t/ ~M~S' c
14'1.~] Whcn the harmonie 7~, be!nn~s to the symmctrical systom
we rnay détermine the snrfac'e-intc'~rid of its square extcndcd ovcr
the sphère by thc foUo~'in~ method.
Thc value of ri J' is, by équations (3 ) ) :)nd (3()),
=
,:r.
2 a i. ~)~-<)'). 4(lr+]) 1)
and by equations (33) and (5-t),
),
-° ,1er
//(~))~='
i
d~ ( ~l.° )(~3-°~
UL ~~+' 1 7/
l\'rfnrmin~ the difTorcntiations, we find that the only tL'rms
which do not disappc:u' nrc thosc which conhuti Hcnct'
174 St'IIJ.;ItlC.L HAIfMONICS.
[142.
jt't-fri-fr
//<<?
1 1)
~/(~ ~=. 2 :? -eT i,l ((iG)
.xc-ept wt.cn u-== o, .yhich case j.avc, ),y ~inn (~),
7~ '<7:
/)
~/(~)-~= ((i7)
T)~xp,~sions ~ivc U.c. vatucofthc ofthc.
s..r(ac.-int<ra!
squar. oi any surfac. ),.r,nonic th. sym,nctri.a! s..stcn.
ir<.n tiu.s the vu!u. uft).c
ot ihc hu.ct.on
~.ydud~ ;n~TaI oi- t)~ .quarc
~.i~jt in A,.t.
2 22,r )2
.C'=~
This v.)u. is id.ntica) with ~at
~iv.. by Thoinson ~d 'l'ait, ,nd is
tn'L. ~.U.<mt
cxcL.ptx.n for the c!)~ i.i whidi = 0
14.2.) Thc ,p),eri..a! h.mo~-cswhichH.av. dcsc.Ib<-d
To.nt.ron <hc considération of har.nonics
o"~r.d~.s.
i.a.honal, u.rat.onal, or in.po~i)~ d~n.c, is bcyoud .nv pur~
.d_to, j ~J~~
1 hav. donc ,o
Ly rd-.rri~. thc hannoni., not to a syst..
~"<
1 ~="
of
,'1c,H.d thc Pô),, of thé 1
I.u.,non;c. Wj.at~.r b. t).
~c a hanno.c oi t)~ d.rc. type.
it. is a)way. n.atI.c.n.atIcaDy
).u p~sibk.
Kulat, n of th. posd.on of 1~
th~ po)es .vouJd in ,n.ra! iuvo~
t!.<- solution of a of
sy.t.m .ation. of the d~rc. T).c
of'
J~- i~ in -y
on sphuro, u.sefut rat)..r in ~i,
~~UL. our I<k.as tl.an in
1~. the latter p.rpo~ it~ n,or.
to at.on.the c.on~;i<n~
"<' ~+ 1 eon,u,.atc i.arrnonics
) r" urdinary systcm, in winch
n T~' is I" this systcm
L lil'st
ail ~s
con ..de with h thc axis of
polar coordinatus. Ti.. second <y). is
of thc shllcre, and th. P~
rcn~inin~ on. is on t).e c-juator at th. ur~In
1~ Iu
1"~
IOllgitude,
In thc samc
~y the typ. in which < poics coinc.id. at tlie
P'~ oi the sphère, and the remaini.g.. are placcd wit!. thcir axes
'43-] FtCiUHHS OFSPHËKICAL HARMU~K~. t'7.')
ni equa) intervals round the equator, is thé type ~o-, if on- ofthe
Ir
potes is ai thu orig-in oF iong~itude, or thé type 2<j-l if it is at
J(m"'itude
1:> C 2(r
lnnnitutlc
~=t7r~r,, (<if))
\vhcrc thc mtc~ral is tahcn ovcr thc surface f'fthu sphcr)', ~hpln~
an ch;mcnt of that surface, and ~) is the value nf nt thc centru
nf'the sphère. T!tis thcort'm may bp thus cxprpsscd.
T)tc vidue of <hc pott'ntia! at thc' centre of a sphcrc is thc mcan
vatuc of thc pntcntial fur nn points of its surface', providuti thc
pntcntia.~ hp due to an cicftrinc'd systcm, no part of whieh is within
thc sphc'rf.
It foUo~'s from this that if satisfics Laplacc's cqna.tion thron~h-
nut a certain continuons région cf spafc, and if, thron~hnut a
iinitc portion, howcvcr smalt, of that spacc, is constant, it will
Lp constant throughout the whoh' continuous rc~'ion.
If not., tel the spnce throughout which the potcntia~ bas a
c'onstfmt value 6' he scparated hy a surface 'S*from thf rc'st of
the rc~ion in whieh its values dif~cr from C, thca it will ahvays
Le possible 1o <ind a nnitc portion of spacc touching' 6' and out-
side of it in which is cither cvcry\herc ~rcatcr or everywhcrc
Ic'ss than 6'.
No\v dL'scrihc a sphfrc with its ('entre witttin <S', and with part
ofits surface outside but in a rc~ion thron~hont \vhich the value
of is every\\hcre ~rcater or cvcrywhcre )css than
Thon the mcan value of thc potcntial ovcr the surface of thc
sphère will he ~reater than its va.)n<' at thc centre in the nrst case
and ]ess in thc second, and therctorc Laplaee's équation cannot
hu satisncd titrou~'hont the space occnpicd by thé sphère, contrary
to our hypothesis. It fonows from this that if ==C throu~hout
any portio!) of a connccied region, =~' thron~hout thé \vhoh~
of thé reg'ion which can bc rcached in any \vay by a body ot
finite sixc withont passin~' through eleetrified matter. (We sup-
pose tho body to be of finite sixe becausc a région in whieh is
const:)nt tnay be scparated from anothf'r région in whieh it is
45.] THHORHM OP OAUSS. 177
146.] ~Vu shall suppose that cvcry part ofthe etectriHed system
which acts on the conductor Is at :t, greater dista.ncc from the
centre of the conductor than thé most distant part of the conductor
itsctf, or~ if the conduetor is sphei-ica!, than the radius of thé
ephere.
Then tlie potential nf the cxtcrna! system, at points within this
distance, may bu expandcd iti a séries of solid harmonies of positive
denrée
TI)e potentia! due to thé conductor at points outside it
may bc
nxpandcd in a series of solid !tarmoiucs of thc samn type, but of
negative degree
1
U = Il,, l'r
~=~+&e.+~ j3l 1" 1 -4- B.)]T (71)
At thé surface of thé conductor t!)e potential is constant and
eqnaL say, to C. Let us first suppose ttic conduf;tor sphericat and
of radius Then putting- = a, we hâve ~7+ ~= C, or, cquating-
the coefUcieuts of thc digèrent dcgrees,
7?,= ~(C-~
7?] =- (72)
=-
The total charg-c of electricity on thc conductor is -C
T)ie surface-density at any point of thc Hphcru bc found
mny
from tlic equation
r/r cl U
4 7r
47TO-=.
=
~3~&c.-(2~+l)~'+~ c (73)
or
47r~==.~(l+~~+.+(/J)~~ (g~
IIcuce, if thé surface difiers from that of a thin
sphere by
stratnm wliose deptli varies according- to thé values of a
spherical
hannonic of dc'g-rcc Um ratio of thé dinerence of ths
superficial
dcnsitics at auy twu points to their sum will bc ] times the
ratio of' thc dtftcrence of thé radii of thé same two
points to their
sum.
CHAPTER X.
of a confocal systcm bc
14.7.] Let thé général équation 1) Q
x"Q ;II" z~a
z-
= 1, (1)
+ A'
;~r~
thé
whcrc À is a variable parameter, which we shall distingnish by
si~x for thé hyperboloids of two sheets, X, for the hyperboloids
of one shect, and for the ellipsoids. Thc quantities
<7,Â~, À~, c, À~
Thé quantity is introduced
are in ascending order of magnitude.
for the sake of symmetry, but in our results we shall always suppose
~=0.. ),
are ~i, A~,A~,
If we consider the thrce surfaces whose parameters
that thé value of
we find, byellmin~tion between their equations,
at their point of intersection satisfies thc equation
(2)
~)(~) = (~)(~)(~).
c
Thc values of y' and may be found by transposing a, b,
symmetrically. to ~1, wc find
DifFerentiating this equation with respect
~1- (3)
7~=~ 2 ~J ~=~2_(~
and if' we m~kc = 0, thcn
~.= (6)
~À,
~A~
It is casy if) Hec-that and 7);, are thé somi-uxes of the centra!
section of A, which is conju~'ate to the diametcr p~ssing' throug'h
the ~ivcn point, and that is pamUcl to and 7~ to ~;j.
If wc also suhatitutc for th<' titrcc paramcters À~, À~ their
values in terms of thrcc fnnctinns a, y, dcfined by thé equat!o!)B
da c
À~ = 0 whun a = 0,
tlAl )b2_A/¡c'2-À1:
~r~7~lT~ 1
(3 f
148.'] Now let /'bc thé potentiel at any point a, /j, y, then t!ic
résultant force in thé direction of is
=~ ola ~') )
Now considcr thé clumcnt, of volume interccptcd betwpcn t!te
surfaces a, and a+</a,~3+~, Thure will be eight
y+~y.
such donentsj onc in cach octant oFspacc.
~Vc havu fou)id thc surface-intégral for thc c)nmcnt of surface
intcrceptcd from thé surface a by thé surfaces {3 and /3 + y and
y+~y.
0F POISSON'S
TRANSFORMATION EQUATION. 183
149.]
Thé surface-intégral for thé corresponding clement of thé surface
a (la will le
a-j-~awilibe 2 T) 2
~a
~+~ c f y claz c c
rl.a
since ~i is indepcndent of a. Thé surface-intégral for tlic two
of volume, taken with respect to thc
opposite faces of thé élément
interior of that will be thc différence of thèse quimtitics, or
,/2r-~/) 2
(la de (ly.
~a" e
for thé other two pairs of forces
Simiki-ly thc surface-integrals
will be 7' n
z r a 2 rlzl'.D'=
~y ~1
< e
Thèse six faces enclose an élément whose volume is
7) 2 /) 2 /) 2
= Il a ri (3 dy,
(3
B=y~. =~)-(~),
.j –c,),
whcrc T~ is tlie compicte f'unction fui- modulus
y = = /j,). ()7)
~1-~sms~
IIt'n' a is rcprc.scntcd as :t function of thc an~!c 0, w]nch is
fmiction of thé pin-ameto- À~ a (nnction of~ and thL'nec of'
and~itBnfnnctioBof~itndthcnc-cot'À;
But t)x'sc ang-jes and pnramctcrs may he considcrcd as func(.inns
nf K, /3, y. T)ic propertiL's of such inverse functions, and of thosc
conncct.cd with thcm, arc (.-xplidticd in tlie trc-atisc of M. Lamc on
thatsuhject.
It is casy to soc thn,<.since thc
parameters are perindic fnnctions
of the aux;i)iai-y nn~)cs,
tJK-y will ho pcriodic functions of thc
quantifies a, /3, y thu ppriods of A. nnd A.aru f /(~) and that ofA.,
is27''(/).
/~7/<r fSW/A'.
150~ Jf ]s a jincar fun('tio)]ofa,/3,ot'y,thccquation is
'-attsncd.
If'icc\vcn]:)ydcdnccfromt)n-cquatio))ihcdistril)ution
of<-)cc<ricity on miyiwo confneal surfaces nfthcsamc i':uni)y
m:unt:tin(-(I ~t ~.jvc')! pntcntials, and t)tû
potcntiatat any point
bct~vcctt titem.
.7~6'/)6' ~/6Y'Y.
\)e!t a is constant thé cnrrcspojtdin~ surface is
Itypcrbo!oid
of t\vo shcf'ts. Let us muke the si~-n of a t)ie samc as that of ni
thu sliec't under cnnsideratio)). V~ shall thus be ab)c to study one
of thèse s))ce'ts at a time.
Ijet a~ a~ bc t)tc values of a correspondiu~' to two
single shccts,
wli~thci- ofdiHci-cnt ])yperhn!o!ds or of the same one, and let
bc thé potcntia~s at -\v)uc)i t))cy in-c maintained.
TIicn, if \e makc
= °~ r~ ~'±~ -), ( j g.
(tj-a~
t))c conditio)~ will bc satisficd at thc two sm-~ecs and
throu~-hout
thé spacu bct\v~n thcm. ]f wc makc r constant nnd cqual tu t
m t!~ space ).oy(,nd t)n- stu-fac~'
a,, and constant and eqnat to
150.] DISTtUBUTION 0F ELECTHICITY. 185
7? =-~=- a (1!))
~t" r/ar~'
or 7?,=~ (20)
C~ 0~ j~;j
If~ be the pcrpendicular from thé centre on thc tangent plane
at any point, and 7'j thé product of thc semi-axes of thé surface,
then = Pi.
Menée wcfind
~j
7tj=-– )
~-a, -rr-'
7~
or thé force at imy point of thé surface is proportional to thé pcr-
pendicular from thc centre on thc tancent plane.
Thé surface-density o- may be found from thé equation
4?r<r=~. (22)
T))c total quantity of electricity on a segment eut off by a plane
whose C(~uation is y = from one sheet of thc hypcrboloid is
c l'1- T rc 23
~=~~(~2 ai-a~~ (23)
7~ c ~7~o/
Fer any given oHipsoid y is constant. If two cDipsoids, and y.
Le maintained ot potentiais and thc.n, fur ~ny point in thf
spn.cc betwccn them, wc have
= 5±7(Z:rL~
/[-~
Thé surfacc-dcnsity at nny point is
~=--1- ~7)
7i-
~'hcrc i.s <hc po-pendicular from thé centre on the
tangent phmc,
and 7-j is the produc't ofthe semi-itxcs.
Thu who)t' charge of electricity on cithcr sur~cc is
~=~~=- (~)
afinitcquantity.
Whcn = ~'(/-) the surface of tlie eiïipsoid is at an infinite
distance in all directions.
If we makc == 0 and y, =
~(~), wc HnJ for the quantity of
clectrtcity on an pHipsoid maintained at potcntia! in au inftnitcly
cxtended ne!(],
Q ( )
(~
~=~)-/
Thc Itmitmg- ihrm of the cIHpsoids occurs \vhcn
y = 0, in which
case the surface is the part of thc
plane of within the foc:U
o'Hipsc,whose équation is written abovc, (25).
Thc surface-density on the elliptic
plate whose équation is (25), and
whose cccentricity is is
1 _i
27r~~Y~
y~2
~'(~) 7–
V-
anditschiu'geis
<3=~ (31)
(3])
151.] SURFACES 0F REVOLUTION. 187
.P~ OM~<.
151.] If k is diminished till it becomes uttimately zero, thé
Hysten) of surfaces becomes transformed in the following' manncr
Thc rcal axis and one of the imag'inn.ry axes of each of thc
])ypet'boloids of two shects n.rc indcfinitely diminished, and thé
surface ultimately coincides with two planes intersectmg' in thé
axis of z.
Tile quantity a becomes Idcntica! with C, and the equation of t]ie
systcm of rneridional planes to which the first systcm is reduced is
n
.1 1J'
=o. (32)
(sin a)~ (cosa)'~
Thc quantity /3 is reduecd to
/) = logtan-~
~3= f 2
(33)
~sj)i<~
whcnœwGfind
2 <
1 cosd)= (3.t)
sincb=-) e~+6"~
If we call the exponential quantity ~(e~+e-~) the hyperbolie
cosine of/3, or more concisety the hypoccsine of /3, or cos~ and if
wc cal! (~–e-~) the hyposme of /3~or sin and if by tlie s~mc
amdogy \vc caU
the hyposcc~nt of /?, or ace /3,
1
thc hypocosecant of /3, or cosec
8in/3
<?=c~ (37)
2"~
wliere c sec y is thé cquatoriat radius, and e
tan is the polar radius.
If y = 0, tlie figure is a circulai- disk of radius
c, and
(y=-3
~2 ~2 r2
Ir
7T (39)
2
152.] Seconrl C~~p. Let = c, then = 1 and = 0,
7T–20
a = log- tan whencc Ai = e tan a, (10)
and thé équation of thc hypcrboloids of révolution of two shœts
becomes
(~t1)
(tan' (see'~=~'
Thé quantité /3 becomes reduccd to and each of thé hyper-
boloids of one sheet ja reduecd to a
p..m- of planes Interscetino. in
the axis of .c whose équation is
2 1-1
z,a
(sin~ (cos~ ('~)
This is n. system of méridional
planes in which ~3is thc longitude.
Thé quantity y bceomes iog-tan
whcnce A, = c cot~y,
and the équation of tlie family
of ellihsoicls is
9
= 2. (~)
(cot/~ (cosce~p
Thèse dlipsoids. in which thé transverse axis
is the axis of revo-
httxin, are called Ovary cllipsoids.
Thé quantity of
electricity on an ov~-y eHipsoId mamtaincd at a
potent)al man infinite field is
e=<-y. (4.1)
If the pohr radius is A =
ccot~y, and the equatonal radius is
= c cosec y,
A+
,~+~7~
log
y=log–27?"" 2-B 15
(~)
154"] CYLINDERS AND PARABOLOIDS. 189
C~K~e &<~e6~.
153.] When c is infinite thc surfaces arc cylindric, thc generating'
lines being para.llel to z. One system of cylinders is elliptic, with
thc equation
~2 ,i
–+ -~2 (47))
(4î
(cos~a)~ '(sin~a)~"
Thc other is hyperbolic, with the equation
w~
(cos/3)~ (sfn/3)~
This systcm is reprcsentcd in Fi-. X, at thé end of t)us volume.
CoM/bc<~7~a~o~<W.?.
154.] If in thé général équations we transfer thé origin of co-
ordinates to a point on thé axis of x distant t from thé centre of
thé system, and if we suhstitute for x, À, and c, <+.?', i'+À, <+~,
and <+e rcspecti.vely, and thon makc increase i!idef!nit(!ly, we
obt~in, in thé IImit, the cquation of a system of p~raboloids whose
foci are at thc points a' = b and x = c,
-2
4(x-A)+ y2
,(~+~+~=0. + = o. (49)
(49)
TJIHORY
0F ELECTKiC
IMAGES
ANDELECTJMC
INVERSION.
~co~ o/c;e
156.] Let and j9, Figure 7, rcpresent two points In !i uniform
Il- 1 J.
d'ficctric mcdium of infinite extcnt.
Let thé char~-t's of and 2~ be Cj
nnd rcspcctivcly. Let 2~ )je any
point in space whose distances from
:md are ~'j and ?~ respcctivc)y.
Then thé value of thc potentiel :)t 7~
r=~.+~. (i)
~'i
Thc equipotcntiai surfacesduc to
this distribution of clectricity are rcprescnted in
Fig. 1 (at the cud
ofthis voJumc) -\v!)en Ci and arc of the same sign, aud in
Fig.. III:
w])cn they are of opposite signs. Wc have now to considcr thn.t
surface for which = 0, which is the
on)y spherical surface in
the systcm. When and c, are of thé samc ijig'n, Uns surface is
cntirL-Iy :)t au infinite distance, but when they are of opposite si~ns
Hicrc is a p!anc or sphericu! surface at a finite distance for which
the potcntial is zéro.
Tite équation of this sur~ee is
<
-L <?“
+ = 0. (2)
~i
Its centre is ut a point C in
prodnccd, 6uc]i that
2
~C:~C.<
aud thé radius of the sphère is
~7? _~l
~–c~
Thé two points J and are inverse points with respect to this
~57-] )NVERSKt'OJNTs. ]<)~
sphère, that is to sa.y, they lie in thc same radius, and thé radius is
:Lmean proportional between their distances from thé centre.
Since this sphcrical surface is at
potential zero, if we suppose
it construetcd ofthin meta! and connectcdwith the earth, tbcre
will be no altération of thc potcntial at
any point cither outside or
inside, hnt thc electrical action cvcrywhcre will remain that due to
thc two (dectrincd points and J~.
If wc now kccp the metallic shell in connexion with thé c:u-th
and remove thc point j~, thc
potential witliin thc sphère will hec-ome
('vcryw)terc zero, but outside it will remain thé same as beiorc.
For thc surface of thé sphère still romains at thc same
potentin!,
and no chnngc has becn made in thé extcrior electrineation.
Hence, If an c)ectrified point A be placed outside a sphencal
conductor which is at potentiat zéro, thé electrical action at al!
points cutsidc thu 6p]mrc will he that duc to thc point together
with another point within the sphère, w!)ic)i we may caiï thé
eleetrical image of A.
ln the sarne way wc may shew that if .C is a
point placed inside
t)'e spherical bbe)), thé eicctrica) action wiftiin thé
spliere is tt~t
duc to J~ together with its
image
157.] Z'c//M~/oM of ~M ~e~ca~ Image. An clectrical image is
an electrincd point or system of
points on one side of a surface
which would produce on thc other side of that surface thé same
electrical action which thé actual c!cctriflcation of that surface
really does producc.
In Optics a point, or systcm of
points on one side of a mirror
or Icns which if it existcd would émit the
system of rays which
actua!!y exists on thé other side of thé mirror or lens, is called a
v~MM~ image,
Electt-ica! images correspond to virtual
images m optics in being
related to the space on the other side of thé surface.
They do not
correspond to thcm in actual position, or in the merely approximate
charactcr ofoptieat foci.
Thcre arc no 7-~ electrical images, that is,
imaginary electrined
points which wouhl produce, in the région on thé same side of thé
ctectrincd surface, an enect équivalent to that ofthe clectrined surface.
For if the potcntiat in
any région of space is cqual to that due
to a certain eJectrification in thé same
rcg-ion it must be actually
produccd by that c)cctrincation. In tact, thé eleetrincation at, any
point may he found from thé potential near that point
by ~hc
application of Pnisson's couatioti.
Vf)!) 1 (J
194 HLHC'1']!!(; )MAnHs.
['57.
Lct bc the radius of' t]te sphct'c.
Let/'be the distance of-thc dectrified point from thé centre 6'.
Let <"b~ t)ic charge of Uns
point.
Then thc Imn~ oi- the point is ~1
7~, on tlie same radius of' thc
sj~hereat a and t)~ ch~r~ oft)~. im~u is -<'
di~fancL.
Wc h:).vc shewn t)mt t.his
im:i"-c
will produec the same cffcct on tlie
opposite Midu ofthesur~ccast!)e
:totn:tt eicct.riilca.tion of thé surfitee
ducs. Wc sindt next dctct'tninc the
surtacc-dcnsiiy of t]ns clectritica-
tion at any point of the sphcrica!
surface, :md for this purj)ose we s!udi
m:Uœ usu of thu D~ot-um of'
Coulomb
Art. 80, that if~ is thé résultat forcu at thc snHacc ot'a
conJuctor
:md(]rthci:!upL-r<ict:ddensity,
7)'=4770-,
bc-ing- measm-cd a\vay frum the sudacc.
~Vc. may c.oi~ider 7.' as t)ic rcsuttaat of twu
fur~.s. a rei,~).siun
~on~. ~1! and
:1Ct111~r lllonb
~ti.~ mul an attractwIl
an
~Il actlllg'
attraction L' J (G, `~jy~tin~- ong 7~.
aabng. 111.
"s' c~.
7 "i ~g-
New .nd ~6~ = ,o that thc ccn~on.ut..f
=
the attraction innytjewrit.tt-n
Thé restant force mcasnred a!ong- 67', t)u; normat to the surface
in thc direction towards thc side on whicii is ptac~d, iH
(3)
If is takcn insidc thc sphère y' is )ess than and we must
mcasurc A' inwards. For this ensc thcrefore
rc al':v
ln all cases Wt; may write
l
''=- (-)
whcre ~</ arc thc sc~m~nts of any line throng-h cutting- the
spherf, and t)icir product is to bc taken positive in ait caHCH.
158.] From tint, it fot)ows, hy Coutoml/s t!i(.'orcn), Art. 80,
t.)utt thc surfaec-density :)t 7-* is
~.J~ i (ü)
"=-nr~
Thé density of thc electricity a.t any point of thé
sphère varies
inversety as tite cube ofits dis~ncc froin tlie point J!.
Thé effeet of this superficial distribution, together with that of
the point. is to prodncc on the s:u-ne sidc uf titc snriace as thé
pomt a putential equivalent to that duc to e at y/, and its image
f atj9, and on thé other side of thé surface thé potcntia.1 is
C =-C 8
-t77~
() 2
'~Erj'Rrc n).\<iM.
rj~,
T''<-action ofth.ssuperHciat distribution on appoint
<o,n separated
by the surface is equa) to that ofa of eJectrieity
quantité
J'
con(?entr:;t('dut.
Its action on any point on the samc side
of thé surface wit)i is
equaitothatofafjuantityofek'ctricity
~TTC~
-<&€.
1 y~
Thé potential on the outside of thc
sphère due to thc superficial
e eetr,hca<.on will be thé same as that which
would be produeed Ly
the system of .a,.es &c. This System is ther.fore eal)~
thé e)ectt-]c~) )mag-c of 7~
thc systc-m &;e.
If the sphère insfead of
bcins. at. potentiai'zero is at potentia! 7-
must superpose a distribution of
eh.etrieity on its outer surface
havms- <he uniform surf.tRc'-density
n
'ÏTT<7
Thé effeet of Uns at all
points outside the spj~re will be e.jua! to
i6o.] ] IMAGE OP AN ELHCT1!IFIEU SYSTEM. )')7
1.' a el
& (1»
(9)
A~ ~&c.,
./t1 y~
from which cither the charg'e A' or tho potentia.1 may be cal-
euhtted when the o<hcr is g'Iven.
Whcn the ctectrined system is within thé spherica,) surface the
indnced charge o!i the surface is equal and of' opposite si~-n to tlie
induci!)~- cimr~u, as wc have hcfore proved it to hc for cvcry closcd
surface, with respect to points within it.
160.] Thé energy due to the mutua.1 action between an ciec-
trified point e, at a distance/' from thé centre of thc sphère g'rf'ater
than thc radins, and thé electrification of the sptierica! surface
due to the influence of the electrified point and the charge of thé
sphcre, is
~r ~7'
.v =.. d")
(~. ~) = ~)).
whcrc Fis the potential, and F thé charge ofthe sphère.
Thc rcpu]slon between tho electrified point and the sphère is
therefore, by Art. 92~
~"(~)
l -u` J)~(-
Hcnce tlie force bet\vcen thc point and thc sphère is alwnys an
attraction in the foUowing' cnscs–
(!) 'When thé sphère is uninsulated.
(2) ~V!ien thc sphère bas no charge.
(3) When thé ctcctrificd point is very near the surface.
lu order thiLt the force may bc repu!sivL', thu potential of thé
sphère must bc' positive and greater tl~aii ~r.i and tho
~=, '~<-( l l
(/jt
=-J~ 7s + 1
s
~~< ti~(V+~)~ j" ()3)
r./'(.+~ ).
~hen thé charge of th<-
sphère, )ic.s b~tw~
and ~V-~)
/(/ .(.+~
th<.e!eetrHieation will i.e n~-ative n. the e]eetrif!cd point, and
positive on thu .ppositc sidc. Therc. will bc a circuhu. line of division
thc pnsitivc.!y and the
nc~ti.e)y ch-ctrifi.d parts of the
between
surface, and this line will Le a hne of
~niHbrium.
If
(14)
--(~-7)-
the equ.potcntia) surface ~]nch cnts
the spl.erc in thc line of
!num is a sph.rc whose centre is the cqui-
electrified point and whnse
radms is
TI.e lines of force and
c.quipotentfa! surfaces b.]on~in~. to a c.ase
oi Dus k.nd are g.,ven in
Ffg.ure IV at th. c.nd ufthis v~me.
one aeting- a!ong- y/P !md titc ntho' ~ong PJ~. II~nco the restdtant
of thusc forces is in a direction paraUc) to ~7~ and equa) to
c
y/ 7~
Ucnce 7)!, the résultant force measured from the surface towards thc
spacc in \vhich lies, is
(1;3)
nr\
~='2~ 2T~ll'~s
0~ ~7<'c/<,v;~ /)~'<?/A'/o?~.
/-=
.r~'
la thé theory of clectrica!
images
~OJ:0~.
~=~
ci- thé potcntiat at duc to thé at Ais to thé potential
electricity
atthe .f~ j,,
.n~ ~P~.I
not on the
.1 ~"d'U"
duc to any system
~T' Potential
of ck-ctrific-d bodics is to that
at the ~mag-e of thc
to at 7/ d.e
System as is to 0~.
If bc thc dLstance
ot-any point from the centre, and t)iat
if the ~<o" of -'I that .f
of li ?"
he
'L ~~1 ~ents at and
also ~'<~
t.hc eorrc.spondh~
it'
Inc-suifacc "f and votumc-densitic.s
oF.I.ctricity at tlie two pointa
the o~nat aud
~rn, t). potential
at duc to titc inverse
systûm, thcn
= = ~c
~4=~' ~=~=~,
~=~=/ 1
]{ 7'=~'
r' -*(18)
.r 7~ /=~.=/
n
1
J
If in th.. opinât systcm a certain surface i.s th.t of a ~nd..ctor,
.s.-<-Th..m-<.n
.n~ T,ut'.< A~<n~ ~o~y,
CHOKH'nUCAL TimOHUMS. ~01
163.]
<
l6~.j SYSTEMS <J]'' IMAGE! 203
(2~
a ~=-
t)ic potcntia) on thc spherica) surface, :i.nd at ai! points on the same
side a.s 7~, will bc rcduccd to zéro. At all points ou thc samu side
as thc potential \viU hc that duc to :t charge c at J'j and a cliarg'c
</ at
But
Bllt =-e,,= -g,, (2J)
rr, e.f e`
Thé points C, 7~ &;c. a.t\vhich they eut the lineof centres will
hc tlie positions of the positive images, and thc charge of each
will he rcprescntcd hy its distances from j~. Thé htst of thcse
images will bc at the centre of the st'eoDc! circle.
To iind tlic n(~ttivc images dra.w 7~7~,J9Q, &c., making'angles
'n' 'n'
&c. with thc linc of centres. Thé intersections of thcse
M M
Unes with tlie Une of centres will ~-Ive the positions of thé negative
images~ and tlie ehm'e nf cach will he rcprescnted by its distance
from .D.
Thé surfacc-density at any point of either sphère is the sum
of thc sur~cc-densities duc to thé systcm of images. For instance,
the Huriacc-density at any point S of' the sphère whnse centre is
~is
=
4~~ +(~ +(~C=)~ +&c.},
~).
where 0 is thc centre ofthe circle of intersection.
In the same way t)ic
charge on thé same segment due to the
at 7~ is ~(~+ r~), and so on, lines such as M measured
~mage
n'om to thc left heing reckoncd
négative.
Menée thc total charge on the
segment whosc centre is J is
~(/~+~~+~6'+&e.)+~(~+0~-j-OC~&c.),
-~(~~+.)-&c.)-~(0~+<3~+&c.).
167.] T)ic method of cicctrica! images may be appHed to
any
sj.ace bounded hy p!anc or sphL-rient surfaces all oi-hieh eut one
another in angles whic-h arc
subimdtink.s of two right angles.
Jn ordur that such a system nf
s~herica! surfaces may exist, every
so!id angle of the figure must Le
trihedra!, and two of its angles
must he Dght !mg)es, and the third either a
rig.)it ang)e or a
submu!tip]c oftwu right angk's.
IIence the cases lu which tl)e num))cr
ofinn.ges is finite arc–
(!) A single sphcricat surface or a ]))ane.
(2) T~-o planes, a sphère and a p)ane, or two sphères
intci-sc<-<iDg
at an angler. ~c
–L==
a+/3- ~+j~-C~.
v~+/~
This quantity titercforu mcasurus thé
eapautty of such a figurc
when frou i'rom thc nidnctivc :tction ototho- Lodics.
T))c dL.nsity at nny point of tiie sptturc- whosc ecntre is and
thu dcnslty at, ~ny point of ihL-
Q spl~rc whosL- c-cntrc is :u-(.
r~spcetive!y
,Ina
.~(')')-' ` J
1w~ .~('-(~)'). _·
20S ELKCTRK' )MA(iHS. [i68.
Ai ihc points ni' intersection, 7~, 7/, thé df'nsity is xcrn.
Ifonc ofthc sphères IsvcrymuHh ):n'L')'<!):n)thco<I)cr~ t)n;
dcusity at thu vcrtcx oft))c smaUcr sphft'c is t~ttmat~)y thrce times
t))at at thc vcrtfx of'ihc htr~er spix'rc.
(~) T! ~ns 7~ rnrmc~ hy thc two snia!tc!- s.~Men<s of
the spLercs, eh:u'g'<d with :t (ju:Uttity of eloctricHy =
Va~+/~
nnd ~c<c(l <m by points and 7~, char~cd with qu:Lntities a and
is also at poicntin) ftnty, :md thé dcnsity at any point is cxpressed
Ly<)~s:t!n('formulât.
(:t) T)u' mcniscus T~Z-Q~ formcd hy the dificrpnec of thc
pcg'mcnts char~'cd with a quaniity a, and acted on by points
-M/3
an<l C',ehargcd rc'spcctiv<y \it!t quantifies and )s a.tso
,=
Va~ -+
in cquilibrium nt potentiel unity.
()) Thé othcr meniscus ~Z~7/ nnder the action of~ and 6'.
~c may also deduce thé distribution ofc!cctric!ty on the foUowing-
interna! surfaces.
Thc !io)lo\v )c!)s /Ç~ under thc' inOucncc of the interna!
clontrified point C'at Hu; centre nf th~' circle .7~
Thc hoUuw nn'niscus under the innm'nce of a point at the eoitre
of thc c<jnc:).Vt'surface.
Thé huHow )ot']nG<!of thc two hn'~cr serments of' hoth sphcres
undcr thc inftuutxie oft)]c threc points .j 7~,
i!ut~ instt'itd r)fworkin~ out t])c solutions ofthcsc cases, we shall
npp)y the princij~c "f (~(.'ctricnl images to dctcnninc the dcnsity
of the ck'ctricity induecd at thc point of' thc cxtcrnal surface of
thc coadm-tor Y~Q7/ hy the action of a point at 6' chargcd with
unit ofch'ctnciiy.
Lct M==~ ~=~ 0~=7-7~=~,
jy~ = a, ~z' = /?, ~7~ = +
Invcrt thé sy~tcm witit respect to a sphère of radius unity and
centre
TI)c t\vn spho'cs will remain sphères, cuttin~ each other ortho-
~onany, :md havin~ their ('entres in t!)c same radii \vith and 7~.
Jf we indieate hy aecented )cttcrs t)K' (juantities correspondiog' tu
thc inverted system,
L
a
~t~ ~–a~
/3~+(~)(~)
=.' ~(~
108.] TWO .S)'in';I{t':S CUTTINCi ORTJIOOONALLY. 20U
-('-(~
If, iu thc origina.! systcm, thc density it 7~ is oy tl)cu
f7 1
y=7~
et~ctricity c([n:)l tu unity, t)ic potcntiid \vi!J becomc xcro ovcr thc
'-urfacc,:tndtItu(l~usityat~\vi)!Lc
.=~ ~(1. (1 )
~+(~)(~j2~~
This ~ivc's Hic distribution of dcctricity on onc of the sphcrica.t
surfaces duc to a charge piaccd ut 0. Thc distribution on the
ot!)cr spherica! surface may bu found by exchang'ing' and b, a and
/-), and puttin~ y or instcad of'
To find tlie total ctiar~'c inducud on thé conductor by thc clec-
tri{ied point fit 0, let us examine the inverted system.
] t!ie iuvcrted system \c )inve a charg'e a" at .f, and at
j/
:md a négative dta.r~'c a point 6~ in thc linc J~/f,
+ /3' ° at
â -t-
\/a~
suc)) that C' a"
!{' ~= ~= ~6"= wc iind
/3~ -)-
=~c n~ a'~
a~ {3'2
/j~
a +
Invcrting' this system thc charges hccomc
a _a /3
1 ~L- =-
\/(~+/~ c~ \/a~~+~~Q~
II~ncc <))(' wltoïc cha! on t)]C conduc~or t)uu tu a unit, of'
nc~ativt; t'h'L'triciLy at (~Is
a /3
rc -t~ l
\/M~+~a~–ft~~3'~
~t;IJ'
vor..). r
KLECTRIC IMAGES. [169.
'V~7+8~ ;2
'S~6VM /t.SW<
171.] \Vhcn a spa~ is Loundt-d hy two sphcrica] surfaces which
do not inicrsect, tl.c suec-cssivc
Ima~s of :m innuencing- point.
Within Dus spacu fonn two infinitc .serinai! ofwilic.h lie L~yond
tl.t..sphcrica! surfais, and thcrdbi-e iulnt thc condition of t!tc
appl:ca))i!i<y oftitu mcHtod of\.)c(;trical imag-cs.
Any hvo iion-InicrsL.cLing. spiic.n.s may Le inverti intu two
conccntric sphère Ly nssu.nins- as 1! of
point i.ivc.-sion L.iUtur
ot thc two connnon I)tvc-rsc
pui)tts of ti)c pair uf sptiL-rcs.
sha!I b~In, thcrcfore, ~iiii thc case of two unin.stdatcd
co.tccntnc spiK.rica) surface, suLj~.t to Oie induction of an ck.c-
trjhcd point pl.tccd h<t\ucu t!)~n).
Lot thc radius of 1! first hc and that ofthc sc-cond and
let thc d)~(ancu oft)K!
inftucncing' point, h-om thé (jcutru hc =
Thcn all t!)~ succcsHivc
iniagcs will )jc un thc samc radius as t!~
mf!m;))cn)~- poin<.
Let ~S'. ''L- thc ima~c of in t)~ j,st sj.hci-G, that
of (), 'n O.c second .sphe. i),at
(), oi'7~ in <hc first ..pi.L.rc. and
Moon thcn
~=~
~.0~=~
atso <
also =
I. Ol'I !ic"w'=~
6'=~
°
~~i = '), ~c.
IIcncu 6' = ~cr)
6'~ = ~("+2.~)
If "'e chai-~(. of is d~notL'd hv
th.n
/~=. ~=~ I.
N<.xt, k.t Lu fhc ima~c of in thc.cond sphcr~ 7~ t]tat of
~i in tlie first, &c.,
~= 0/Y=
()/ = =
~/=~ r~/=~ J
7Y=/
Of i,nag.cs all t)~. ~i~, ~j the Q~, <;
th~
7 s and ~s hc)u, tu t)ic (i.-st sphcrc, and a!) thc ~'s and
to titu second.
~72.] ] TWO SPIIHKHS NHT INTJ~RSECTING. 213
Thé images withm the first sphcrc form a converging' serins, thé
sum ofwhich is
e~–1 1
This thereforc is t))L' qunntity nf cicctricity on the first cr u~erior
sphère. T))c images nu(,sidc thc Hecond 8]']]~rc fnrm a. divcr~'ir~
sc'r!(.'s, Lut thé suri'ace-intcg-ra! of cach with respect io thé sphcnca.t
sui'nK'c is zéro. Thé charge d' ck'eh-icity nu t,hc cxtcl'ior sphefica!
surface is tho'eforc
~(~)\~-)
))-
Ifwc suhstitute fnr tliesc expressions their values iu tcrms of
'9J, M, and 0~, wc tind
7~
charge on
~=-7~
<~ ~P
charge on =
P
Ifwc suppose the radii of'ttie sphères tn hccome infinite, thc case
bccomcs that ofa point placcd be'twecn two para)]c! p):m(.'s j~and J~.
In this case thèse expressions hceomc
t on
<= 7.
eharg-e
charg-u on = ·
–7~
172. J In ordu]' to pass from t])is case to that of any <-wo splieres
not mtcrsccting- cach
other, wc bcgm by
f!ndm~' thc two cnm-
mon inverse points
~throt~h ~-hiehnl)
circ~s pass that are
ortho~o~at to ))ût]t
sphères. Then, invcrt-
ing thc System with
respect to cithcr of
thcsc poitits~thL' sphères
Lccnmc cnnccntric, as
inthcnrstcasc.
Thc radins 0~7~ on which the successive images lie bccnmcs
un arc of a circle through 0 nnd (7, and thé ratio of 0~ to OP is
ELECT):!C IMAGES.
[1~2.
zc 0~* 1
(Pl) 1
~(~)= tc-t.-2 zr.
M+2o-.
!og~ =
Similarly
~(P.) = M+2~, M(~) = 2a-M-2.
In t!~ same way if thc successive
~)~ M/ o, images of~ in J? 7~ O~L.
&c.
arc Q~ 11 Qi ~c., J
~c(~(~,&c.,
( ~0') = 2 7<, M(7~/) = M 2
~(P/) = 7~-2~, M($/) = 2/3-~+2~.
Te find thé charge of any
image 7~ we observe that in thu
mvcrted ~urc tts charge is
~v~ (ll'
In the or.in:d figure we must
multiply this hy 0~ Hence the
charge of7', in thé dipolar figure is
C'7'.(/~
If~c makc ~==./0~ and ça!) the parameter of the
point P, then wc may write
< .t
e"+V~ = ~+~ 1
.~+\Y~+~'
thon _~sin~M14 ksinv
cos ?~ cos ~=–7–cos/'M–eos~v
1~2.] TWU SPHERES NOT INTKUSECTING. 215
~+(y–~cott')~ = ~cosec~
(x + COt M)~+ = COSCC
.T -)-y–A. k-2 .r-t-y'}A. k~
cot v =
COt ) It-il==
C(jt~/<
2~ 2~-
~/cos il 1(,
~= \/COS M eos
COS¡;
<
Smcc thé cha.rg'c of cach imagée is prnportional to its para-meter,
and is to Le takcn positively or nc'g'~tivL'Iy accordi))~' us it is of
thc form or < we ûnd
.P~/cns/M–cos:) v
'/cos~(M+2~cr)–cos~ v
7~ Vcos M ces U
.y 7~cos/eos!' -i)
~/C06 (K 2 N-cr) –COS
v
T~cos A « –ces o
QI'
\~eos~(2/;i–?(+2~T3-)–cos~
Wc hâve now obtiuued thé positions and charges of thé two
infinite series of images. We ba.vc next to détermine the total
charge on the sphère by ~nding thé sum of~U thc ima.g'eswithin
it which are of tlie form Q or -Z- Wc may write this
~=" 1
-Pvcos~?<–cos~i v
Vcos~2~~)–cosu
~'=~ 1
–PVCOS/COS~ ~(.
In the samc way the total induced charge on is
m 1
Pvcos~cos~ ~]
VccsA(?<+2~~)–cosu
–7-7–
l
~'=c°
–-Pvcos/cos~ ~°
~o
\/cos~(2/3–?(+2Ncr)–eoa~
In thèse expressions we must rememher that
2 coa &u= c" + c' 2 sin /t M= (:<
fmd the other functions of ?are c)enved from these by t))û BMuo deOnitionf as thé
corrMponding trij~onometrica] fnnctmna.
Thu method of :i])plyi))g diput~r coorftina.tea to t))i.s CMe w~H ~iven by Thornson in
Zt'o)t)')'H<o./nt/)-))n<f")' 18~7. Sec Titutn-im/H rej)ri)it of7~cc<<-t'CM<
/~f')'f, § 2~ 1, 212.
lu thu tnxt 1 ))av<! mitde use of thu investigation of Prof. K~tti, A''tf)W C'twc~<u,
vot. xx, fur t)n! Mmtyticat )m;t)n'd, Lut 1 h~ve rutainud the idc;t of eicctricat iningea aa
used hy Thuutjion it: his ori~in:d investi~atio)), ~)' A~ 1853.
t)1
KLKCT]:rc IMAGES, fr-~
Æ' = ~~+~_+c'2~~r~
2<?'
.shi/.a= sit~3=
~~i~
potl'111ia iero.
TI.cn D.c cf-. cL.~c
im.~s placcd a< t)~ c.ntrc
or he sphcrc .succ~iv.
..) h. ihu.c of Du. ac< u..
di.t..ihuLion cf d~ri.it,.
A!) <.h. ,ma~ w.)) I,c .n t)~ axis f~v~ t)u. pnics~mc.
and tie
<'on<,r~onhusp))<.TOs.
T)K- values of~ and fo,. the contre
nfific sphci-c arc
le = 2 a, = o.
~=
fJ,
=
"="
S)))~(.fTn-–a)
/)
~=~ 2/*
~=- ––r'
1.8
~<=~ 2~
~=
~j--
If we put y, = 7~
=
7~=~~ /=– A;,=~
~cc = 7)', i
~=~(~+~y,).
l= ~+2~~+~),
1( [~72 r V")
=
~(~'A.+2.+7~)
218 ELEC'I'RIC IMAGES.
[i74.
The repnMon ).etwœn the spticrM if
thcKfme, by Arts. U2, '):
2.!j~
l ` ~l;: ~lc 1.
dc I
2r7 ~a` ')1' If' r}jJul.
1 rlc + 'u + fi''1.2rIpbI.
=~+~~+~ rlc rlc
where c is the distance bctwccn t)]c ccnh-~ of the
spires
Of thèse two expression, for thc repu)sion, ti~c first, which
expresses .t in terms of thc pctcntials of thé
sphcrcs and thc
variations of thé eoofRcicnts of
capacity and induction, is thc most
conventcnt for ca!cu!ation.
Wc have tlierefore to d.-ffcrcnti.ite t),e
~'s with .-cspeet to c.
Thcso quantities arc expressed as functions
of/ a,/3, a..d nnd
must bc d.frcrc.nt.atcd on thé
supposition that and are coûtant
i'rom thc équations
~-=~sn~a=&sin/~=<
singer
we<!ud ~a__6in~acos~/3
~siïi/cr --w--
~/3 cos~nsin//3
~c ~si)t~~
~TB- 1
7~
M eos/acos //j
~c sin~~
whcnce we find
cos/qcns//3y, ~=c.(~_a~s/~)cos~Tr-a)
~c singer ~=o
c(~n~r~p–
COS/! a COS /3 -=~ JCOS .VtT
Zr
y
~c sin~sr ~=1 1 (sinl~p'
a C08 //3
~t==e (.~-)- ces a) cos (/3 + cr)
~h COS
~c sin~~ k- ~="
c(sm~(/3-~))2––
Sir Wilham Thomson bas c~cu!ated thé
force betwcen two
of equal radius scj~r~d
chères of one by any distance less than t).e
diame~r of them. For greater di.~mc.s it is not
to use more thaï] two or thrce of thc successive nc.ccssarv
Tt.e series for thc dificrentia] coefHeicn~ of In)an.cs
the ~s with respect
to c are easily obt~ined by direct
diaere~tiation
t/5.] TWO SPHERES IN CONTACT. 219
2< 2~~(2e~)
(c2-<~ (e~+ac)2(~
i) ~~(3e~)
e2 e~(cs-
~~3
{(5eS~~)(~-a~)~~} ~c.,
+
~2 _2'_ ~~2 _2
for the sphere Thé charge of cach image, when the potential
of thc sphères is unity, is numcrica.Dy equal to its distance from the
point of contact, and is aiways négative.
There will atso he a séries of positive images whose distances
from the point of contact measured in tho direction of the centre
of a, are of the form ·
1 /l l\
"n, J],
]5;, =
~==~ ~=-.1
'~+~
~+~
=
=~
"='{.<)-
fa.
l expres.ihlc
~-P~scd, ~r ~nco, ho~.vc,,
L
"=–~+~(~
=
~-Mt-~L.
~~+~ -f-b
cot.
~c
~lli-'
is ille or o~Iel,
.l~ -~f=~ ~nn.!U)!m~
-t==~
= 27(2~rn" 1)
=~{+&),
-2=).n..)~.
"n~osph~isv. n
HICcll:l1'gc
ch~c on o. co~I.cd
cc~mlr,lrccl.,<,h
wit,h the s ~1v
L Il ~~=_ ]
,C~=r.
~=! ~Ppl'oxtmatciy;
or
F~`=
j~==~
G G
"°~ or
eacli "ph<'l'e
h,y tlie surface, Zn this
wuy ~s·ebet, a the Z1~C
~77-] SPHERICAL HOWL. 22]
"l7r<r''2-i&' u
== =-
477~ 4~~
TI~
=
?/
FaL- any point () as the centre
~8.] of inversion, and let 7~
the radius of thé sphère of
inversion. Thcn thé plane of the
< bec~e. a .pherical surface
passing tiu-o~h and the 'd
~Ifbcc~e, a portion
of the shherieal surface Eounded by a de
o shaHcal) tins portion of the surface
thé
If S' is thé disk electrified to
putentia! and free from external
influence, then its electrical image S will be
spherical segment at
electrified by the influence
electricity hlaced at Q.
We have thercfore
hy thé process of inversion obtained
soltitioii of thé prob~n of thé tlie
distrihution of
bowl or a plane disk when under clectricity on a
tlie influence of an
point in the surface of the sphère or eleet~.d
plane prodnced.
p.~ e
~~<M/
Thé form of the
solution, as deduced by the prineiples
given and by the geometry of aJre.dv
inversion, is as follows
If' C is the centra!
point or pôle of thé sphericat
thé distance fron. C to bowl and
any point in thc e~e of the
then, if quantity q of
segment,
placed at a point Q in the
aur~e of thé sphère
produeed. and if thé bo.I is maintained
at potential zero, 11.
density at any point P of 11. bowl will be
<r=–JL.
2~ ~r~
and bein~ thé .tr.ight lines jcinin~ tl. points,
It i. t)~t this c-xp~si.n is
r~arkabicsurface of
of thc sphenca! iudcpendent cfthe radi.s
whieh t!œ is a Dnrt Tt ?t
appHc.LIe withouta.t~t. ?
f. u~ case fl~.f
i8o.] SPHERICAL BOWL. 223
~y.r of
TheK.u)tofthi<,),mt,.M,,Mf.w.~
I~<: <hc n~nre r~prc.sGt~t a
section
~<thL.cpnt,.c,<9,f,fthc~~rc
thc pote, ,,f t].c Low!, and thc in-
"ncn~ point; is ~j~~
eorrc.sponds hi thc invcrtcd
~i"ch to U)c
~-n'-c unoccupied po)(. of thc
r'm
oft''cLow!,andmayhefound
~y t)ic' fo!)ow)))g- construction.
Dra~- tin-ou~t the ettords
~Dd 7-7. t)~ jf the
r.ns nf t)ic sphcn. of inversion
to
Le a mc-an proportint.ni
~.n~ ijetw~c-n thc
..t. ~T.'] 1
i8i.] SPJIERICAL BOWL. 225
imnge of A~. Bisect thé arc J~CA" in D', so that F~=~ and
draw j~~j~ to mc<jt thé sptiere in j~ is thé puint requircd.
A!so tiu-oug-h 0, the centre ci' the sphère, and
Q drnw 7/C'QR'
mecti))~ thé sphère m 77 tuid Then if be ~ny pomt in the
bowl, the sut-face-dcnsity at on t)iu side which is sepamtcd from
<2 by thé eompktcd spherical sm'racc, Induced by a qutintity of
electricity at will be
y ~7/r~ c~ ~'tan-1 tr~/c~
2~
~llll'.1' i~~ir~~
~~Q~«~=G~l~ L7~)
[I~(~G1'~=~ Jr
3J}
whcrc dénotes Die chord drawn rrom C', the
puic of t.Iie bow),
to the rim of thé buw).
On tht; side uext tu thé sm'fiK'e-denslty is
_y_ Q/Q7r
'271~/7/
voi..r. q
CHAPTER XII.
U. C0~.r,
of ~-S.1~
L.ledri('al C(1uililJl'il1rnltas lu·ert
cases iu w}¡ich the
sulved is \'L'I'Ysll1aI1. The 1'1'01Jl<!ffi
.ri..I h~ rnethocl
-'I the metltod,
aml ~cthods of' T' ;th.d
orclc.tri~
eleetricml il1l:lg'e:-)
in. 1and of
,f lIlVCt'S1U11
Po~rfu) in t),<. cases tu ~.hich uru iitiJI11Iure
t~ catt Jll' ~'1~ T'
s..r~<s
S11l'¡¡I(~eso.<-
f' the
~d Heeonc! cle~hrccis -c .f
d<L. the oll~- onc, as f;w as r
in which know,
L~h th.u.p.~ and the
known the H.f.~
~i!r~r~
electrical tJ1l' thcory of
CC1llililJl'iull1)and in that of
the contllletion of ctrrrents,
~:1::r" spal'e of two dimensions
< if oilly.
< ~u~ ..d.
ûf' all t.lt(! eoil(Illetor8 are
ycuerutucl by '~<-I~.
the motion of,
I.ara!ic] <o t)~ a.is oi- .J f straight 's lines
c~
ceases tu Leb. thé
the axis
case is so fil!' f'roll1 ~s
.f t hu
elc~carieal lrtrt, consiclerecl tlrut. the
c- nctimu uf'<i. the cliotartt \rjpart un the tidd
then the dec.tn.itv will fiel(] 1I1ay
ill;iy IJl'
be llcgleetl'd,
u.if; )"
~ti~iinc, a.d 1~ eonsid "L
f
plancs pc-rpendi. to
Potcnti~ and the d.trih.tion '~y~"
of ~city~jU
,t.. ,r t,c hujetions of.
and~onfy.
If p dcnntcs thc <~u:)nti<.v
~e isi.
base nf.-L~ < :ut ~te1cment wl. wltose
.L,~ Url~~
Uf ;lI'c;l whosL.
~S'ItOSIhase. ~~<t
is is t)K. till. Hn~.
lillear dement r!s ana
lwight llllity, th.. tlll'Il
or~
0.
~+~+~~=
~3.] PROBLEMS
IN TWODIMENSIONS. 227
Whcn thcrc is no free électricité this in redueed to the equation
ofLaptacc, ~j~
M.6" )* y t/
~)'
Thc g-encrat probicm of eicctric cquilibrium
may be stated as
fb!Io\s
A continuous space of two dimensions, boundcd
by cLscd curves
C~ ~c. bcin~ ~Ivct), tu ~Ind thu form ut' :t futiction, f, Huch that
:t.t DtL's~ boundarics its vah]e may bc &c. respccti\-c]y, being-
co!ist.:uit f'~r cao)) boundary, :uid tbat u'itbiu ihis space
m:),v L<j
t;vci-yw]tcrc inntc, contiunous, und sin~tc vatued, and may stttisiy
jLap):K;c''s équation.
1 am not awarc tftat any peri'ccHy ~eno'ul solution of even this
question bas bcun ~-ivc'n, but thu nK-t])od of transformation ~iven ni
At'L DU is appHcabic' tu this case, and is much more
powci'fui th:m
any knu~n jncthod apphcaHc to t))rcc dhmjusiouH.
T!m inL'Htod dcpL-itds on Du.- pi-opcrtiL's of conjugatu functions of
<wo variabtcs.
'T~'T~ ~<<-M
J~' lu .c rrirrl.
rc.,yrcl M..
llrir Ilr:rrrrCllurl.~ ,y~+~
,"v +;v urttl J -l-J" rvill
J~r
'or
= 1
an(
~y ~<'
Also
Atsu
:'nd =
~7'
CONJUGATE FUNCTION.S.
f-jgq
IJ'7" 1"11 i
and ~.=
<v
== 1 1 dl:'
Fnr r/r_r~
= ~w/ 3
~c </y'<;
~Z~'Y ~~7_ ~?
< ~.7
~7~ ~r~'y
f/
~7.P' < r/
nnd ~r
__=- _L~
-1- j- ~r~
r/< "t' ~y~
~7' <
~s'
Addin~ thc last <wn cqu:tti')ns~ and rcmcmbei'Inp' the conditions
nfcf))iju~ttGfunc<io))8(I),wci)!)d
r r ~/r ~/t'
~y
rl.r~ rly~ rl.r ~rrl,r r/y!
rÎJ r!J rl;r ~j
rlJ
r
r'~
~<-
II~nf'c
r/~r lr
~~+~)~
If /'is a potoitin)~ then, hy Potsson's équation
~r
-0 y
~+~-+4~=0,
and we mny write thc rcsutt
J
~p~=~
or thc qnnntity of t'~cctrifity in corrcspondin~' portions of two
systt'ms is the s:)mo if thé coDi'dinatcs of one system are co])jug'atc
l'iiiietiolis of thosf of' thu otiier.
2~2
CO~JUGATE rUNCTIO~s.
Fjg
~;< M.
~J=~.
x = nnd J~ ==
~~7 .f''oill le
For ~+ ~~j~ (. yr-
T~OR.~ V.
+ =
aii(l
~~?/ if 2Pi, = °
27i'=]os- and
)~ 0 = tan-i
e ~.7/
EXAAn.LE I.
v As an examl'le of' thc
,~ener.zl method of trwsformation
of invcrsion ir tv-o dimenyions.
tf a M
~?~ = 01' = aeP, anci D direction, and
fl0p, and if a~, ire thc -~r
coordinntes rectan~ular
.f~
p = 100'~Jæ2 + 0 = tan-Il!
~=Iog~+.~ 0=tan-
~=~cos~, 0,
and 0 are c<mju~te y=~ 0, ]
functions cf~ and y
If p' = ~rpand ()'
~rB,p' and B' will he
and 0, ~~i:l-~ conjl1gatc flin-etions of p
we have
~=~, r ) ~=-< o,
which (c»
of ordinary with turning the
figure 1800 round OA.
7MW.M)t
M,. 7-,M A'Km~M.,
I. this case ,f
corresponding
I89,J ELECTRIC IMAGES IN TWO DIMENSIONS. 233
(~)
~TT~' F~
and thé potcntial at any point P' within thé circlc is
~)
This is équivalent to a combination of a charge at A', and a
charge –~at0~ which is thc image of A', with respect to thé
cu-dc. Thc imnginary charge at 0 is equal and opposite to that
nt.
If the point jP' is dcfinpd by its polar coordinates referred to t!ic
centre of thc circi~ and if we put
then (10)
234 CONJUfiATH1 PL~CTfONS.
~90.
~dth~potcntialattht-point (p,C)is
< = A' b~. (< c- cns -+ ~P)
-L-(~2~~c-ns~+e~)+2/n ftU
Thisis
t.h.pnl.-ntiatatt),.
atth. P"in'-(~~du.-t.a.).ar~p)aeod
p.,nt “), ~ith thc conditi. t)..t w)~n o.
<, /='
Jnth,s<.as.pand~.rc
th.~j~ fun~nsin
..s ti. .f <).i..f t! radi.s voetoi-
,<tio,.s'(.).
v.otor of'
of ;tp..n I)oint Io
thcn~msnf )~. h,n
t)'"(-n-and6'i!,nn:)n<rt~
Thé .rc is t)~. c.]y
sh~.nj.r poin~in t!u-.ssyst.n, <.fr.dina<cs.
.n.I the Hn.-int~1
.f- ,),~
..c..rdin~ n.s thc cl<.s..d curvo cxclude.s or incfudcs U~.
conLrc.
Ex.un-L! m.y~
1~] N~ ].< ..nd /3 )..anyc~;u~ n,iinns of. ,nd
sud. t!.at th. c.u.ve.s (a) arc
c,u;ot..ti.I .rv<s, and O.c .urv'~
ar. lines .f fore.. due h, ..y.
~urnt..( ,j~
the~i,~ an<[ ..n.)c<-<nfi..d .ystcm disj~edm ~~y
mannor.-t<a<.c.riaindi.sh.n<.c.f)-cm<hur,i..in
L.<us.p)~~h.< ~h.
,vhid~h.p~n<I;s~i.
.<).
~.i"]nt<;)tnK-or)~)n].cswit.])int))is<.u)-v~.
~nth.~rv~(~L,hv~ntnscurv.andttu.nr;~nv~]he
r~scd cnrv.s surroundin~- thé <,ri~in, .nd all
th. curv.s (a) will
.nth.ri~n,andwin c..tth.cu,(.) ortho~naUy
~c ofanyp.int.fh.n t. r.urvc (~) will bc d.-tcrm-
.ned Ly~rdu.s
th. vn u.s <,< and at t)..t. p.Int, ..j ,(.1)..
'nd p.int (,v.)s
.( the cur~s in th<- p.sitivc
din.ction, t).. value ..f
Wti) )m-n'ase hy 27r for caL-h
comph.te circuit,
]r now suppnsc th. <-urve t. bc thc.
(.,) s~ti.n nf t!,c inn.r
.u.-r~ o) a h.))<.v
,y)i,.d..r «f ..y r. ~aintai,<) at
zero ].,t.<;a)
undcr i),. u.O.u.nc. o<- i
char~ .f]in..ar d.nsK. on a lin..f
tlie thc origiu i. i, thé
the prn,c.t,< t Ilt'n we ~ay
l~rl;jec'tirm, <)“ ll'a\'c thé
Icavc
n1113~ the ~.rnat
('xl{'mal
~hK-h
c.)<.<.fr~.d o~n
sy.s<<.n ou< .f<-nnsidcrati.n, and wchave for t!K. potcntia!
:t.t.anypo)nt((t)withit)thcenrvc
~=27~), .j~
and for the ot' electricity-
q.ant.ty nny part .f the cm-ve ail
bc-twecn the pomts corrcspnndin~-
tn a)td /3.
~=2A'(/3,).
*!St~('r<))rs./o,j~)~~]
i90.]] XEUMA.NN'S TRANSFOKMA'rrOX. 235
A' !o~ () -2~ 'o cns (/3-/3j) -(- <))+ 2 ~'(H) a,,). () -J)
T!)is ('Kprcssion for ~hc potcntial ht'comcs xcro whcn a=a~, and is
t!nitc and continuons '.vithin thé cm've a" cxccpt at thc point f:),
at \vhich point thc' fh'st term hccomes infhiiic, and in its immédiate
m'i~hLourhond is tutima<c!y cqua! to 27~']o~ \vhcrc is thé
distance from that point..
AVc hâve ~hcrcforc ohtaincd thc mcans nf dcdncing' thé snhition
<'f0rccn's prnhtt'm for a c))ar~'c :)t any point \viuun a closcd cnrve
w))cn thc sohttinn for a charnu at any other point is knnwn.
Thc char~'c indnccd upon an ch'mcnt of thé curvc a,, hctwccn the
points /3 and /3 +~/3 hy a ctmr~'c p)accd at thc point a, is
A' ]–~(~-M,,) r~
2 r 1r- .u 2~
27r (l:ï)
cu,(r3-/jl)-t-L'·lral--nU)
eus (~jy+7~"i- r~IJ.
From this expression \e may find thc poh'ntia! at any point
n,/3, \ithin <hc cL)sed <'urvt', when Dx'vainc of' tho potcntia! at
cvcry point nf thc' <oscd f'm'vc is ~'ivcn as a function of /3, and
thcrc is YtO(dt'ctt'incation within thc c)oscd curvc.
For, by Thcorcm JI of Chap. III, thc part of thc potcntia) ut
al /3j, duc to <hc maintenance of thc portion ofthe closcd cnrve
at thc potcntnd is ?/ wht'rc is thc charge induced on by
nnit of cicctrification at nj/3,. IIcncc, if is <hc potcntial :)t :).
point on thc (dosed curvc dcfmcd as a function of and </)thc
potcntial at thc p~int a, /?, withm thc c)oscd (.'urvc, thcrc bcii)~' no
c)cct)'ifieat.ion\vit)nn thc curvc,
i r-~
(i-)r~
(~~ (tE~)
7r ) 2 c~) cos (,'3-) + e2(~
23f!
cONJt~TH FirNCTJOX.
r~
Ex.
y, 75ilJe r~ rc
<y~
If)!,] In tim case of an infinite
with to plane filC't'of a ~onc1uetol'
tll(-- char~ed
a distanc.~ surftcc-density cr"~ w~lind for tll(-- I"ia!
f,.cm the p].n, hutential
= 77
If we \l'it!
"r'°'t, for rrep'~ o will lie 1,1)(>clistancu from
~1; the axis, and
~=fT,,
~(~=~, ~_J~
27r-a'
_n
~t
\G'
'=~0" Z r ll
ïr
~=.(~.
Th.
suHhcG-d.nsity
'7 n=r
(T ==
~27T-Q~~)
i92.] ELLIPSES AND HYPERHO LA S. 237
Whcn thé angle is a salient one a is !css th:m 7r, and Uie surface-
density varies aceordin~' to sonic inverse powcr of the distance
from the ftlg' so that ut the cd~'u itR~if t!)c density becomcs
infinite, :il<hou~'h thc whoïc ch:n'c rc'ekonL'd froin the (;dg'c to any
~iuitc distance i'rotn it is always UnitL'.
Thus, w)tcn a=0 thc cJgn is iniinitL'Iy sharp, )ikc thé cd~'c of a
mathetnaticat p!anc. In this case thc doisity vnrius inverscty as
thc s(~uare roc~ of the distaneu from t!)c cd~'c.
AVitun a== the c'dgc iH lit~o th:Lt «t'au cquiiatcrat prisjn, aud thu
~Vhen a== thc <*d~'eis Hkc t)t:).t ot'a reculai' hexagonal pristn,
2 Tf
ttnd thc dunsity is invcrscly as thc iburth root of thc distance.
\Vhcn a == 77thc ud~L*is oblitcmtcd~ and tin' dcusity is constant.
Whun a= 77ti)c ud~'u is likc that in thu inside ot' thc hexa~'onat
pnHH)~ and thc dcusity is ~<'c'< as thc st~uare root of thc distancL*
froHYthc' cd~u.
~V!)Cti a={! TTthu cd~'c is a n'-entrant rig'ht ang'I~, and t)K' deiisity
is dircctiy as tLc distance front t)i<j cdgc.
W!)cn a=,?; 7T thu cd~c is :t rc-(.'ntrat~ an~u of' U0°, and thc
dfnsity is dircctty as thc square oi'thc distance froin thu edg'c'.
In rL'ality, in n!l cases in which t)n; dcnsity bceomes infinité at
any point, thcro is a dischargc < cicctricity into the dictuctric at
that point, us is explaincd in Art. 55.
n0.. '~=~
t. ,,t )
C
h.
.r > 1, til u, y lng (,1'-I- ~n~ 1),
< 1, (;j)
(,,
1/1= 71",
7F, ~~f.),
=
(1) log ( ,¡- .) .r),
tve Ilavr the ease (JI' and 1/1t hl' llm.tion of
-i~~ /11)\
l'ledri('i(y lIu\in, l'rom thu
the .t,t.,t,
!d.f ,i. 111'gati\'1' tu tIll'
-1 mul -f- .h. the lr,trt, of illc axis
+i,1, 'h~
IJl'}IJJIlI tllu": limits J~'i~
"")-t,<h" JeiIlg'
~XA.\)I'L).;
VI.–i.'j. ~J
'<f. «'hcru
.eV.~ ./=~
.j~
240
CO~L-GATH F~-CTtONS.
r~~
Hence from t~c origin to ~= the amount is
~'=~+~1). (u)
If ~ishn-~c
compara ~ith~thi.sbeco.ncs
~'=
.17i
~H'2~,
2
= ~+~)<)~2
1~6 (12)
<).c <juantity of-
H'~c cd~ cfcctricit.y en <h, p!an. hounded
sh-a~.),t than it ~u!d by thc
~t,, i~ b~n if
;rL'~ fj )
w;
tt distance froin thc :ri~
jouudarv ~m) it
.t.
~r.
LuunMary of the plate,
J'7,
struihllt liuu, in l~i~r. XI. 'l'lle vertieal lines
represent lines of
~i~
tlu·sis that un the hYI)()-
the (leilsit3, 15 tiiiiibi-iii over both
planes, }>l'oùllced to
.y'n''J.u:?;
196.] H)K.tr,t) c.md.n~rs arc .m.timm formed of,. “)..)<,
.hy,.y ~.t~ h.).)
i~. ,di.~ < < pht.d.d~M.
1 J
'-h'" ~~t ~~d
the )h"dl t.mee h.t~ t~. ,,h<~ treat tLe as
..)Tr.x,n,.td,. .t.
o.), ° ~t~
hy .i. t,t. plate ,~t,~
c.xt.d..d by ..t,,j, of ,t,. J,
~5,?"°;°" I" the same as
"'h);)t,nuj):H'is!)utn(.a)-thcbound:)ry
-n.).~f"'
t).c..hstanec h..< ~.c-n t).. !ar~ circu.fcre.c.
p)at~ !<.
'=~~ (1~
an<!t!,chr.adth ofthcaddih-ona) striais
lm~· o
a
(.0
that Oiccxtcndcd aruai.s
had bcen addcd to thc plate, tlie dcnsity bcin~ assumed to bc every-
w)iere thé same as it is at a distance irom thé boundary.
(20)
To find the
surface-density on thc séries of paraît pkte. wo
must find rr 1 ~l`~; cvheu = o.
lincl r. 0. ~o
= ~hen W, find
thcv~r function in
thc value of this ~o~ that tlie first two
terms d)sappc:u-, Md thcrcfbre
.r f
nvc~g.tcd there is a d~trib.tion surface-density ah-cadv
to the of electricity in ~coLcordi~
,u.t stated, thé distribution of
sented by tlie curves in potential will be repre-
Fig. XI.
Now from this
~urc it is ~.nfe.t that is gcnerally very
smal! o.cept ncar t.I.e houndaries of 7111-
the plates, so that thc new
~r may ~y represented by what actually
h .air
the plates. near tlie edges of
Ifjhercfore
~e
int~rate~y between the !imits ~=0 and
and from ~=-~ to
~=~, ..=+=., we shall find the whotce
additioMi charge on one side ofthc
plates due to thé culture.
201.] TJIEORY OP TIIOMSON'S GUAKD-RING. 245
'Z+7'
But since the g-roovc is not
strai~.t, but bas a radius of curvatnrc
-?, this must be mu!tip]icd hy the factnr
(J + -~).
Ï~
Thc w!)olc charge on thc disk is thcrnfo-e
EXAMPLEVII.–Fi~ XII.
202.] Hdmhohz, in his memoir on discontinunus Huid
motion*
has pointed out the appiieation o(' scvcrn!
fnrmuiM in which the
coordin~es are cxpresscd as functicns of tt.e
potcntial and its
eonjug-ate function.
One of ihesc may hc appticd to thé case of an
electrified plate
of nmtc s)xe p)aced parallel to an iniinite
p]ano surface connected
w)th the carth.
202.] TWO EQUAL DISKS. 2-t7
thcn and will be conjugale with respect to and and <~ and
will he cot~ju~-atc with respect to x :md
Now let and bc rcctang'uh~r coordinates, and let Le thc
potential, thcn ~<~ will hc conjug-ate to bcing' any constant.
Let us put = 7r, thcn ==~-n-j A'= (r/j–~).
If f/j varies from –ce to 0~ and thcn froin 0 to +00, varies
from –oc to and from to –oo. Hcncc the cquipotcntial
surface for which /=~ is a.plane paraliel to ;Kat a distance <~==Tr~
from the origin, and cxtendin~' from -oo to .T =
Let us consider a. portion of this p)n.ne~ cxtcndin~ from
= –(~ -)- ~) to = and from == 0 to = c,
let us suppose its distance from thé plane of a; to bc = b = ~7r,
and its potential to be 7"= =
Thc charge of electricity on any portion of this part of the plane
is found hy aseertainin~ thé values of c/j at its cxtremitics.
If thèse are and thc qufmtity of electricity is
</)will have a négative value <~ a)td a positive value (~ at tlie edg'e
of~he plane, wherc = </)= 0.
IIcuce thé charge on the négative side is –c~(/)~ and that on
thc positive Bide is e/'(~.
2~~isto 2~~+a(~+~).
206.] MRTJÏOD 0F APrnOXIMA.TIO~. 251
~o~ p/ J~n'Ma!
206.] Since the wircs arc cylindrical, and Rince thé distribution
of electricity on cach is symmctricat with respect tf) thé diameter
parall~ to thé proper expansion of thé pot<;ntiat is of thé form
r == C:,log- + 2 C. y' cos 0, (14)
where ?' is thé distance from thé axis of one of thé wires, and 0 the
an~tc hetween r and y, and, since the wire is a conductor, when
)' is m:(de equal to tlie radius must he constant, and tlierefore
thc cocnicient ofeaeh of thé multiple cosines of 0 must vanish.
For the saké of concisencss let us assume new eoordinatcs &c.
such that
on whether the
~ether I1l1mber of images is odd
potcutia! duc to an inanité or even, I-Ience
,cr T the
it
it tie
thé funetiou
faction ~,+ but if we add to
.ljr~ CC,the
thc"conditions
? of the problem will
Le sufficient
b.
~r~ We may first
détermine and ~h the
conducting. planes, in terms of of the two
1~ and C. We must of
thcn determine "? andP~s thc two
any point of thèse p!au (TI the
surfzce-clensity
~n.ity
8'ivcn by the cation. ~'d are
to /tr~
eliminate all these found
coefficients and to leave sllfficiellt
~.ne in two ~at~
equations to
..d and
~csecquatious~lbcofthcf~
206.] METHOD OF APPROXIMATION. 253
]';LL;CTI{OSTAT)C )y.STI{UM):NT.
0// ~7cc/c
/M~c;y.
TnR instruments whieh wc !,avc to
considcr at pr~t
divided into t.hc ibDowin~. classes rmv )..
(1) l:lcct,rical
~-i p~ or
uluct.rifirution.
(2) MdtipH~ for inc~.sin,c~r;Jk.aLi.n h. a kn.w. r.tio
-L ~ctric
ch~~
charges, p.t..t.I..nd
(4) Ac~mu)ators, for )~)Jin~ ]ar~ dc-etrica!
eh~c.s.
Ou ~M<MC/~
~7~< ~-6-M/M/
209.] In the ordinary frictiona! electrical macin'ne the work donc
in overconnng. friction is far
~reater than that donc in increasin~
the electrifieation.
any arran~ment by which the elec-
trification may be prodneed
eiitii-ely by mechanical work against
t"e electrical forces is of scientinc
importance if not of practicit
value. Thé first machine of this hind seems to have
been Nieholson~s
Kevolvmg Doubler, in the 7~ ?'M. for
1788 as 'an instrument which
by the t.urning ofa Winch prodnccs
thé two states
ofE)ect..icity without friction or communication with
the -Larth.
210.] It was by means <,f the revolving doubler that Vo)ta
succeeded in <~ve!opi,~ from thé
eieetrincation of the pile an
210.] THE RHYOLVING DOUBLER. 257
e~cctrincation cnpabie of itirecting- his eh'ctromcter. Instruments
on t)ic sitme principle hâve hccn invcntcd
indcpendeutty by Mr.
C. F. Vartey and Sir W. Titom.son.
Thèse instntments consist esscntiaDy of insniatcd conductors of
varions forms, some fixcd :u)d otiiers movcable. Thé moveahic
conduetors arc eaDed Carriers, and thé nxed eues may be called
Inductors, Rcc~ivcrs, and R~cncrators. T)~ inductors :md rcccivcrs
arc so formcd that whcn the carriurs arrive at certain points in
then' rcvotution thfy arc atmost ('ompL'tc]y surroundcd
by a con-
ductin~- Lody. As thc iotluctoM and n'ecivcrs c'annot compictcly
surronnd thc carrier and :tt <ht- same timu aHow it to movc
rrc'cly
in and out without a cnmplica.tcd arran~mn~-nt of mo~eabtc
picccs,
thé Instrument is not thet)rc'tiL'aI)y peri'cct wilhout a
pair of rc-
g-cncrators, whic)i store thc smaU amount of
up cicetrieity which
thc car)-icrs rctidn whcn thcy cmer~c from tho rL'ccivcrs.
Fer thc prcscnt.~ )to\cvcr, wc may suppose thc indnctors and
rcccivurs to sun'ound the carrier comptctcly whcti it is within them,
in w)ucii case thé thcory is nutct~ simphned.
'\Vc sha)) suppose thc machine to consist of two inductors and
6', and of t\vo rec~'ivcrs j~ and 7~ witli two cnrriei's and 6'.
SupposL' thc inductor J to Le positivt'ty ch.'etriiicd so that its
potentiat is nnd that Lhc carrier 7''is within it und is at potentia.!
7' Then, if Q is thc cocfiieicnt of Induction (taken. positive) hctwccn
and 7~ thc quantity of utcctricity on thc carrier \viH hc Q (-
If thc carrier \hitc wlthiti thc indnctor, is put In connexion \vith
thc earth, then 7*'= 0, and the charg-e on the carrier will hc –Q~,
a nc~-ative quantity. Let thé carrier he curried round till it is
within the rcccivcr 7~, und lut it then corne in contact with a sprin~-
so as to Le in (jleetric'at connexion with 7]'. It will thcn~ as was
shcwn in Art. 3~, hecome conudetely dischar~'cd, and will com-
municate its who)e neg'ative cnar~-c to t)ie rcccivcr j~.
Thé carrier will next enter thc inductor 6', which we shaH suppose
e!)ar~cd nc~tivety. ~Vhilc within 6' it is put in connexion with
thé carth and thus aequires a positive charg'e, which it carrics off
and communieates to the receiver J~, and so on.
In this way, if ihc potentia)s of thé inductors rcmain aiways
constant, thc receivers 7~ and 7~ rceeivc successive charges, whieh
are thé samc for cvcry révolution of' thé carrier, and thus evcry
revohttion produces an equa.! incrément of electrieity iti thc re-
ccivurs.
SpcciHcatiun of Patent, J~). 27. 18G", Nu. 2UC.
VOL.1 s
258
ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS.
[-210
But by pntti~ thc inductor in con~tnuc.ticn with thé re-
ceiver and tlie mductor C witli thc recciver
the inductors will 7~ the potentials
and
11: tlie receivers in each
continually incl'ease.
an~ "~T~
0 that of
and 6 and when thc carr.er is within
]et tlie char~ on A
and 6 h. .~1 that on tlie c.n.ier
then, since ~0 potential
~T; is zero, in contact
it'to Q Jf The its charge is
this charge .nd cc~nu,ni~
te lf tlie capacity o~ 7~ and 6- is
thcir potential will bc
changcd from ~to
~76-6-
7~C~~M.
214.J An ~.etro~tcr is an instrument
c..tr.c.U by means of which
charges or ~tn-c.t p.t~ti.~
~rmncnts n..y L
Ly means ot-which thc ~istenc.<' of
"f difrer.ne.f- r.1. or
potential .y c t b
d T- ?' not
~H.~i.,nn.
An dc.ctt-~f.opu if ]~Iectroscopes,
suftif-ientJv s.-nsiLh. m..u L.. c"oscnpc.s.
~15-] COULOMB'S TORSION BALANCE. 263
~t?
the fixed spllel'c,
t).c..)~ "S'<itht1.c,~th,gh
t.ltrott,~lt which the electrical force
torsion-arm must h:L\'C ileen 0 r/ and if twistecl the
~lt is the moment °''of
~1
:L~
p({COs~O 0 IlI(0-r/,).
sphere is due partly to thé direct action of thé fixed sphère. but
partty also to thé electrification, if any, of the sides of the case.
If thc case is made of glass it is
Impossible to détermine thc
ctectrinca.tion of its surface otherwise than by
very difficult mea-
surcments at evcry point. If, howevcr, cithcr thc case is madc
of metal, or if a metallic case which a.Imost
compictdy encloses thc
apparatus is p!accd as a sci-ce]i hctween thc sphères and the glass
case, the dectriHca.tion of the inside of thc metal screen will
dépend
entirely on that ofthe spherns, and thé electrification of the glass
case will liave no influence on tlie In this way we may
sphères.
avoid any indcnniteiiess due to thc action nf thé case.
Tn illiistrate this hy an ('xampic in which \vc can ctitenta.tc ail
thé efïc'ets, let us suppose that thé case is a
sphère of radins l,
that the centre of motion of thé torsion-arm coineides with thé
centre of the sphère and that its radius is that thé charges on
the two sphères are j~ and and that tl~c an~-je hetween~ their
positions is 0, that thé fixed sphère is at a distance from the
centre, and that is thé distance hctwecn thc two small
spiteres.
Nc~lectin~ for the present thé cn'ect of induction on thé dis-
h-ihution nf electricity on the small spheres, thc force !)ct\een
them will he a repulsion
7~
216,J In ail electrometc1'1:1 the
1).Irt is a Ltotly
chul'g'ed
.xB? ditrel'ent l'rom that of
.aM bj. certain
as in C.n.b.
insulated body ~thod, an
"n 'L'tiL'ifctSt)K<'<t is the t
\l¡ich
whtCijt, is the
ihedu'ff-j. ~].;<~
direct ol>ject off measurenleut. ~tf~c-h~r~e
rne,,jsLii(n~ïileijt. l'c ma.t~,
co.n~th.M~~
w.th d,t~ llotwvcr,
with cliffércot of line wires,
conductors. 'j'he charges of the
l¡aHs will thon
.r~ potcntials of these couùuctors auù on
t.he potelltial of the caw o(' tlie
instrutncnt. 'l'hl' charge on cach
~y. to its radius
excess of' its potential ovcr hy tile
that 01' the casc ofmultiplieclthe
=~ of the halls are small instrument,
case. l'rom each other and comharcd with tlieii-
casc. sides or
opcïun~- of the
.T.
"E"T' not
mcasl1)'ements of this °"~
Iiiiid, owing
to tlie smullness of the
fhrce
~tr?r' the (linbi-ellee of
tcntiuls is small. A morc convenicnt furm }10-
is that of the AttmC'tcd
.l~
<n.h,.et<,d by Sir W. S~w H..r,.i~
L~~ht
brol1ght to T) have sincc
grcnt perft>ction, hoti/t)
t.,6-,a,tpc,.f~.ti. botli in theory and
Sir~F.Tb.nt "tructi. construction, by
hy
l~~hentvc-o disks at,
potentials arc brol1ght filce to
lace
~=~ thl'rc will Le a
c~lecl;rification on the ncarly uniform
opposite file es and very little
elcehification
.S. are no other C(-)11(luetoi's
or 1)0(lies in tlie neighboul'llOod.
The on
1·ositive clisk will l~c thc
al>lwo,itnately 1>roportiotl:ll to ils arca, antl to
E~ itllll iuvurscl3~ as the
betwcen thcm. ùist:mce
t~ area. of the disks
large
*M'77'nt);j5.]834.
~S!r~
llrilax)r ~y
:1 aHOCialiun, Dumlci:, 1S(i~. Th.
217.] PIMNCIPLE 0F THE GUAKD-RING. 267
Let UHftenotu thé mdiuH of thu .suspcndcd disk by Vt'. ~t<) that of the
of the gunrj-rin~ ~erture
hy 7; tlien thé bre:K)th of thu Mnu)~r i~turval betwcon thtj
d)Hk tmd thu rin~ will hc _C=~7~.
If thu di~tatlec between the HUHj)un.)cddisk ~n() the
htt'ge fixed dink in D, :).m)
the d)<rcre))ee of jxttcntiitlH betwee~ t)n;se dinks M r, theu, thé iuve~tifation in
Art. ~01, tho quant:ty of electricity on tlie KUHpL'ndeddisk by will bc
)of'' ô)
~)n;re a=~ or (t=0.220035(/Jt').
11'
If t))C surface of tho gu:).rd-rit~ iH aot cxactiy in thu )~anc of the xurfiMo «f
thu suspended disk, let us suppo, ti~t. t.ht: di~mco hctweeu t)iû fixed disk Mut
tho ~~r.i-nng is not D but 7~-)-:=~, theu it :tppbara from thé inv~ti~ti-.n in
Art. ~-j that thuro will bu an additiuaat uf eluctricity near the edge of
char~o
the disk un Mcount of itfi height z abovu the gcnerat surface of thé
Thé whoto e)]:u~e in thi« ca.~ is t.)n.rG<(jn; guard-rin~
27(1
ELECTROSTATJC JNSTRUMENTS.
f-
If"OrIl1st.ance, in nrcier to
measnre the electromotive force of a
P'?~ if
~V r.-
~~°'j ~'5:
:lt a constant t'
potential. Tliis is tcsted hy
eonl1CctilJg the lower
p. d~J J 1 L
:t' ~t-' disk of is connected :°t
t~
troinetei- a and the furce ~y ~e-
d 1'l'quired to hring the sushended dii3j~
its sighted to
position constant,
COl1dCllser
co~hn~rti)) till the
U, ~e.J° of
"'th.
the
secondary electrometer is in its sioiited
< position,
~ri.
r" :°"
earth
v-u may call 1'. "E;
If' we now connect, t-11(~
positive clectrode of the
JJUttery to carth,
of the }Jrineipa]
wi~ LJ r~ ülcctrometer to the
?.
will 1~ ~n the d.~
+' ~n' u!c.ctromot)vc iorce of
tlie battery. Let
~X of the micrometcr in
this Cfise, and let If}je the
reudin~ tlie sushendecl is connected wit.h 4L--
di:<k. the A, U.
X~S~S~r~.
correeterl clulntity
-nnj.t:nue(t())H){~
in thc ~ard-rin.~
~== r.~h~ nf.~erture
fLs.~nceb.tween <ixe() ami ~.snon~ed d!
=~
fc,°°-u63.5(lt'-It).
l~lJ iH ernnll We "ect the .cccnd
mny neblect the lnat tenn.~{~)~ t.nn, .“) ..j.
ait).] GAUOE ELECTROMETER. 271
betwecn and .S. Ail thèse coefficients will in général vary with
tlie position of C, and if 6' is so arrangcd that tlie extremities of J!
and B are not near those of 6' as long- as thc motion of C is confined
within certain limits, wc ma.yasccrtain thé form of these coefficients.
If 0 represents thc deftexion of' C from towards B, then thé part
of the sur&ce of J! opposed to C will diminish as 0 Increases.
HeïicG if~ is kept at potential 1 whilc and C arc kept at pot~ntial
0, tlie charge on will bc <ï=~–a0, whcrc and a are
constants, and a: is the capacity of
If A and 7~are symmetrica!, thé capacity of B is =
~+aC.
Thc capacity of C is not attcrcd by tlie motion, for thé
only
effcet oftbe motion is to bring a différent part of C to thé
opposite
interval between J and 7~. Hence = c-Q.
Thé quantity of e)cctrieity induced on C when j9 is raised to
potential unity is = ~–a0.
T)ie cooffieient ofindnctioïl bctwcen and C Is y = ~+a~.
Thé coci!i<;icnt of inductio;). hct\veen and -S is not altered hy
the motion of 6', but remains )' ==
Hence the clectrical cncrg'y of thc system is
To j!/<?rM;ethe ~O~Mi'M~
~My~'ûM~<? the
321.] 7~i; J~~o~ Place a sphere, whose radius is small com-
pared with thé distance of etectrifled conduct)rs, with its centre
nt thé given point. Connect it
by means of a fine wire with the
earth, then insulate it, and carry it to an electrometer and ascertain
tlie total charge on the sphère.
Then, if Y be tlie poteittial at the given point, and a thé
radius of thé sphère, tlie charge on the
sphere will he -~==~,
and if he thé potentiel of thé
sphère as measured by an elec-
tromcter when placed in a room whose walls are connected with
thé earth, then
= a:,
whellce = 0,
or thé potential of thé air at the
point where thé centre of the
sphère was placed is e~ua! but of opposite sign to the potential of
the sphere after being connected to
earth, then insulated, and
biought into a room.
Tins method bas been
employed by M. Delmann of Creuznach in
T 2
276 ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS.
[222.
y%~v~ep~7v~.
223.] In tcstin~ thé resutts of thc mathematical
theory of thé
distribution of' d~trieity on thc surface of conductors, it is
to bc able to measurc thé neccssary
surfacc-dcnsity at dirent
thc conductor. points of
For this purpose Couiomb a
employed small disk
of gilt paper (ttstoncd to an
insnlating- stem of gum-lac. He ap-
plifd t)ns disk to various points of' thc condoctor
by placing it
so as to coincide as
nearly as possible with tho surface of the
coaductor. He then rcmovcd it by means of thé
insulating stem
nnd measurcd thc charge of thc dislc
by mcans of bis electrometer.
Smcc the surface of tbe disk, when
applied to thc conductor,
np:u-)y coincidcd with that of tbe conductor, he concluded that
thc sm-faœ-density on the outer surface of thé disk was
nearly
c-qua! to that on thc surface of thc conductor at that
place, and that
thc charge on the disk whcn removed was
nearly equal to that
on an area of the surface of thc conductor
equal to that of one side
of thc disk. This disk,
\v!icn cmpbycd in this way, is called
Coulomb's Proof Plane.
As objections have becn raised to Coulomh's use of the
proof
plane, 1 shall make some remarks on thé theory of the
experiment.
278 ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS. [224.
The experiment consists in hringing- a small
condnctinp- body
into contact with thé sur&ce of thc conductor at thé
point whcre
thé density is to bc measurcd, and then thé
rcmoving body and
determining' its charge.
We have first to shew that t!te charge on thé émail
body when
in contact with thé conductor is proportional to the sur~tcc-
density which existcd at thc point of contact before thé small body
was placed there.
Wc shaH suppose that aU the dimensions of thc small
1)ody, and
cspecia!)y its dimension in tlie direction ofthc normal at thé point
of contact, are small compared with eit!)er of the radii ofcurvuture
of tlie conductor at thc point of contact. Menée thc variation of
the résultant force due to thé conductor
suppo.sed rig'id!y dectnfjcd
within tlie space occupied by the small hody may Lu
neglected,
and wc may trcat thc surface of the conductor near the small
hody
as a plane surface.
Now Ute c!)ar~c which the small hody will takc
hy contact wit)t
a. plane surface will bc proportional to thé résultant force normal
to tlie surface, that is, to the
snrfacc-dcnsity. Wc slm)l ascertain
thé amount oftitc charge for particnliu' forms ofthe
body.
'\A'ehâve next to shew that whcn the small
hody is rcmovcd no
spark will pass bctwcen it and the conductor, so Dutt it will carry
its charge with it. This is évident, becausc when the bodies arc
m contact their potentials arc the samc, and therefore thé
density
on tlie parts nearest to t!)e point of contact is
extremc]y small.
When the small hody is removed to a veiy short distance from
the conductor, which -wc shaH suppose to bc cicetrifjed
positivcly,
tlien tttc electrification at thé point nearest to thé sma!I
body is
no longer zero but positive, but, sinec the of the smaH
charge body
is positive, the positive eh'ctrincation close to t!)e small
body will
Lo less than at other neighbouring' points of the surface. Now
thé passage of a. spark dépends in général on thé
magnitude of tho
resuUant force, and this on thé
surface-donsity. Menée, since we
suppose that thé conductor is not so high!y electrified as to be
discharging clectricity from thc other parts of its surface, it will
not discharge a spark to thé small
body from a part of its surface
which we have sbewn to have a smaller
snrfacc-density.
224.'] We shall now consider various forms of tbc small hody.
Suppose it to he a small hémisphère applied to thé conductor so
as to touch it at the centre of its flat side.
Let thé conductor he a large sphere, and let us
modify thé form
225.] THE PROOF PLANE. 279
of thé hémisphère so tha.t its surface is a, little more than a hemi-
sphere, and meets thé sur face of thé sphere at right angles. Then
we have a case of which we have
already obtained the exact solution.
Sec Art. ]G8.
If and B be thé centres of the two spheres
cutting- cach other
at right angles, Z)~' a diameter of thé circJe of
intersection, and C
tlie centre of that circle, then if is thé potential of a conductor
whose outer surface coincidcs witti that of thé two
spheres, thé
quantity of electricity on thé exposed surface of thé snLere is
M = 2~–2~ +&;e.
r~±~ ) 7
8J 8,/ Q)
where 7i' is the radius of the disk, 7~ that of the
hole in the g.nrd-
ring-, thé d~tanee hctwecn J and C, and a a
quantity ~'luch
cannot cxcccd (7)'7i')'
If thc interval be~vecn thé disk and the
g-uard-rm~ is small
eomparcd with the distance bchvecn Y/ a.id 6', ttm second term will
be vo-y small, and the
charge on thc disk will he nearly
.h'= ·
~7~+7,
"8~
~29.] COMl'ARISON OF CAP.\CIT)ES. 285
Now let the vessel be put in connexion with thé earth. Thé
charge on thé dish will no longer bc
uniformly distributcd, but it
will rcnuun the samc in
quautity, and if wc now discharge wc
shall obtam a
quantity of' .tricity. the vaiue of which we know
in terms of thc. original difrercncc of potuntials ~nd th. mesur-
able ~uantitius 7)', and
~= a-j-a;
Thc combination of threo cylindcrs, described in
Art. 127, has
been employcd by Sir W. Thomson as an
accumulator whose capa-
city may be mcrcased or diminished by measurabic
quantities.
TI.e experiments of MM. Gibson and
Barclay with this ap-
paratus are described in thé ~-o~~
7~/ ~c~~ Fcb 2,
1871, and 7~<7. 1871, p. 573. Tf.ey found the spucifie in-
ductive eapacityofyaraam to bc 1.975, that of air
being unity
PA RT II.
ELECTROKINEMATICS.
CHAPTER I.
when a conductor is in
230.1 WH hâve seen, in Art. -15, tliat
eicctrioal pquilibrium the potential at cvery point of thc conductor
must he thc same.
If two conductors A ami are chargcd with clectricity so that
the potential o~' is Itigher than tha-t of' then, if they are put
in communication by means of a metallic wirc C touching t)oth of
and the
them, part of thu charge of A will be transferred to 7~
y)otcntia~ of and will become in a very short timc cqualized.
are observed in
231.] During this process certain phenomeua
tlie wire 6, which M-cca.llcd thé phenomena. of thé electric conflict
or current.
The first of these phénomène is the transferencc of positive
electrification from to and of négative electrification from
manner
to This transfcrence may bc also effected in a. slower
with and J9
by bringing a small insulated body iiito contact
call electrical con-
:tltern!tte!y. By this proccss, which \vc may
of cach body
vection, successive small portions of thc electrification
arc transferred to thc other, la either case a certain quantity of
from one place
electricity, or of thc statti of electrification, passes
to another along a certain path in the space between thé bodies.
Whatevcr therefore may bc our opinion of the nature of elee-
wnich we hâve described
tricity, we must admit that the process
conHtitutcs a curreut of electrieity. This current may be descnbed
j
2~2.] THE VOLTAIC DATTERY. 289
0~ <~M~ C/CM~.
232.] In thc case of the current hehvcen two insulated con-
daetors at différent potcntials the opération is soon brou~it to
an end by thé equaHxation of tlie
potentials of thé two bodies,
nnd the cun-cnt is thereforc esseiitially a Transient currcnt.
But thcre are mut);ods Ly wluch tlie difrcrcncc of
potentials of
thc conductors may hc maintained in which casu thé
constant,
curt-cnt will continue to How \vith uniform
strength as a Stcady
Current.
O~M~' Z~
~e c~c~-6'Mp~e~M ~<-<?c~ ~e <T/~w/'<e~ ~r<
o/' <c/7 is the ~/w/c<; ~c ~e~~ o/' //<' t-My~-cM~ the
7~MCC of that part ~6' C;CK;7.
Hère a new term is introduced, thc Résistance of a
conductor,
which is denned to hc the ratio of thé ctcctromotivc force to
thé streng-th of the current which it prodncps. The introduction
296 CONDUCTION AND IfHSISTANCH.
)-2.2.
of this torm woud hâve bccn cfno
science value unicss Ohm
h.id shewn, as he did
expérimenta! that it corresponds to a reai
Phys..d q.ant,t,, ~at i~ ihat It I.a. a <I~<.
which is
altered on]y when t)tc. nature ofthe cnn.luetoi-
is a)tei-ed
is "~Ie-
pGndcnt oft)ic strcn~-t!) nfU.c cur.-c.it
Oowino. thro~h it
In the second p)acc thc rcsisiancc is
indcnendcnt ofth. c)octn-c
the
~ntaincd, and of ti~, d.nsity
ci tlie (h.str.buth.n of
cjpctncity on the surface nf the conductor
It dépends cnth-ely on the nature o(- the
materia! of whichthc
condn<.tor,s co~poscd, the stat<- uf
ae-gregation of its parts, and its
tcmno'aLm'c.
Thé rcsistanec ci- a cond~or
may he measnred to ~ithin one
tcn thousandth or evcn onc In.ndrcd
thousaudth part of its vainc
and sn condnctor.s ],av. Loc.n t.stcd that our
assurance of thc
tn, of~~y
Chm Law is now very )u-g.h. In thc
s.-xth chaptcr wc.
snail trace its applications and
conscqucncus.
*itV..V(~Duc.JS51.
ono
COXDUOT!OX .~D JŒ.SI.STAXCn.
f f< r~
of the vessel and of 111
within it will lre
inslantly rni¡;('d, lmt
versel l~e elcctrificd, aud
whe1.hcr t.he body within be
aJlo\('d 10 l.'pIllC'iu ('ontact.
vessel or not., no witlr thc
signs of c~lectrific,rt.i~n will
nppl'nr witlrin the
sltew :lI1y dl'clricaJ ('/ll'ct.
takrn out. wltett
]3ut if the vcssc~l is
raisecl to a high
Ille lmolv
samc 1empcra1un', Imt,
sideralJle 1inw, if- only Vt'1<'l' col'
it is 1hen 1akcn it
and will l'cmain 80 till it liaS will Ile f(ml1<l hot,
contil11wd to cmit h(,:11-, fclr son1l' limc.
:s~ fi
i Il the f¡It't, 1 hat
ho(lil's aru capalJle of
absorJJing and cmi1ting' llc,It, wlleh.ns
1hq
L.ve.
o.t Le A. body
h.).t a certain
~W~~ .t,dc).,n. n~
"~d~.t.e potential of. M~ "?
,°'
1.0 t hl' bo(ly. any clc~ct,ricit~y·
a 1)0(1y first, hmÜ.d lncl
the closecl \ï'ssel. 1hm p1aC('<1illsicle
TIlt' ou1 of t,lle Vl'si'cl will l,c a1. fil..SI
tHn),mt,e or .un.o,),M at ]le
),r, but it't soon
will till
It. ~f~r:°'j'~7'
is impossible so to
e1edl'ify a hody, flnd so to C'xlwl'inwnt.
it in lt
°
~(.fd.eMi.ation but .h.)),ft.°
was for ''t'i').m
ph.eno,rr in
~.ti.
"<.fan.M.
I!Mtm,yMi~),e)' b,,t
tridtv
cxt..nm) )nt)~.n,ntht,.nt..rMr"f, ,J'
'y'mv<.M have no
it is '<- of .).
tricity so ns to prL'vcnt it from 'J'y
IJeing in imlncti~·e
Tllcre is nothing'
t.Lercfurc among eleciric
phenoll1cna h ieh
F~ of a hody for hcat.
once from the doctrine This fc,]lo«·s 1t
which is as5ertccl in tllis
.L Lreatise, 1hat
~°"
of to
a.n3· Sl1JJstance ly- qii
~E~ aclclitional~y(Ilialitity of
e)c<,t,,c.ity ,nf..<. Sec Art. ), ,°"'1"t.ty<,r
CIIAPTER III.
metals
1~
cau
~ion .f action pctcn~~t means in
cxpcru~nt dufto in
SirWTI~
contact witli
with ..crHcal
a vertieal zinc
~r~ cylinder,
f- 80
:Jr" that whcn colltcr
arc aHo~ed io pass filings
~rou.h the f
cth.r.nd from th. funncfnci they
and then f.H into an
in.
thon found te bc rccc.i e~ 1
c!,ar~d .~ativdv
as thé min~ co.tinuc t.
p.ur into t
cyl.nd~ witlr
cylincler wit). the
thc copper
coppcr fuuncl
Lue in it h.
ltccomes charged more and
more pnsit,-vc]y
~7/=c~=7~nc~,
whencc F=7~-J'n.
It appears from this équation that tbc extcrnal eicctromotivc
force rcquired to drive thc current
througb thc compound conductor
is less than that duc to its résistance atone
by tbc etectromotive
force .n. ncnee ~n represents the cteetromotive contact force
at the junetion acting in t!ic positive direction.
This application, duc to SirW. Thomson*, of thc dynamical
<I)eory of béat to tlie determination of a local e!ectromotivc force
is of ~rcat scientific sincc tbe ordinary method of
importance,
connecting two points of thé compound conductor with thc élec-
trodes of a galvanometcr or
electroscope by wires would bc useless,
owmg to tbe contact forces at the junctions of thé wires with
tbe materials of tbe compound conductor. In thc thermal method,
on tl)e other hand, \vc know that the
only source of cncr~y is the
current of electricity, and t)!at no work is donc
by thc current
in a certain portion of' the circuit cxccpt in
beating- that portion
ofthe conductor. If, thereforc, we can measure thé amount oftito
~of. 7?..s'.7!))t.. Duc.15, t831 ;u).) y~M. 7~ ]8~.
302 CONTACT
FORCE. [250.
curreut and thé amount of hcat
produeed or ahsorbed, wc can
determine the dcctromot.ive force
rcquired to urge the eurrcnt
throug-h that portion of the conductor, and this mcasnrcment is
entirely independcnt of the cffcet of contact forces in other
parts of
thé circuit.
Thc Gk'ctromotive force at t!)c
junetion of two metals, as dc-
tcnnincd by this mcthod, docs not aeeount for Votta's cicctromotivc
forœ as dcserihcd in Art. 21 G. TIie latter is in
gênerai far greater
t))au tlta.t ofthis Articic, and is somctimes of
opposite sign. Hence
t.he assumption t).at thé potc.ntiid of a metal is to bc
mcasurcd by
that ofthu air in contact with it must Le
crroncnug, and the grcatcr
part of Voltii's cicctromotivc force must Le sought for, not at the
junction oft))e two meta]s, hut onc or hoth ofthc surfaces which
sL-paratc thc metals from thé air or othcr medium which forms thc
third ch'ment ofthc circuit.
~50.] Th~ diseovcry hy Sccbcck of thermodeetric currents iu
cir<-ui<s of dif)'cr(;nt mchds wiDt Utclr
junctious at différent tem-
pératures, shews that thèse contact forces do not a)ways hatance
eac!. ot).er in a comp)eie circuit. It is manifest, however, that
.n acon.picte circuit ofdiHerent metals at uniform
température thé
contact fnrces nutst balance each other. For if this \vere not t.he
case therc- ~on)d be a currcnt formcd in thé
circuit, and this currcnt
mts-))t Le cmp]oyed to \vork a macin'nc or to g-encratc heat in ttie
circuit, that is, to do work, wln)e at tlie samc time thcre is no
ex].enditure ofenc~-y, as tite circuit is all at the ..nmc
tempcrat..re,
and no chemical or othcr chang-e tal.es
place. Hpiicc, if the Peltier
eHeet at the junction of two meta)s and bc i-eprcscnted hy n~
whcn H)e currcnt Hows from then for a circuit of two mctais
to
at t!)c samu tcinpcraturc wc must hâve
n.+n,=o,
and for a circuit ofthrcc metals \vc must hâve
~+n,n.=o. ·
It follov-s from this équation tliat thc thrce
rdtieren'ects are not
mdependent, hut that one of' them can Le deduccd frnm t!.e othcr
two. For instance, if we
suppose c to bc a standard mctal, and
)f wc wnte = ./rr, and = ./n, tlien
~n. = ~-7\.
Tbc quantity~, is a function ofthû
tcmpcraturc, and dépends on
thc nature of thc métal a.
~L] It. bas also been she~ by Magnus that if a circuit is
251.] TJIHRMOELHCTRIC PIIENOMENA. 303
formcd of a si.~)e métal uo eurrcnt witi be
formcd m it, Iio~-ever
the section of t),c conductor and thé
température may varv in
dtft'crt.'nt parts.
Sinec in fus case therc is conduction oi- ]ic~<,
and consequent
d~s.p~.on of cn~~y, ~e cannot, as in tf.e forniQr case, consider t)ns
rcsult as sc.U'.cvident. TI~ eJcct.rotnot.Ivc.
fore., for instance, Lot~en
two portions of circuit jnight i.avc
d~peuded on whcthcr tlic
eurrent was passing. from a Hiiek
portion of thé conductor to a thin
onc, or tlie rc-versc, as ~l! as on it.s passmg-
mpidty or s!ow!y from a
hot portion to a cold ouo, or thc
reverse, and this would hâve made
a eurrent possiDu ni an
unequaDy hcatcd circuit ofouc metal.
Hence, by the samc rcasoning- as in thc case of Pctticr's phc
nomenon, wc iind that if the passade a cun-cat tln.ouo.)t a
conductor of onc mctal produccs
any thermal cft'cet wi.ieh rc
vcrscd whcn thc cuirc-nt is rcvcrscd, this can
only take ptace w),c.i
t).c currcnt f!ows from ptaces of
hig-ti to p)aees of low température
or the reverse, and if the heat
generated in a eonduet-u- of one
mctal in f)owing- from a place whcre the
température is to a
place where it is is 7/, tin-n
'OutheHtpctr~ynMnicQutJitieHof'MetfUH.' 7'y<)7.T;'n)i<18CO.
t ~-oc. /<.6'. ~(~ Scsiiiut)1870-71,p.3û8, ~so Dec. 18, 1871.
YOL. I. x
SO~ CONTACTFORCE. [254.
cxpcrimcnts on thu cutiduction of hcat, :uid in othcr cases in w))ic)L
t))c mercurial thermomctcr is not. eonv~u~tit or has not
a suaient
ran~'p.
Acc.(.rdH~ to Taits thcory, the ()).antity which Thomson caDg
~he s))fcific ht.at of ci~Lricity is
propt.rtiooat to the absotutc tem-
l'craturc in ~<h j,u!-<;mctal, thou~h i<s ma~aitudu and (ivcn its
~-n vary in difK.runt mutais. Frmn Uns )m )i:)s dcduccd by titcr-
tnodynantic princip]~ <hc. follu~i, ,-c.suits. Let /< G
thc. hcats of electricity in thrcc
b~ sp~ificLe mutats and let
~r. thc tL'tnucraturu.s at w)nch pairs uf thèse mctats arc
nuutra) to cad) uthci', titun thc couations
)';LECTItnt.YS!S.
/;76V/~Y~C C~P;
~55.] 1 HAVH ah'cady statcd that w!)ca an eteetric current In
any part of its circuit passes throu~h œrtain compound substances
caiiud E!cc)!'otytes, Hm passan'c ofthc cnrrcnt is aecompanic-d
by
a ccrhtin chc'mica! procosscnilcd K)ectrn)ysis, in wtlicit thé substance
is rcsolvud into two cotnponc))ts caUcd lo~s, of which onc, o:t]!ed
thc Anion, or t)t<; cicctroncg'ativc compoicnt, appc.o's ut tt)c Anode,
or place wix'rc ~hc current cntcrs Otc (;!cctro)ytc, and the other,
catK'd the Cation, appenrs at ttic Cathode, or ihu p)at'c whcrG the
cuD'ent )e)n'es the c!cctro!yi(t.
Thc complète inv(.-st,i~ati~)i ofHIc<-<rn)ysis b(dong's quitc as much
to C))cmistry as to EIcetricity. Wt.- s)):tl! considcr it from an
electrical point of vie\v, withr~ut discussin~- Us application to the
thenry of thc ennstitution of'(;)icmic'at compounds.
Oi' a)) ~trica] pix'nonn.'na {'k'ctrotysis a.ppcars thc mnst )ike)y
to i'urnish us \it!i a reat insight into thc truc n~tnrc ofthe cluctric
(-urn'nt, hccansc Wt- nnd currcnts of ordinary maitur and cun~-ats
ot'(dc<'t['n'ity fonni)~- essentii).) parts ofthe s:urm p)]cno)ncnon.
It isprcbabty rorttiis very rcason (!mt, in thcprcscnt imper~'cUy
form~d statc oi' our ideas ahout c-tectricity, thu théories of eicctro-
)ysis :u'e so on~atis~K'tnry.
T)~ Cun<)amcnt!).t law of ctoctrotysis, which was c'stahlishcd by
Faraday, nnd ccnfirnn'd hy t))e cxpcrimcnts of Bcetz, Hittorf, aud
othci'H do\n to thc pi'cs~nt time, is as ff.db\vs
Thu nun~hcr oi' cicctrochemicat cquivatents of' an ulectrotytc wt~ich.
are dccomposcd hy thc passade of'an electric currcntdurit)~ a g-ivon
timc is cquat to tlin numhcr of units of ck-ctricity whic)~ are tmns-
fcrrcd by the current in thé samc timc.
Thé c'Icctrochemical u(piiva!cnt of a substance is that quautity
X2
308 ELECTROLYSIS.
[255
of thc substance which is
clectrotysed by :L unit current passing
Hn-ough the substance for a unit of timc, or, in othcr words, by the
passage of a unit of cicctricity. When titc unit of electricity is
detined in absolute mesure t)ie absolute value of the eicetro-
chemical cquivah'nt of each substance can bc determined in
grains
or in gra-mmes.
Thé etcctroebemicat équivalents of difTerent substances are
pro-
portiona) to tbcir ordinnry chemical équivalents. The ordinary
chemical cquivafcnts, )in\vcver, arc thc mère numcriea! ratios in
which t]m substances combine-, whel'eas ~be dcctroc])emica!
equi-
vahnts are quantités of mattcr of a dL-tG)-minat<3magnitude) dc-
pcndin~- on the dt-finitinn oft)u- unit of electricity.
J~very c)cctro]y<c consists of two componcnts, whieh, during the
G)cctro)ysis, :)ppcar wberc the cnrrcnt enters and Icaves the o!ec-
trolytc, and nowbcrc cise. JIence, if wc conceive a surface described
within thc substance of' tbe cb-ctrotyte, tbe amount of
electrolysis
which takes p]aec through this surface, as measured
by t)io e!ec-
trochcmica! cquiva)cnts of tbe components tmnsfcrrcd across it
in opposite directions, will be to tbe
proportional total elcctric
current tbroug'b t.hc surface.
The actual transir of Die ions throug-b the substance of thc
electrolyte in opposite directions is titcrcfbre part of tbe pbcnomenon
of thé conduction ofan electric current
through an electrolyte. At
evcry point of the electrolyte through which an clectric cun-ent
is passing tht're are also two opposite material currents of the
anion
and tlie cation, which have the same )Ines of How with thc
electric
current, and arc proportional to it in magnitude.
It is tho-cforc extremely natural to
suppose t!tat tbe currents of
thé ions are convection currents of
electricity, and, in particular,
that every molécule of tbe cation is
cbarged with a certain fixed
quantityof positive ctcctricity, wbleb is the same for thé molL-eu!cs
ofali cations, and that cvery molecule of thé auion is
eharged with
an equal quantity of négative
electricity.
TJie opposite motion of tbe ions
tbrougb thé electrolyte would
then be a. complète pbysicat représentation of thé dectrie
eurrent.
We may compare this motion of tlie ions with the motion of
gases
and liquids through each other during tbe
process of dinusion,
there being tins dinurence between thé two
processes, that, in
diffusion, tbe diiiercnt substances are only mixed together and'tbe
mixture is not homogeneous, wbereas in
electrolysis tbey are cbemi-
cany combined and the clectrolyte is bomogeneous. In diffusion
257.] THEORY OP ULAUSUrs. 309
'L'
willlin the eluctrcllytc are ad.llally charhml witll cerbLin (h.fi nitc
L.r-
200.] MOLHCULA1! CJtARCiH. 311
pont, the rcst oftheir surfaces wiH bc clectrincd, and if the mêlais
are in thé form of' two
plates separated by a narrow interval of ah-,
the charge on each
plate may bccome of con.side.-ah)L. magnitude
Something !i).e this may bc
supposc-d to occur when the two
components of an dectro]y<c are h combination. Eaoh pair of
mo)eeu)cs may bu snpp.~ed to touch at one
point, and to have the
rest of their surface ebar~d ~-iLh dcctricity due to tbe e!c.cti-o-
mottvt; fbi'cu of contact.
But to cxp!ain thc
phcnomcnon, we ou~bt to shcw w)ty tite
charge tin~ produc.d en cad. mo~.u)e is of a f:xcd
a.nount and
why, w))cn n mo)ecu!c of chiorinc is eombinod ~itb a n~~cc-ute of
zinc, t!.e molecular cba.-g.es are the .sa,nc. as ~bc.n a
moic.cu]. of
chbrme combincd ~Itb a mob~dc of
coppcr, :dtboug.]i the ck.c-
tromotn-e force bct~v,.<.n e)dori,u. and ~ine
is mueb H-rcatcr than
tba ch!orino and coppcr. If t)~
t bci~en cba~i~- of the mo!ccu)c.s
tbc ~cct of the d~tromotivc force of contact, why sbo.dd
e ectromot.ve forces of <)ii!.rent intcnsitic.s
producc exacte cqua!
charges ?
Supposa howcvcr, that wc ]cap over this
dimcu)t~ by simpfv
asscrting. thc faet of thc constant value of tbe n~<~)ar
and that we cal! this constant c~ar~
mok.cuhu- char~ for couvcnience in
description, o~ w~c/< ~<
Tins phrase gross as it I~ and out of
harmony with the rcst of
this treat,se, will cnaMe us at least to
statc c)car!y what is kno~
about c)cc rolysis, and to
apprcciatc thc outstandi.~ dinicn)ties
Rvery electrolyte mnst hc considcrcd as a
binary compound of
its anion and its cation. Thé union or the cation or both be
compound bodi~ so that a molécule of thc anion cr the may
cation
may bc formcd hy ~m.iber of moi~ucs of simple bodies A
mo ccntc of the anion and a mo)eculc of
the cation ccmbined to-
gether iorm one moh.ctde of t)ic electroivtc.
In order to act as an anion in an
electrolyte, the molecule which
so acts must be
c),arg-ed wit)i ~~at wc have called one n.olecuic
e)ectrieity, and in order <o act as a cation the n.o!ccu]c
cfn~vcbe
clia~-cd ~itb onc mo]ecu)e of positive eh.ctneitv.
mustibcse charges are connected v'it)t thé
mo)ceu)cs on!y when t)~v
are eondjincd as anion and cation in
tbe dcc.trolytc
Wi~en thc mo]ccu)cs arc
c!cct..oiysed, thcy part u.ith their cl~r.es
to the électrodes, and
appear as nne)eetrined bodies wbcn set ~.ce
from combmation.
If the same molecuje is
capable of acting. as a cation in onc
201.]J SECONDARY l'RODUCTS 0F EDCCTHOLYSIS. 313
H~CTMOLYTfc P()LAH)X.\TfO~.
~t th.
o.. ~L" th.t,htc ?"" f, will
.).), r. .r,
ox~
trcnnutivu Glrcc ('mmu t,llc lo~l:lriz,t.iml ol' tlu~
uri;int;~ c~ull will Lalancc
~7~
~i:r~
~u. u(' tlli;t
-;r
,) .L. t.j. ,f ~:I,u,,
tlie statc
wu "rat!
ul' 1-S (..rtt.h.tt.
sut alc, ancl if' wu uall
tllc trrtal
1~ l.lm nurrc·nt clurin;~
it' .I i, tlu· ,rua c~f'onu uf' tllc
ulm~troclus, a«cl rr
~°~y~h~<jfthM~a,s ~nd,
M~ ,J~
-f ~.i~
e. 'rr
ch~gLdv~). ,.k.t,t~).,f~
'y y
't. "r
m.li)u;u.d t<ML.h,j,tlie di,<t,n .n,
j,
.M.rc~
~t:LC: lmt whicll, wllcn tlie
sluw, tlm ull:lrf;c~ c·~c~cccls:z c,rrtain
lintit, lieccnncs
~J;t: ellarbe
llave
tlie hecn cuunect,cci for a tilnu ,«flicic~tlt, tu
lwuluce an ;il~l~irctltly
if' no~ sc·llar,tc tlu: clcctrocl~s clisaltlm:wed,
~~Y-:±~:H~ for a tilll, :ulcl
tllcnl, wc olltaill a sm~oll at'turwurcls colulcct
cliscllarrin iu tlle nunu· Vircct.irnl as tlie
'I'llis is file rmid«al di5ul«vr~~c,atl(1 is a
ph~ft~L,
in
t.. a "T' .~t.
T!~ d
Tllc ,t-t.'iM.
~J. 's
'-c,y~t~),ti~,) to tlle
2~1.] CMH'AJ;!S()K \)'n) LEYDEX
JAif. 323
1.21.
over T)..
in thc h"n.on~))v ,ar the
t"LG is p)a~ in
solution with its 10\('1' l'ncl .t~
jllst nJJO\'ü the sur(are of tilt'
of snlphate of enl7l~er
('opper arc (ll'OPP{'ddown tlii; htlJl',
$~ a Ho]utiolla of g'mtt'r
thall that of s«lhltate of zinc (lnnsity,
:11011<so t}¡at it; cannot get to the
z.nc cxcept hy dij{'usio,). To
,.c~~ this 1))'o('e~8
a
tuhe e"cu
stufli.'d wtNtcottnn
witlt cottcn wck
~L"
placed «'ltll (1111? /.drt\m;¡" .L- wiek, is
Md t!,c with<,therm °" avMsd PC
outi,!d<jth<.t.d) ,on,f th.. r
~.y~}J1aee, w;ctm, UI' R ~S·l'.11C
its ~r," i
sulutiort of snll~hntc of zinc, i, mlclud
of col:hcr
l'ising' thl'OlIg'h the licluicl IIr cliflirsion is clrtiwn
siphon lcforc it l'caehl's the zinc, and the of!'IJ,)' the
~=~ zinc is surroundecl
liclnicl nearly- free f3~orn sullulrate nf hy
enhher, and hnvitlg a very slow
motion of thr slllphate of
cop}1Pr, ])L1ring tln·. action of the
coppcr i, clehositud on the L'appel' lrtttcrY
1>latu, and S °4 travcls
slowly.
zinc \it.h 11'111CI1 lt
of' cotnlrines,
sullllmtu zinc. Thus the liduicl at tlm bot formilJg'
tom hecome¡; less clcnse
1y the ¡]eposition uf the
CO!)}1CI', and the li(lUid at t.I¡e
top becom(.s
from changing the orcler ot' this action
densitr of the strata, and so
instahility and "isibl!' Clrr't'c!llts in
ES; hruduein~·
thc'-l'(.ssel, cal'e must he talwn to
anci cr,ysttr,ls of sullclrate of corlrer,
ir.F~ to fecd the cc~llabove vs-itli a sulution of
sllljJhate of zinc sufli-
bc libllter th an
;ttry other stmtu1l1 of the liduicl
in Il Hecel 1.
is hy 110 mcans the mos1
powerful iu common
1~ -)r ~"cc ut urovt's ce is
)')')()<)<) non oi ~r
Damc!)'sj07,<)()nf)f)<).t,)j<),<nt 1'J-o,()(.)(;),
i,
(lrove's or l3unscn's of the sunc sizu.
o.
are
cases
.i' wltere cxact !l1e:Lsurel11cnts nre "L.hnc~ in
rcyairecl, hy the filet tllat
of electromotive arranbument in
~B=~ force. If Ims ;tlso the conslan('y
advfillt:lge of
continuinb
~.r:,t;
CHAPTER VI.
O~M'.9 ~<K'.
> &c.
TI..n c.-ndu.tcr.s nrc an.an~d in scri.s so th~ thc san.c
<nt sinc~h.
6 n~s throu~h c.ach, wc ).ave
hy Ohm's L~v,
~=C/~ ~=6- ~,=C/ (,)
"A ,s t1.c rc.s.dia~ .).c.tromotive
force, and A' <h. n.suXant
i.jta..cc oft)ic system, w.. must )iavc
hy Ohms La~,
= Cli.
C~.
~=~+~+~,
<he sum of thé scparutc ~cctroniotivc
f'urccs,
=
C'(/)' + 7. + ~y e.qn~tioi]s (2).
Comparin~ tbis ~.su!t with (3), we find
~=~+~,+7~.
Or
(V /~c rf~e-y ~Y'~ .!<'y~
ive!y, and thé currents 6'~ and let thé resistance of thé
multiple rr'nducto)' he 7)', nnd the total current C. T]ien, since the
potcntials at J and are tlie samc for a]l thé conductors, thcy have
the same difTercnce, which wc may call Wp then tiavc
0~ ~s.
YOT-. I.
CHAPTER VII.
x 2
340 CONDUCTIONtN THREE DIMENSIONS.
~88.
+ -1- 0.
"+-~='-
If this equation is truc for aiï
values of A, a)! tlie surfaces of thé
iamtiy will be surfaces of flow.
isfT~ whose
~yo~cc~
is then, if these are also surf-aecs offfow, we shall have parameter
(H)
or
~= ~(~~);
that is, is somc function ofA and
A~ the four whose parameters are A,
~OÂ, A and ~+6~. Thèse four surfaces enclose a
tube, which we may call tlie tube ~SV. quadrilateral
bounded by surfaces across w.uch Sinee ~is tube is
thcre is ne flow,
it T.be of Flow. If take ~y two ~~ions acro~
the qu~nt~ty whieh enters thé th~u
tube at one section must be
to the quantity which Icaves it at equal
the otlier, and sincc this
L~? the same for every section cfthe quantity
tube, let ur~ it
~t~ the parameters whieli
determine the particnlar tube.
~93.] TUBES0F FLOW. 341
'°~ the séction of a tube
normal by a plane
theory of the of the inde-
pendent variables,
(13)
(14)
(15)
A =~/<
then in thé =
plane (x 0) the amount of electricity which passes
through any portion will be
~M~~=~A~V. (i6)
Having determined thé nature of thé sections of thé surfaces
flow by thé plane of
of~~ the form of thé surfaces ciscwhcre
detenn,ned by thé conditions is
(8) and (9). The two functions A
and A thus determined are suincient to
détermine thé current at
every point by equations (15), unity
being. substituted for Z.
0~ Z~ of 7'7o~.
293.] Let a series of values of A and of V be
cessive diflérences in chosen, thc suc-
series The two series of
surfaces defined by thèse values will divide
of quadnia ~ral tubes space into a system
through eaeh of which there will be a unit
current. By assuming the unit
the current may be sufficicntly small, thé details of
expressed by thèse tubes with any desired
amount of mmuteness. Then if
any surface be drawn cutting thé
t.t'~
CO~DUC'I-ION T~tEË DIMENSIONS. [~.
system of tubes, the current which
this surface passes through
'd hy tl. of tubes
es winch C cut It,
sincc each tube
carnes .tnijy of <m-rc.d.
F!ow aetual intersections of'
-~c-s may hc ca~-d Lines cf
1~
lines of ~1, tlie number of'
of ~dy .,ual to thé
of flow
t it, so may c..sidcr
J not
~"1'"? the of ~hc currcnt
but its since ~ch line of ~ow
corrcsj)ond.s to a unit currcnt. through i,ivcn section
Oit 6'6'
6'r,
~4.j A stratum of a conductor
eontained betw.cn two ~on-
secutivc surfaces of (low of onc
system, t,liat of a', is calJed
r~ The tubes of (iow withiu tItis
shed arc deter-
by the '°° If' '-< denote t'.l.t
i",
r' current from "s'~
Tf across any
on sheet 'm to P is \A
elernent, on the
wtijcti c!o&sc.stins clement
from r~)it to lei'L is
(ty.
M~
118
T~ fusion A, from whid/ih. di.~ribntion of' the current in
~ct he eompletely
h'unction. called the C~
<
LetL~A~?,
dS be an clement of the of the surface.
surface, and let E be the
angle between
the surface, then
the surface will be
yyrcost~
th<-integration
being extended over th. mf&ce
As in Art. 2
may transform this integral into tlie
°
.=~
case of any closed surface, the limits of the
being those included by the surf.'1ce, This
is the expression for
surface. Since in ail cases of
eurrents this must be zero stcaùy
whatever the limits of the
the qunntity under the integral sign must integration,
in this way the vanish, and we obtain
equation of continuity (17),
CHAPTER VIII.
(3)
L7']=A~7~Ç~7~
f.j-+~y,+. )'3' (5)
t [~.] = (U)
L~=~7~), r r )
~.c. ~=(, &c.
~th. châtions Le f~d
..y Ly'a)te,n,. ihe sy..Lo~
<?, 7., and thc .suf!,xcs 2, 3 in cych-cu! onk.r.
7)' 6'6'cw~'û// o/
299.] To find <h..<). do. Ly thc .un-ent in unit
in of timc
n..s,stan<~ and so ~neraLi,
~com~ hc.a~ wc n,u!tipiy tl~c
cr.np<,n.nt. of the current by t).c
corr.spundin~ eon.ponc~s the
f.rc.. W. thus chta.n thc
.~<r..n<.i~
thc fol)o:vin,. .~t
<f"<yofworkexpcndcdinunitoftimo
300.] COEFFICtKNTS OF CONDUCTIVITY. 347
~~+~+~~
It is only when tho cocfHcients
7'j, P:, are equal rcspcctivcly
9;) Q.j, that thé two systems of axes eoineidc.
If with Thomson \vc write
and (11)
then we have
CM~'oK 0/ 67~/7//y.
'?'r<tn.<A't..l8S3-),H!5.
348 KHSISTANCJ!: AND CONDUCTIVJTY.
[30i.
?/ 7/
301.] If wc c-xp~s the components of thc
as the denvat~ dcch-omobivc force
cfthc potential th. cq.ation ofconti..ut.
corresponds to in
medium. -tropic
302.] If ~.e put.
e-Muu ut me cqua.uon
ln the case in which the
coefficients 1'are zero, the coefficients lt
identical with l~ aud S. 'hen 1'exists this is not
tlie case.
(25)
(2G)
,/c=~-L~s, (n
pv
und the who!e currcnt through thc stratum iH
=
<7=
C ri 8, (~
(2)
A'P
J./
thé intcg-ration being- extendcd over thé whulc stratum bounded by
thc non-eonducting' surface ofthe conductor.
306.] RESISTANCE 0F A ~m QF VAH.ABLE SECTION. 355
.~<I thé
If the i~7 of tliis ql1antity.
? two for
T'ic tutut.on hns t)ic vatucs 7-'and ~+~n~
(~)
.)2 2
356 KHSISTAXL'H AND CONDHCTIV!TY.
[307
This method in thé case of' wires whose section varies
slowly
with thé leng-Dt gives a result
very near thé truth, but it is rca))y
only a lower limit, for thé truc resistance is aiways ~rcatcr tinm
this, except in the case whcrc thé section is perfectiy uniform.
307.] To find thc itigher hmit of the résistance, let us suppose
a surface drawn in thc conductor to Lu rcndcrcd
impci-meaDc to
electricity, Thu cHcct ofthis must bc to inci-casc tim résistance of
thc conductor unicss thc surface is onc of tlie natural surfaces
of
now. By mcans of two systems of surfaces we can form a set
of
tubes which will eompletely
reguiatc thc flow, and thé effcct, if
therc is any, of this system of
impermcab)e surfaces must bc to
increasc thé resistance above its natural value.
T!ie resistance of each of thé tubes
m~y be calciilated by the
methud ah-cady given for a fine \vh-c, and thé resistance of thé
whote conduetor is tlie rociprocal of thé sum of thé
rceipi-oeals of
tlie résistances of aïï thé tubes. Thé résistance thus found is
~reater
than the natural résistance, when Die
except tubes foDow thc
natural lines of flow.
In thé case ah-cady considered, where t]~e conductor is in
the
fbrm of' an ciongated solid of let us
révolution, measure x along thc
axis, and let thé radius of tlie section at any point bc Let one
set of imperméable surfaces Le thé thc
phmes through axis for cach
of which </<is constant, and let the other set bc surfaces of révolution
ibr w!ueh
forlVhieh
= (H)
whcre is a numcrical quantity betwecn 0 and 1.
Let us consider a portion of' one of the tubes bounded
by the
suHaces (/) and ~+~ x and
and ~+~ ~+/
Tlle section of the tube taken
perpendicutar to thc axis is
= ~2~~
If' be the angle whieh tlie tube makes with thc axis
(-Ib
taii 0
1~=~, rl,r (,~
The true length of thé clement of the tube is sec 0, and its
true section is i 6/
<</(~7, cos
COSC,0
so t)iat its resistance is
rla _(
b2(llp(1q) (12)
~~7,=~~0-). b~INdcJ' ri
Let
Lct ,¡J = p b~' amI Jj
~=/ (1
(, :3)
~=/.l li'=rl.c'
307.]
J JimifEIt ANI) LOW~R J.IMITS. 357
thc intention
Lcing. cxtcndcd over the whn!c tength, of thé
<dnc~r, then thc résistance nf the tube
r~~ is
To hnd the
condnctivity of the who)o cond~tor, which is the
sum of the <-onductivif.:cs ofthc
scpamtc tubes, we must intem-atc
Uns cxprc.si.,n = o and
bctwccn == 277, .-u.d bctwecn = 0
and~= l. Thcrcsultis
or l'~=~
a~' Q2, (21)
3
In the case of' ctectnca.1 conduction the rate at which work is
donc in thu ctcctrodc whose résistance is 7)'~is
3~~
and thc' correction to Le addcd to thu !cng-th of tlie cylindcr is
S
7 3.
this correction hciug' grenier than thc truc value. The truc cor-
(C)
J.,
Thcn \vu can iind thc correspondin~ co(~ficic')it for thc mncr
sphère ),y équation (~), .nid from this deducc 7~, and Of
thèse 7~ rcprcscnts t)ie cfrcct on Dit.
potct~ia! in'thc'outcr nn-dium
dneto the introdm-tion ofthc
heterogencons sj)])crcs.
Lct us no\v suppose = so that t)tc case is that of a ho])nw
she!) ~)r winch ==/ scparatin~ an inncr from an enter portion of
the samc mcdi)im for winch /=/
If wc put.
'=
364 CONDUCTION t~ HETËIiOGËXHOUS MEDIA. [313.
It is casy <n shew frnm the ~ner:)! ~xprcssinns that thé value
of7~ in the case of' a hol)n\v sphère havin~- a nm-lois of résistance
sun-ounded Lya shdl of résistance is thé same as that of
a uniform solid sp!ierc of thc rndius of thé outer surface and of
)'<~s!s<:n)o''A', \h<*r<'
3i4.] MRDt~M CONTAINI~G SMALL SPHEitHS. 365
(12)
Ld thep-.tt-ntia)
~atany point, in thof.rsi.nu.dium h.'that
duc. <na q..nnti<y
..f.<rid<y ~'p)ac~ at~to~.r~-ith an
"u~.na.-y (ju:in<i<y ~at and
"< thc sccund modium hp that duc ~()H.pn~n<iat/atanypunt
)o an in):).in!U-v nu~ntitv at
Thé current at any point of thé first médium is the same as wou!d
C')
and that at a poiftt 7~' lu the third
<)
~+ A. +7~
whcrc I, l', &c. rcprcscnt the imng'in:ny cierges placed !tt thu
the potential is to bc
points 7, &;c.j and thc accents dcuotu that
takt'n withhi thc plate.
Thea, by the last Article, for the surface through wc !)a\'L',
319.] STRATIFIED CONDUCTORS. 369
~(.~)(,+~+(~
If thé first médium is thé same as thé
third, == and
= p', and the potential on the otlier side of tlie then
plate wiH be~
(i,)
~('
If tlie plate is a very much hetter conductor
than the rest of the
medium, p is very nearly equal to 1. If thé plate is a
nearly perfect
uisuhttor, is nearly equal to -I, and if tlie plate diCcrs little in
condueting power from the rest of thé medium, p is a small
quantity
positive or neg-ative.
Tite tlicory of this case was first stated
by Green in bis TIteory
of Magnetic Induction'
(~~ p. 65). His result, however is
correct only when p is nearly
equal to 1 The quantity~ which
lie uses is connected with thé
p by équations
J~=-~L=~
3-~ ~+2~ ~"2-i-
If wc put p = we shall have a solution of the
y~ problem of
the magnetic induction excited
by a magnetic po!c in an infinite
plate whose eoeincicnt of magnetization is
O~ CbM~c~
319.] Let a conductor be composed of alternate strata of thick-
ness c and c' of two substances whose coefficients of
arc different. Requircd the coeuicients of résistance conductivity
and conduc-
tivity of the compound conductor.
Let thé plane of tho strata be normal to Z. Let
every symbol
relating to the strata of the second kind be accented, and lot
every symbol relating to the compound conductor be marbed witli
a bar thus, Then
= = (c + c') M= <-K+ eV,
~=~=~, (<'+e~=c!;+cV;
(c + c~ = c~+ c~ ? = w=
_Wc must nrst détermine M, ?/, and in terms of
aud ?~ from the équations of résistance. Art.
297, or those
Sue SirW. ThmMon'H'Note on luducedMagnetiamui
DM~.~K< ~Mnt.,Nov.184S,or ApW~, a P~te' Co~ (t.t~
art. ix. §1CO
VOL.t. b
370 CONDUCTION IN IIETEROOENHOUS MEDIA. [~20.
~i = ~2 = =
or there is no rotatory property developed
by stratification, unless
it exists in thé materials.
321.] If we now suppose that thcro is no rotatory property, and
also that thé axes of x, j/ and are the principal axes, thcn thé
and q coeSicients vanish, and
3~2.] STRATIFfHD CONDUCTOHS. 371
If we begin with both substances
isotropie, but of difrerent
cond~v.t.cs, then thc result of stratification will be to make
tne résistance ~reatest in the direction ofa
normal to thc strata,
and tlie re.s,8t~nee in nU directions In the
plane of the strata will
bf cqnnL
322.] Take an isotropic substance of
conductivity r, eut it into
exceedu~Iy thin sHeea of thickncss and place them altcrnat.ly
with slices of a substance whose
conductivity is and thiekncss
A~<-<.
Let U~se slices be normal to .t-. Tjien eut
this compound f-on-
ductor ,nto thicker sliccs,
ofti.ickness norn~~ to and alternate
thoso wit!) stioes whose
conductivity i.~ aud thiekness
Lastly, eut the new conductor into still thicker sUces" of thick-
ncss c, nonnfd to z, and dtc..nate them with
slices whose con-
diic-tivity is N and t]iiekncss/
Tho result cftbe three opérations will be to eut the substance
whose conductivity is hito reetangu!ar para!I.]epipcds whoso
d.men~ous are and c, where b is ~ccedin~y ~na!l comparcd
~th and is cxeeeding]y small
compared with and to cmbed
thesc paraUc.Icp.peds in thc substance whoso
t)u~ t),cy arc separated from cach other conductivity is so
in the diction of.r
m that of~ and ~e in that of z. The
eonductivities of tlie
couductor so formed in thé directions
of x, y and are
~=~c~~+~r-)-e~).
Ti)e eurrent across the f:tce ~c' of thé
paral)e!cpiped is <~cM,and
this is made up of that duc to thé of the solid and
conductivity
of that due to thé conductivity of thé or
channel,
CONDUCTION IN DIELECTRK'S.
(7)
(8)
376
CONDUCTION IN DIELECTRICS.
f~.
Next, let the be broken for a time
circuit
_j~
~(=7~)=~<whero~=C'7?.
(.))
Fjna!!y, !et thc purfaces of thé condenser be connected
ot a wire whoso resistance by meaus
is for a time
In this way wo
may find the
made to connect the .urfaccs ofdischarge thro~h
a condenser after
wire which
for a t~e and then insulatcd for a time bein~ ch.~ed
If the time of
su&eient, as it generaHy is, te
char~ng develope the whole
diseharge, the discharge ie
Ër~d~
rl~'i
~=~ (3)
with similar équations for the other
strata, in each of which the
quantities Lave thé sufHx belonging to that stratum.
To determine the
surface-density on any stratum, wc hâve an
equattonofthefbrm
~12–~2–/t, (4)
and to détermine its variation we have
dO"l2
~12
=
'=~ Pl -1'2 (5)
(5)
~/2
~+ =~+-~ =~say,
or, by taking account of (3),
?~ = ?~ = &c. = M.
That is, the total current is the same in all the
strata, and is
equal to the current through the wire and
We have aiso, in virtue of battery,
équations (1) and (2),
1& v.
rl
~?~ 17ikI rlG (8)
from which we may find XI by the inverse
operation on M,
y 1
~+~) (n)
378 CONDUCTION IN DJELECTRICS.
[329.
(m)
3~9.] ELECTRIC ABSORPTION.' 379
Similarly
andsooa
But by Ohm's Law ~'c have
~=2~tog, (5)
1":¿
The equation (2) will no
longer be truc, for thé electricity is
expended not only in charging thé wirc thé extent represented
by c., but in escaping at a rate represented Hcnce thé rate
of cxpenditure hy
of' electricity will bc
~<2 1
t''
'=~+~~
whence, by comparison with (3), we get
k
= v'
~le«
"~=~ 71~l -Z- (7)
and this is the équation of conduction of
hcat in a rod or
as given by Fourier ring
333.J If we had supposed that a body when raised to a
high
potential becomes electrified throughout its substance as if elec-
tricity were compressed into it, we should have arrived at
t'ons ot this very form. equa-
It is remarbahie that Ohm
him.eif,
?'/t<u)-)'e
dela ~/j«/(ttr, art. 10C.
~4.] H YD]!OS')'tC.L LLrSTHATION. 385
If the piston is now nxcd and the stopcoek opcncd, mcrcury will
no\v from 7~ to C till t)te )cvct in tite t\vo tubes is again at 7~~and
6~. Titcrc will thc'n bc a di<fcrcncc of pressure == on Hic t\vo
sidcs of thc piston 7~. If the stopcock is then close<l and tue piston
7~ k'ft frce to movc', it will again comc to pquilibrium at a. point 7~,
half way betwccn 7~ a,t]d 7~ This corresponds to the residual
charge which is observed v-hcn a. chargcd dieiectric is first dis-
charg'ed and thcn left to itself. It gradnaHy recovcrs part of its
charge, and if this is again dischar~fd a third charge is formed, the
sneccssivc charges diminishing in (~mntity. In the case of' thc
illustrative cxperimcnt cach charge is ha!f of the preceding', and thé
334.] )IYDm)STATICAL !LLL~TI:ATION. 387
Ce 2
CIIAPTER XI.
~n
~ic .hs.h.~
system,
34.0.J hcn a ,nat.ria) unit .pn.s.nti~ this ahstra.t quantity
has Leen madc. d!u.r standards .c
.nn.st.-u.t.d )“. ,p,j,
prccess c~Dc of cxh.nc nu.Jh ~n,
.cc.uracy~of
Lhan, ior instance, the copyu.g. nf-r..<u)cs fro.n sLan.I~ i~t
cojnc. ,na.!c <,i' th. most p.-rman.nt
D~e ovcr all n~teri~s, an. dis-
parts of tho w.d, so that it is not !ik<-)v )).a<
tnbu~d
auy wiH he fo.nd in
.Ltainin~ ~i.s .fth~nirt.
"r~matd~c.I<y
standards should Le )ost.
~t .ueh units ..s t)..t of Siemens can
.vithout vcry .at
bc con.-d.rah.o .~u.~
~r that~t).c
'c'at.cn o r~.nstructcd~i~
tt.c Ohm to Siemens unit is
J.nown, the Oh.n can Le
'-oprcJuccd cvcn ~it.i~ut hav: a .standard to
cnpy, th.~h <)..
)a'ur much grcatcr and the
.ccn.-acy n,uc)r !c.s. than Ly t),e
mcthc'(t of copy)]]~
accurate "t..
not rccluired.
~h.M.)i.Mg.))ym.fth.s<c.t.bwh~Mh<
tnMo Ms'rœt~t.md
whiohti.rv k~t tv,
~h-.rr~ibth~. h.. <
eon.).t!
t. ch~ ti.
P~J"
,e. ..h": an
~<<,
~nd.,h.)Mv.bM.n).).,y~jt,
nlcuicrn
.rir' uccuracy.
which
may
.J:~ becasily iutruclucccl into a circuit.
.e, <,fc..1s of tj,. ,t..n~ ,u. ) 2 2,
to
in a box in serics.. -Y
Fig.28.
brass plates, so
outside of the boi tliat urranged on the
hy illserting a. hrass plug or
wedge between
~ay., Ju)y, 1870.
344.] KH.SISTANCH BUXES. ~3
~=~=~+~=~+.,).
o~- ,nd
of' the Lattery,
~n.~
{(>rJ1l111a
0~
~y (I- fllly
~7.')~'
Th.s rcquu-es m.n.sur.m.nt of t)~ ratios uf
~.thod y, ,J
1~
Sl1rcnwnt:
~1.
H- thc resist.ne.s an.) arc equ~, thcn nnd 7, arc ce,
~< <h..<i<y of errent.
can Ly. ~Iv.non~
not C!ip!tb!n
«t-dctui-nuni.~ thL-ir ratios
But this is to b. <,kcn as an
rati~. .n.thud
D.an as a prachca! cxa.npL. ,(- a faulty ,net)u.d
..f d.t.r.ini. résistant T I
~rcc~~uot hc ..ainta.n.d
.vc r~r.a.)y.t.
rc~stancc of th. hat~y is a).sc
n~rna!
!t e.c.uedin~y va
any metl~ods iu which H. arc a~umcd to be~
iimc consent are not to bc f.
dL-pended on.
346.] Thé compan.on of ~stances .an i~ n,adc witi, cxtr~e
c
~ic(l~ oc (~l
l~) Q) 1JM(~+/?)-).g~
~+/3)-~(.
G)=~.
IIc.ncc
Iiuuce xM(.J)=-
(.-[ -1) = ô,
A ô.
-E .~[,
.b~~d"~
r-bscued to bu e~l, ~? ~v
th.~ unic-ss ~so cou]d assert that =
the r~ht-hand sidc of thc cqu.ti.n
n,i~,t not bc zc.rc. In fac?
ti~ .nc-thod would bc a mei-c
niodif:~tion oi-th~t air.ady dcscriLc-d
Ih. mcr.t of thc mc.th.d
c.onsists in the f.,ct. that the
~c.cc thin.
of any d.f.c.i.n, or in ot,
«L~vcd is a Nul)
.thcd the
mcthod, one iu whieh the non-~tcncc of a force
~r~" observation which if it 'i
'c,.nt fn.n hy m. than certain .n.aH an~ount, ~u!d
hâve produc-c-d :m ohscrvahlu cn'ect.
Nu!l methods arc
of~rcat value .vhcrc ti.t.y eau hc cinp)ovcd hut
i'~y can only bc ..ph~.d where we c.an cause two
~ua! and
t~hl' of'
togethcr. ~L
In thc case b.fcr. us hoth and y .rc quantité too sma]! to he
o~ aud
thcrcf.r..ny ch.n,.c I. the value cf~U not a~c
tho aceuraey of thc restdt.
~c actual d~cc oi- accurac.y of thi.s n.cthod
'cd rni,-ht Le
hy taking a numbcr of observations in c.a.)i of
w!nc.h
~-Z~ adjusted, and result
with thc mean of thé whoïc i,cnes. o'-rv.tion
~L~ trc.~
l'tvtttsacliunr,
7' x, p. fi5. G.Iv.n.ry. 6.
34~-j "IFFR!!HNT)AL GALVA~O~KTEi!. 397
Y.h.cof~ ~c
Hc'nce
in OC re-
shectively.
To détermine the
degreo of .ccurncy attainablu Ly this method
must asccrt.in the ~~h of the .urrcnt in .h ;n this
eoDd.t.on L. not fu!H!!ed exactl~.
four Let
~~f' ~V
~'n<i the rc.si.stnn~ of thcse
348.] WHEATSTONE'S
nniDf;). ~99
condnctoi-s ~nd c. Let the currents
~ong 0~, 07? and OC bc
and thé résistances a, /3 a.id J~t
y. an cicctromotive fore.
7~act a!ong 7?C'. Rcquired thc
currcnt alons-
Let thc potentiais at the
points and 0 be denoted
hy thc symbol. J, C nnd 0. T!.e equatirms or conduction
~= (1+/3+y
1)= <~+/3+y
y --y
-Y -{3
–y ~+y+ft -a
1 --a a ~+a+/3
~+~ ~+.~ y
~r
whcncc ~±~(,yr~
=
~(r+.r)(~-y)'
Sincc ~-y is ncariy cquat to c+~ and ))ot). are ~-pat with
respect to .?- or we writc this
may
i
~+'
and
~(~ G c
When ). is adjusted as we!! as we can, wc Rubstituie for
and c
othcr coils of(say) ten times greater résistance.
The t-fmaining dincrence bctween and y will now producc
a ton timcs g-rcater diftcrenee in thc
position of Q than with thc
u d2
404 MEASUREMENT 0F J{HS]STANC!
for~
original coils and c, and in tilis way ean continuaiïy iacreasc
the accuracy of thé
compa-nsoQ.
Thé ~justnK.ut by means of t)ie wirc with siidi~ contact
is more quickiy made than by menns ofa pièce
resistance box, and it is
cap)).b)e of continuons variation.
Thc battery must never bu introduc<-d
instead of t),o ~Ivanc-
mcter into the wire with a
slidin~ contact, for the passage of a
powerfnl cnn-cnt at the point of contact would
ot thc wire. Hcnce this injure thé surface
arran~ment is adai~tcd'for the case in
w!neh thc re.istanec of t!~ ~alvano.nctcr is
greater than that cf t!.c
battery.
~e J~a~K~-cwc~~ o/'&
/K~.
351.] When a short and thick conductur is introduced into a
c,rc.ut its res.stancc is su sm~)t
eomp.d with the résignée
occas~oned by unavoidahie fau)ts in the
connexions, suc-h as want
of con~ct or impcrfcct
sotdc.-in~ t~at, correct value cf t)ie
rcsistanec ca.t hc deduccd from expen-
s r "s m!de in thc wav dcscribed above
°' ~ch experiments is
g-encrnny to dt-tormine the re-
y\ .4 spécifie
C sistance of thé eubs~nce, and it is re-
ami wheu it is in l;
~Vitence
408 MEASUDEMENT UP KESJ.STANCR.
fo~.
When gréât aecuracy is not rcquired
\vc mny dispense with thé
résistance coils Aand C, a.nd we thon ~nd
Fig.37.
wherc ~,) and :)ru supposer to hu so ncarly pqu:d that \vc mny,
when thcii' difteretice is nnt in quc's~on, put either of them squat
to thf vnluc of the currcut w~en the adjustment is pcrf'f'ct.
Thé resii-timec~ c, of' the conductor ~7~ shoutd hc cqnal to <
thnt nf the battery, a ~nd y, should he cqu:tl !m<I as small as
possible, and shuutd he equal to a+y.
Since :i gah'anometc'r is rrxist sensitive ~heu its dcit('xif))i Is
KmaH, we shoold hrit)~ the ncGdte !tpa~y to zero hy means off!xcd
m:)~'ncts b~fore makin~ coninct het\vcctt 0 and
In this method ni' mcasunng' the rcsisfance of the t'atfcry, thc
current in the hattory i! not in any way interfhi-e<t with durin~ the
npL'Dttiot), su ihat wc may asccrtatn its résistance for any ~'ivcn
~58.] COMPARtSON 0F ËLECTKOMOTIVE FORCHS. 413
Cûth't'ntmtcd
sotntiM~.f
/~<))/<f. A))nt));!unatc<)Xn)<' HSO,+ 4n<j. CuSO, (/uj)pL')' ==].07!t
J). nsn.+]2a<). CuSO. ('opper =0.!)'8 8
JH. ])S().+12af). CuNO, ('opj~r =-LOO
/~t?;t<ryi I. It It HN< ('!tr))ui~ =].9t!t
n. It sp.).3!S ('arhot =1.888
~0t'<; 1 HSO.+4n~. n~O. Pi~tinn)n=-].G
1
416 RMmSTANCH. [36o.
*j!7.3/<Mny,t86.').
3~4-] C)~ EhECTKOLYTES. 419
of thé résistance deduc'ed from thé curn'nt will g'ive a g'rcatcr value
if a certain time is allowecl to dapsc th:)n if takoi immediately after
applying' thc battcry.
TIius, \vith Ilooper's insulating material the apparent rcsistance
at the end of teu minutes wus four times, and at thé end of
ninetccn hours twcnty-thrce timcs that obscrvcd at the end of
one minute. AVhen thc dn'cction nF thé dcctt'omotivc i'orcc is
rcvorstjd, thc résistance falls as !o\v or luwcr than at first and thoi).
graduaHy rises.
Dicsc phenomena spcm to be duc to a condition of the ~utta-
pereha, which, for want of a bcttt'r narno, wc may caU polarization,
and whic!) \vG may compare on the one !)and \vit!i that of a series
ofLcydcn jars cliarg-cd by cascade, and, on thc other, with Rittcr's
secondary ]n1('j Art. 271.
If a numbcr of Lcydcn jars of t~'rcat cnpacity arc conncctcd in
series by incans of conductors of ~rcat rcsistance (suc)t ns \vct
cotton t hreads in t)ic expcrimcnts of M. Gaulai))), t))cn an c)cctro-
motive force acting on the series will producc a current,as indicated
by a g'alvanomcter, which will ~raduany diminish till t!)n jars are
fuHy char~'cd.
Thé apparent résistance of such a series will increase~ and if the
dielectric of thé jars is a perfcct insulator it will incrcasc without
Inmt. If' thc clectromotivc force bu rctnovcd and connexion madu
bctwcen thc ends of thc series, a reverse currcnt will be obsorv~d,
thé total quantity of winch, in thc case of'pcrtcct insulation, will be
thé same as that of the direct cnrrent. Similar effects are observed
in thc case of' thé sceondary pile, with the diOercnce t))at tlie final
insulation is not so g'ood, and that thé capaciiy pcr unit of surface
is immenscly greater.
In thc case of thé eable covcred witt) gutta-pcrcha, &c., it is fonnd
that after apph'ing- thc hattery ior h:df an honr, and thcn con-
nccting thc wire with the extcrnal électrode~ a reverse current takes
phice, which g-oes on for some timc, and ~-raduaUy rcduccs the
System to its urig-inat statc.
Thèse phenomcna are of the samc kind with those indicated
by the ~rcsidual dischargc' of thé Lcyden jar, except that thé
amount of the pokrixation is much greater in gutta-pcreha, &c.
than in glass.
This statc of polarization sccms to bc a directcd property of the
material, which requirus for its production not only electromntive
force, but thé passng-e, by displacemcnt or otherwise, of a con-
368.] "R DiELEc'nncs. 423
sidcrable quantity of cleetrieity, and this
passage rcquires a c-on-
sidcrabie time. When the po!arized statc bas been set
up, ibère
is an internai et~etromotiva force
acting in the substi.nee in thé
reverse direction, which will continue till it bas eiUn-r
produccd
a i-cvcrscd curant c-qua! in total
qunntity to the nrst, or till thé
st~c of poiarization bas
quicHy subsidcd by mcans of truc con-
duction thron~h the substnncc.
Thé whole tI)L.ory of what lias becn caH.d
residua! disc.hin-~
absorption oi' df.ctridty, electrification, or polarisation, d~crvos
a carcfnt .nvc~ti~tion, and will probabty ]cad to
importât dis-
covcriM rctatin~ to <bc internat structure of'bodi(..s.
3R7.] Thc résistance of thc greater numhcr of didc.etrics di-
rninishcs as thé température nses.
Thus thé résistance of ~ntta-percha is ahout
twcnty timcs a-s gréât
at ~C as at 2 i"C. Messrs. Bri~)~ aud Oar). have found
t.hat thé
fuHow.n~ (brmu)a givcs results ag-reeins- wini their
experimonis.
If )s thé résistance of g-utt~-percha at
température 7'centigrade,
then thé rcsistnnce at temper:tture ?'+/' wi]] he
7(' = x 0.8878',
the numhcr varies betwen 0.8~78 and 0.9.
]\rr. IIoddn has vcrined t))c curious tact that it is not
untU some
hours after the gutta-percha has tat<cn its tempcrat.nre that the
résistance rcacbcs its
correspotidin~ va)ne.
T!]c enect of température on thé résistance of India-rubber
is not
go ~rcat as on that of~utia-pereha.
Tbc resistance of gntta-.pci-f.-ha. increascs
eonsiderabty on the
application of pressure.
Thé résistance, in Ohms, ofa cubic mètre ofv:n-ious
spécimens of
guttn-pereha used in différent câbles is as toHows*.
NM))Cof Câble.
RcdSca.2(!7x 10~ to .362x10~
MaIta-A!Gxandi'):L. !.23x10'
Pt'rsianGuif. 1~0x10~
Second At!antic 3.~2x~0~
Hoopei-'sPei's)nnGn!fCorc.7.l.7 xJO~
Gutta-pcrcha.at2t°C 3.53x10~
*cj))(in'Hrf<))/(;<.
~4 ){ES[STANCK. [~69.
M. Hufr, desct-iLcd in Art. 271, shows thc rpsistimee of n. cubic
mctrc of g-Ifiss in Ohms at (~frerent
températures.
Tem])cr!tture. JfesiHbmce.
200°C 327000
25f)° 13000
30ff U80
35'~ ° 103~
~00° 73i)
~M., JMt.
VOL.t. pt't'
T)'
"F~rJLjJ:1A /-N ~6
-r
VOL.! 1
FJC. I.
Art. U8.
/<~ <y/
~i')~v~
~=~ /?
/v~. j/'=~
~<M!<~i!SM7~~y 5.
/y=.~ ~y~
< ~~fW~ .SV<V~i!~?
M~L~/T~ ~9~M'~
/< /</</ ~M<~7,/C'< < ~<- ~jr-M
7~ ~~M~ /Y. /M<" e/rx y =. y-
/='7.
~c Jjf
Art 120
Z<
~M~y
FIG jv.
Art. 121.
Z/~<:t
<V /yy~//<?/<7y!y~t'.
Art.iM.
~<yx/ ~t/r~
<' ,y=
~'fc. Vf)
Art t<M.
~S/y/x/ 7/y~<
<~BW~
F. m
!'J(?.VH].
Art.. 14.3.
Fis IX.
ArL.J.M.
Fm X.
Arf 192.
J''ic Xf.
.rr. tM.
/?~' ~? .7~
~7-.Y/.