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CARRIER TRANSPORTATION
PHENOMENA
6HPLFRQGXFWRU'HYLFHV(E\606]H
&RS\ULJKW-RKQ:LOH\ 6RQV,QF$OOULJKWVUHVHUYHG
CARRIER TRANSPORTATION PHENOMENA
1. Carrier drift
2. Carrier diffusion
3. Generation & Recombination Process
4. Continuity Equation
5. Thermionic Emission Process
6. Tunneling Process
7. High-field Effects
Summary
1. Carrier drift
1.1 Mobility
Figure 1. Schematic path of an electron in a semiconductor.

(a) Random thermal motion. (b) Combined motion due to random
thermal motion and an applied electric field.
Average thermal Electron drift:

velocity: P Q Y WK N7
TWF
YQ İ
PQ
Momentum: TǆWF PQ YQ
TWF
PQ {
PQ
Electron mobility
Electron drift: YQ PQİ
Hole drift: Y S P Sİ
2 most important scattering
mechanisms:

Lattice scattering: WFO o P / a 7
Impurity scattering:

W F L o P , a 7 1 7
Probability of collisions:

WF WFODWWLFH WFLPSXULW\

Mobility:
P P/ P,
Figure 2.
Electron mobility in silicon versus temperature for various
donor concentrations. Insert shows the theoretical temperature
dependence of electron mobility.3
Figure 3.
Mobilities and diffusivities
in Si and GaAs at 300 K as
a function of impurity
concentration.3
Semiconductor Devices, 2/E E\606]H

1.2 Resistivity
Figure 4. Conduction process in an n-type semiconductor

(a) at thermal equilibrium and (b) under a biasing condition.
Force-potential energy G( F
Tİ
relation: G[
G( F G( L
İ
T G[ T G[
Electrostatic G\
potential: İ {
G[
(L
o \
T
Q
,Q
Drift current: -Q ¦ TY L TQY Q TQP Q İ
$ L
-Q TQY Q TQP Q İ
-S TSY Q TSP S İ
Figure 5. Current conduction in a uniformly doped semiconductor

bar with length L and cross-sectional area A.
Sum of electron and - -Q -S TQP Q TSP S İ
hole currents:
Conductivity: V T QP Q SP S

Resistivity: U
V T QP Q SP S
Extrinsic
semiconductors:

n>>p U
TQP Q

p>>n U
TSP S
Measuring resistivity:
9
U : &)
,
d / s ! : CF | .
Figure 6. Measurement of resistivity using a four-point probe.

Figure 7. Resistivity versus impurity concentration for Si and GaAs.

1.3 Hall effect
Lorentz force:
& &
F qv x u B z
Figure 8. Basic setup to measure carrier concentration using the Hall effect.
Force balance: Tİ \ TY [ %]
Hall field: İ\ Y [ %]
Hall voltage : 9+ İ\:

§ -S ·
ǆ\ ¨¨ ¸¸%] 5 + - S %]
© TS ¹
for hole
Hall coefficient 5+
TS

5 + for electron
TQ
- S %] , $ % ] ,%] :
hole density o S
T5 + Tǆ \ T9+ : T9+ $
2. Carrier diffusion
2.1 Diffusion Process
2.1 Diffusion Process

Q O O
) Q O Y WK
WF

) Q O Y WK

) ) ) Y WK >Q O Q O @

ª GQ º ª GQ º ½
) Y WK ®«Q O » «Q O » ¾
¯¬ G[ ¼ ¬ G[ ¼ ¿ Figure 9. Electron concentration
versus distance; l is the mean free
GQ GQ path. The directions of electron and
Y WK O { ' Q current flows are indicated by arrows.
G[ G[
' Q { Y WK O dn
Diffusion current: Jn qF qDn
dx
Diffusion coefficient
2.2 Einstein relation:

N7
PQ Y WK N7 Y WK
PQ
P Q WF PQ PQ
PQ WF
T T
§P P · § N7 ·§ P Q P Q ·
' Q { Y WK O Y WK Y WK WF WK
Y ¨¨ Q Q ¸¸ ¨¨ ¸¸¨¨ ¸¸
© T ¹ © P Q ¹© T ¹
§ N7 ·
'Q ¨¨ ¸¸P Q
© T ¹
2.3 Current density equations:
Sum of drift and
diffusion components: GQ
-Q TP Q QH T' Q For electron
G[
GS
-S TP S SH T' S For hole
G[
Total conduction
current density: - FRQG -Q -S
3. Generation & Recombination Process
3.1 Direct recombination:
Rate of direct recombination: 5 E QS
Figure 10. Direct generation and recombination of electron-hole pairs:

(a) at thermal equilibrium and (b) under illumination.


Thermal equilibrium: * WK 5 WK E Q QR S QR
Light: 5 EQ Q S Q EQ QR 'Q S QR 'S

* * / * WK
Charge neutrality: 'Q 'S
GS Q
*5 * / * WK 5
GW
GS Q
Steady state:
GW
o */ 5 * WK { 8
8 EQ QR S QR 'S 'S
Net recombination rate 6HPLFRQGXFWRU'HYLFHV(E\606]H
Low-injection case: S QR 'S Q QR
S Q S QR
8 # EQ QR 'S

EQ QR
S Q S QR
8# WS {
WS E Q QR
Lifetime of excess
minority carrier
Constant illumination:
Steady state: S Q S QR
*/ 8
WS
SQ S QR W S * /
Light off t=0:

GS Q S Q S QR
* / * WK 5 8
GW WS
S Q W S QR W S * / H[S W WF
Figure 11.
Decay of photoexcited carriers.
a) n-type sample under constant
illumination.
(b) Decay of minority carriers (holes)
with time.
(c) Schematic setup to measure
minority carrier lifetime. Semiconductor Devices, 2/E E\606]H
3.2 Indirect recombination:

)
H ( W ( ) N7
5D Y WK V Q Q1 W )
5E HQ 1 W )
5F Y WK V S S1 W )
5G H S 1 W )
Figure 12.
Indirect generation-recombination
processes at thermal equilibrium. Semiconductor Devices, 2/E E\606]H
8

Y WK V Q V S 1 W S Q Q Q Q L
> @ >
V S S Q Q L H ( L ( W N7 V Q Q Q Q L H ( W ( L N7 @
VQ VS VR

S Q
Q Q Q L
8 Y WK V R 1 W
§ ( W (L ·
S Q Q Q Q L FRVK¨ ¸
© N7 ¹
Low-injection case: Q Q !! S Q
S Q S QR S Q S QR
8 | Y WK V R 1 W
Q L § ( W (L · WS
FRVK¨ ¸
Q QR © N7 ¹
3.3 Surface recombination:
U # vthV p N st ps pno
Slr { vthV p N st
Figure 13. Schematic diagram of bonds at a clean semiconductor

surface. The bonds are anisotropic and differ from those in the
bulk.5
3.4 Auger recombination:
5 $XJ %Q S %QS
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$XJHUUHFRPELQDWLRQ

4. Continuity Equation
wQ ª - Q [ $ - Q [ G[ $ º
$G[ » * Q 5 Q $G[
wW « T
¬ T ¼
Figure 15. Current flow and generation-recombination processes in

an infinitesimal slice of thickness dx.
w- Q
Current density: - Q [ G[ - Q [ G[ Taylor series
w[
Continuity equation wQ w- Q
* Q 5 Q
for electron: wW T w[
Continuity equation wS w- S
* S 5 S
for hole: wW T w[
Low injection, for wQ S wQ S w Q S Q S Q SR

wH
minority carriers: Q SP Q PQİ 'Q
*Q
wW w[ w[ w[ WQ
wS Q wİ wS Q w SQ S Q S QR
S Q P S P Sİ 'S * S
wW w[ w[ w[ WS
Poisson’s equation Gİ UV
must be satisfied: UV S Q 1 ' 1 $
G[ HV
4.1 Steady-State Injection from One Side
wS Q wİ wS Q w SQ S Q S QR
S Q P S P Sİ 'S * S
wW w[ w[ w[ WS
wS Q w S Q S Q S QR
'S

wW w[ WS
Bounary conditions: S Q FRQV WDQ W
S Q f S QR Figure 16.
Solution: Steady-state carrier
[ /S injection from one side.
SQ [ S QR >S Q S QR @H
(a) Semiinfinite sample.
/S ' S WS Diffusion length

S Q FRQV WDQ W
Bounary conditions:
S Q : S QR
Solution: §:[·
VLQK ¨ ¸
¨ / ¸
© S ¹
S Q [ S QR >S Q S QR @
§:·
VLQK ¨ ¸
¨/ ¸
© S¹ Figure 16.
Current density : [ : İ Steady-state carrier
injection from one side. (b)
Sample with thickness W.
wS 'S
-S T' S Q T>S Q S QR @
w[ : / S VLQK : / S
4.2 Minority Carriers at the Surface
Bounary conditions: wS Q
T' S T8 V T6OU >S Q S QR @
w[ [
S Q f S QR W S * /
wS Q w SQ S Q S QR
'S
*/
wW w[ WS
Solution:
§ W p Slr e x / L p ·
pn ( x ) pno W p GL ¨ ¸
¨ L p W p Slr ¸
© ¹
Figure 17. Surface recombination at x = 0. The minority carrier

distribution near the surface is affected by the surface
recombination velocity.6
§ W S6OU H [ / S ·
Solution: SQ [ S QR W S * / ¨ ¸
¨ / S W S6OU ¸
© ¹
6OU o
S Q [ o S QR W S * /
6OU o f
[ /S
SQ [ S QR W S * / H

4.3 The Heynes-Shockley Experiment
Measurement of minority carrier
mobility and diffusion coefficient
wS Q wS Q w S Q S Q S QR
P S İ 'S

wW w[ w[ WS
E=0
1 § [
¨ W ·¸
S Q [ W H[S S QR
S' S W ¨ ¸
© ' S W W S ¹
E>0
[ o [ P S İW
)LJXUH
7KH+D\HV6KRFNOH\H[SHULPHQW
a([SHULPHQWDOVHWXS
b&DUULHUGLVWULEXWLRQVZLWKRXWDQDSSOLHGILHOG
c&DUULHUGLVWULEXWLRQVZLWKDQDSSOLHGILHOG Semiconductor Devices, 2/E E\606]H
5. Thermionic Emission Process
f
ª T F 9Q º
Q WK ³ Q (G( 1 & H[S «
TF ¬ N7 »¼
Figure 19.
(a) The band diagram of an
isolated n-type semi-conductor.
(b) The thermionic emission
process.
6. Tunneling Process
K G \
(\
P Q G[
G \ P Q (
\
G[ K
Solution:
\ [ $H MN[ %H MN[ [d
\ [ &H MN[ [tG
N { P Q ( K
Figure 20.
(a) The band diagram of two isolated
semiconductors with a distance d. (b) One-
dimensional potential barrier. (c) Schematic
representation of the wave function across the
potential barrier. 6HPLFRQGXFWRU'HYLFHV(E\606]H
Inside the potential barrier:
K G \

T9 \ (\
P Q G[
G \ P Q T9 (

\
G[ K
Solution: E<qV0
\ [ )HE[ *H E[
E { P Q T9 ( K

§&· ª T9 VLQK EG º
Transmission coefficient: ¨ ¸ « »
©$¹ ¬ ( T9 ( ¼

7. High-Field Effects
YV
YQ YS J
J
> İ İ @
Figure 21. Drift velocity versus electric field in Si.

Figure 22. Drift velocity versus electric field in Si and GaAs. Note
that for n-type GaAs, there is a region of negative differential
mobility.8,9
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(1'2)&+$37(5
CHAPTER 4
p – n JUNCTION
p-n Junction
1. Basic fabrication steps
2. Thermal equilibrium condition
3. Depletion region
4. Depletion capacitance
5. Current-voltage characteristics
6. Charge storage & transient behavior
7. Junction breakdown
8. Heterojunction
Summary
1. Basic fabrication steps
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘ϭ͘
;ĂͿďĂƌĞŶͲƚǇƉĞ^ŝǁĂĨĞƌ͘
;ďͿŶŽǆŝĚŝǌĞĚ^ŝǁĂĨĞƌďǇĚƌǇŽƌǁĞƚŽǆŝĚĂƚŝŽŶ͘
;ĐͿƉƉůŝĐĂƚŝŽŶŽĨƌĞƐŝƐƚ͘
;ĚͿZĞƐŝƐƚĞǆƉŽƐƵƌĞƚŚƌŽƵŐŚƚŚĞŵĂƐŬ͘
^ĞŵŝĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌĞǀŝĐĞƐ͕ϮͬďǇ^͘D͘^ǌĞ
ŽƉǇƌŝŐŚƚΞϮϬϬϮ:ŽŚŶtŝůĞǇΘ^ŽŶƐ͘/ŶĐ͘ůůƌŝŐŚƚƐƌĞƐĞƌǀĞĚ͘
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘Ϯ
;ĂͿdŚĞǁĂĨĞƌĂĨƚĞƌƚŚĞĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚ͘
;ďͿdŚĞǁĂĨĞƌĂĨƚĞƌ^ŝKϮ ƌĞŵŽǀĂů͘
;ĐͿdŚĞĨŝŶĂůƌĞƐƵůƚĂĨƚĞƌĂĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞ
ůŝƚŚŽŐƌĂƉŚǇƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ͘
;ĚͿƉͲŶ ũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶŝƐĨŽƌŵĞĚŝŶƚŚĞ
ĚŝĨĨƵƐŝŽŶŽƌŝŵƉůĂŶƚĂƚŝŽŶƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ͘
;ĞͿdŚĞǁĂĨĞƌĂĨƚĞƌŵĞƚĂůŝǌĂƚŝŽŶ͘
;ĨͿƉͲŶ ũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶĂĨƚĞƌƚŚĞĐŽŵƉĞƚĞ
ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ͘
ŽƉǇƌŝŐŚƚΞϮϬϬϮ:ŽŚŶtŝůĞǇΘ^ŽŶƐ͘/ŶĐ͘ůů
ƌŝŐŚƚƐƌĞƐĞƌǀĞĚ͘
2. Thermal equilibrium condition
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘ϯ
ƵƌƌĞŶƚͲǀŽůƚĂŐĞĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƚŝĐƐŽĨĂƚǇƉŝĐĂů
ŽƉǇƌŝŐŚƚΞϮϬϬϮ:ŽŚŶtŝůĞǇΘ^ŽŶƐ͘/ŶĐ͘ůů ƐŝůŝĐŽŶƉͲŶũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶ͘
2.1 Band diagram
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘ϰ͘
;ĂͿhŶŝĨŽƌŵůǇĚŽƉĞĚƉͲƚǇƉĞĂŶĚŶͲƚǇƉĞƐĞŵŝĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌƐďĞĨŽƌĞƚŚĞũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶŝƐĨŽƌŵĞĚ͘
;ďͿdŚĞĞůĞĐƚƌŝĐĨŝĞůĚŝŶƚŚĞĚĞƉůĞƚŝŽŶƌĞŐŝŽŶĂŶĚƚŚĞĞŶĞƌŐǇďĂŶĚĚŝĂŐƌĂŵŽĨĂƉͲŶ
ũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶŝŶƚŚĞƌŵĂůĞƋƵŝůŝďƌŝƵŵ͘
2.2 Equilibrium Fermi levels
At thermal equilibrium:
Equilibrium Fermi levels (continue)
2.3 Space charge distribution
Poisson’s equation:
For neutral regions:
p-type neutral:
n-type neutral:
Potential difference – built-in potential:

&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘ϲ͘
ƵŝůƚͲŝŶƉŽƚĞŶƚŝĂůƐŽŶƚŚĞƉͲƐŝĚĞĂŶĚŶͲƐŝĚĞŽĨĂďƌƵƉƚũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶƐŝŶ^ŝĂŶĚ'ĂƐĂƐĂ
ĨƵŶĐƚŝŽŶŽĨŝŵƉƵƌŝƚǇĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƚŝŽŶ͘
Transition region:
Depletion region: n = p = 0
3. Depletion region
Doping profiles:
(a) Abrupt junction.
(b) Linearly graded junction
3.1 Abrupt junction
Poisson’s equations:
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘ϴ͘
;ĂͿ^ƉĂĐĞĐŚĂƌŐĞĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƚŝŽŶŝŶƚŚĞ
ĚĞƉůĞƚŝŽŶƌĞŐŝŽŶĂƚƚŚĞƌŵĂů
ĞƋƵŝůŝďƌŝƵŵ͘
;ďͿůĞĐƚƌŝĐͲĨŝĞůĚĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƚŝŽŶ͘dŚĞ
ƐŚĂĚĞĚĂƌĞĂĐŽƌƌĞƐƉŽŶĚƐƚŽƚŚĞ
ďƵŝůƚͲŝŶƉŽƚĞŶƚŝĂů͘
Overall space charge neutrality:
Total depletion layer width:
Maximum field:
Built-in potential:
Heavy doping on p-side:
Forward and Reverse biased:
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϭϬ͘
^ĐŚĞŵĂƚŝĐƌĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƚĂƚŝŽŶŽĨĚĞƉůĞƚŝŽŶ
ůĂǇĞƌǁŝĚƚŚĂŶĚĞŶĞƌŐǇďĂŶĚĚŝĂŐƌĂŵƐ
ŽĨĂƉͲŶ ũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶƵŶĚĞƌǀĂƌŝŽƵƐďŝĂƐŝŶŐ
ĐŽŶĚŝƚŝŽŶƐ͘
ĂͿdŚĞƌŵĂůͲĞƋƵŝůďƌŝƵŵĐŽŶĚŝƚŝŽŶ͘
;ďͿ&ŽƌǁĂƌĚͲďŝĂƐĐŽŶĚŝƚŝŽŶ͘
;ĐͿZĞǀĞƌƐĞͲďŝĂƐĐŽŶĚŝƚŝŽŶ͘
One-sided abrupt junction:

3.2 Linearly graded junction
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϭϭ͘
>ŝŶĞĂƌůǇŐƌĂĚĞĚũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶŝŶƚŚĞƌŵĂůĞƋƵŝůŝďƌŝƵŵ͘
4. Depletion Capacitance
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘ϭϯ͘
;ĂͿƉͲŶ ũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶǁŝƚŚĂŶĂƌďŝƚƌĂƌǇŝŵƉƵƌŝƚǇ
ƉƌŽĨŝůĞƵŶĚĞƌƌĞǀĞƌƐĞďŝĂƐ͘
;ďͿŚĂŶŐĞŝŶƐƉĂĐĞĐŚĂƌŐĞĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƚŝŽŶ
ĚƵĞƚŽĐŚĂŶŐĞŝŶĂƉƉůŝĞĚďŝĂƐ͘
;ĐͿŽƌƌĞƐƉŽŶĚŝŶŐĐŚĂŶŐĞŝŶĞůĞĐƚƌŝĐͲĨŝĞůĚ
ĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƚŝŽŶ͘
4.1 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics
4.2 Evaluation of
Impurity Distribution
Linearly graded junction
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘ϭϰ͘ ƌŝŐŚƚƐƌĞƐĞƌǀĞĚ͘
4.3 Varactor
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϭϱ͘
/ŵƉƵƌŝƚǇƉƌŽĨŝůĞƐĨŽƌŚǇƉĞƌĂďƌƵƉƚ͕
ŽŶĞͲƐŝĚĞĚĂďƌƵƉƚ͕ĂŶĚŽŶĞͲƐŝĚĞĚ
ƌŝŐŚƚƐƌĞƐĞƌǀĞĚ͘ ůŝŶĞĂƌůǇŐƌĂĚĞĚũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶƐ͘
5 Current-voltage characteristics
5.1 Ideal characteristics
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϭϲ͘
ĞƉůĞƚŝŽŶƌĞŐŝŽŶ͕ĞŶĞƌŐǇďĂŶĚ
ĚŝĂŐƌĂŵĂŶĚĐĂƌƌŝĞƌĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƚŝŽŶ͘
;ĂͿ&ŽƌǁĂƌĚďŝĂƐ͘
;ďͿZĞǀĞƌƐĞďŝĂƐ͘
Assumptions for ideal C-V characteristics:
a. Abrupt depletion region

b. Carrier densities at boundaries are related by
electrostatic potential difference across the junction
c. Low injection condition
d. Neither generation nor recombination current in
depletion region
Forward bias:
Diffusion length
In neutral n-region:
In neutral p-region:
Diffusion length
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϭϳ͘
/ŶũĞĐƚĞĚŵŝŶŽƌŝƚǇĐĂƌƌŝĞƌĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƚŝŽŶĂŶĚ
ĞůĞĐƚƌŽŶĂŶĚŚŽůĞĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐ͘
;ďͿZĞǀĞƌƐĞďŝĂƐ͘dŚĞĨŝŐƵƌĞŝůůƵƐƚƌĂƚĞƐ
ŝĚĞĂůŝǌĞĚĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐ͘&ŽƌƉƌĂĐƚŝĐĂůĚĞǀŝĐĞƐ͕
ƚŚĞĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐĂƌĞŶŽƚĐŽŶƐƚĂŶƚĂĐƌŽƐƐƚŚĞ
ƐƉĂĐĞĐŚĂƌŐĞůĂǇĞƌ͘
Total current:
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϭϴ͘
/ĚĞĂůĐƵƌƌĞŶƚͲǀŽůƚĂŐĞĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƚŝĐƐ͘
;ĂͿĂƌƚĞƐŝĂŶƉůŽƚ͘
;ďͿ^ĞŵŝůŽŐƉůŽƚ͘
5.2 Generation-Recombination &
High Injection Effects
Reverse bias:
Forward bias:
Maximum
condition:
High injection
condition:
5.3 Temperature Effect
Forward bias:
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϮϬ͘
dĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞĚĞƉĞŶĚĞŶĐĞŽĨ
ƚŚĞĐƵƌƌĞŶƚͲǀŽůƚĂŐĞ
ĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƚŝĐƐŽĨĂ^ŝĚŝŽĚĞϮ͘
;ďͿZĞǀĞƌƐĞďŝĂƐ͘
Reverse bias:
6 Charge storage & transient behavior
6.1 Minority-Carrier Storage
6.2 Diffusion Capacitance
6.3 Transient behavior
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘ϮϮ͘
dƌĂŶƐŝĞŶƚďĞŚĂǀŝŽƌŽĨĂƉͲŶ ũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶ
;ĂͿĂƐŝĐƐǁŝƚĐŚŝŶŐĐŝƌĐƵŝƚ͘
;ďͿdƌĂŶƐŝĞŶƚƌĞƐƉŽŶƐĞŽĨƚŚĞĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐǁŝƚĐŚĞĚĨƌŽŵĨŽƌǁĂƌĚďŝĂƐƚŽƌĞǀĞƌƐĞďŝĂƐ͘
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϮϯ͘
EŽƌŵĂůŝǌĞĚƚƌĂŶƐŝĞŶƚƚŝŵĞ
ǀĞƌƐƵƐƚŚĞƌĂƚŝŽŽĨĨŽƌǁĂƌĚ
ĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƚŽƌĞǀĞƌƐĞĐƵƌƌĞŶƚ͘ϯ
7 Junction Breakdown
7.1 Tunneling Effect
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘Ϯϰ͘
ŶĞƌŐǇďĂŶĚĚŝĂŐƌĂŵƐƵŶĚĞƌ
ũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶͲďƌĞĂŬĚŽǁŶ
ĐŽŶĚŝƚŝŽŶƐ͘
;ĂͿdƵŶŶĞůŝŶŐĞĨĨĞĐƚ
;ďͿǀĂůĂŶĐŚĞŵƵůƚŝƉůŝĐĂƚŝŽŶ͘
7.2 Avalanche Multiplication
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϮϲ͘
ƌŝƚŝĐĂůĨŝĞůĚĂƚďƌĞĂŬĚŽǁŶǀĞƌƐƵƐďĂĐŬŐƌŽƵŶĚĚŽƉŝŶŐĨŽƌ^ŝĂŶĚ'ĂƐŽŶĞͲƐŝĚĞĚĂďƌƵƉƚ
ũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶƐ͘ϱ
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϮϳ͘
ǀĂůĂŶĐŚĞďƌĞĂŬĚŽǁŶǀŽůƚĂŐĞ
ǀĞƌƐƵƐŝŵƉƵƌŝƚǇĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƚŝŽŶĨŽƌ
ŽŶĞͲƐŝĚĞĚĂďƌƵƉƚũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶ͘
ǀĂůĂŶĐŚĞďƌĞĂŬĚŽǁŶǀŽůƚĂŐĞ
ǀĞƌƐƵƐŝŵƉƵƌŝƚǇŐƌĂĚŝĞŶƚĨŽƌ
ůŝŶĞĂƌůǇŐƌĂĚĞĚũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶŝŶ^ŝĂŶĚ
'ĂƐ͘
ĂƐŚͲĚŽƚůŝŶĞŝŶĚŝĐĂƚĞƐƚŚĞŽŶƐĞƚ
ŽĨƚŚĞƚƵŶŶĞůŝŶŐŵĞĐŚĂŶŝƐŵ͘ϱ
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϮϴ͘
ƌĞĂŬĚŽǁŶǀŽůƚĂŐĞĨŽƌ
ĚŝĨĨƵƐĞĚũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶƐ͘/ŶƐĞƚ
ƐŚŽǁƐƚŚĞƐƉĂĐĞĐŚĂƌŐĞ
ĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƚŝŽŶ͘ϲ
^ĞŵŝĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌĞǀŝĐĞƐ͕ϮͬďǇ^͘
D͘^ǌĞ
ŽƉǇƌŝŐŚƚΞϮϬϬϮ:ŽŚŶtŝůĞǇΘ
^ŽŶƐ͘/ŶĐ͘ůůƌŝŐŚƚƐƌĞƐĞƌǀĞĚ͘
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϮϵ͘
ƌĞĂŬĚŽǁŶǀŽůƚĂŐĞĨŽƌƉнͲʋͲŶн ĂŶĚƉнͲǀͲŶн ũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶƐ͘t ŝƐƚŚĞƚŚŝĐŬŶĞƐƐŽĨƚŚĞůŝŐŚƚůǇ
ĚŽƉĞĚƉͲƚǇƉĞ;ʋͿŽƌƚŚĞůŝŐŚƚůǇĚŽƉĞĚŶͲƚǇƉĞ;ǀͿƌĞŐŝŽŶ͘
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϯϬ͘
;ĂͿWůĂŶĂƌĚŝĨĨƵƐŝŽŶƉƌŽĐĞƐƐƚŚĂƚĨŽƌŵƐ
ũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶĐƵƌǀĂƚƵƌĞŶĞĂƌƚŚĞĞĚŐĞŽĨƚŚĞ
ĚŝĨĨƵƐŝŽŶŵĂƐŬ͕ǁŚĞƌĞƌũ ŝƐƚŚĞƌĂĚŝƵƐŽĨ
ĐƵƌǀĂƚƵƌĞ͘
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ĨŽƌŵĞĚďǇĚŝĨĨƵƐŝŽŶƚŚƌŽƵŐŚĂ
ƌĞĐƚĂŶŐƵůĂƌŵĂƐŬ͘
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϯϭ͘ ƌĞĂŬĚŽǁŶǀŽůƚĂŐĞǀĞƌƐƵƐŝŵƉƵƌŝƚǇĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƚŝŽŶĨŽƌŽŶĞͲƐŝĚĞĚĂďƌƵƉƚ
ĚŽƉŝŶŐƉƌŽĨŝůĞǁŝƚŚĐǇůŝŶĚƌŝĐĂůĂŶĚƐƉŚĞƌŝĐĂůũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶŐĞŽŵĞƚƌŝĞƐ͕ϳ ǁŚĞƌĞƌũ ŝƐƚŚĞƌĂĚŝƵƐ
ŽĨĐƵƌǀĂƚƵƌĞŝŶĚŝĐĂƚĞĚŝŶ&ŝŐ͘ϯϬ͘
8. Heterojuction
&ŝŐƵƌĞϰͲϯϮ͘
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Ɖ ŚĞƚĞƌŽũƵŶĐƚŝŽŶĂƚƚŚĞƌŵĂů
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ϭϬ͘DҺŝƋƵĂŶŚҵŐŝӋĂŶһŶŐĜҾĜŝҵŶƚӊǀăůҽƚƌҺŶŐƚƌŽŶŐďĄŶĚҧŶƚŚƵҥŶ;ŝŶƚƌŝŶƐŝĐƐĞŵŝĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌͿ͍
ϭϭ͘<ŚĄŝŶŝҵŵŽŶŽƌǀăĐĐĞƉƚŽƌ͍
ϭϮ͘dƌŽŶŐĜŝҲƵŬŝҵŶŶăŽƚŚŞĐĄĐŵӈĐĚŽŶŽƌƌŝġŶŐďŝҵƚŵӂƌҾŶŐƚŚăŶŚŵҾƚǀƶŶŐŚҮƉ͍
ϭϯ͘DҾƚďĄŶĚҧŶĜӇӄĐƉŚĂƚҢƉĜһŶŐƚŚӁŝŽŶŽƌǀăĐĐĞƉƚŽƌ͘sŝұƚƉŚӇҿŶŐƚƌŞŶŚǆĄĐĜҷŶŚŶһŶŐĜҾ
ĜŝҵŶƚӊǀăůҽƚƌҺŶŐӂƚƌҢŶŐƚŚĄŝĐąŶďҪŶŐ͘
ϭϰ͘'ŝңŝƚŚşĐŚŬŚŝŶăŽǀăƚҢŝƐĂŽǆҤƉǆšŽůƚǌŵĂŶŶĐſƚŚҳƐӊĚӅŶŐƚŚĂǇĐŚŽŚăŵ&ĞƌŵŝͲŝƌĂĐĐŚŽŚăŵ
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ϭϱ͘dƌŞŶŚďăǇŬŚĄŝŶŚŝҵŵďĄŶĚҧŶƐƵǇďŝұŶ͘
ϭϲ͘^ӌŬŚĄĐŶŚĂƵŐŝӋĂĚžŶŐĜŝҵŶǀăŵҨƚĜҾĚžŶŐĜŝҵŶ͍
ϭϳ͘ҷŶŚŶŐŚšĂĜҾĚҧŶĜŝҵŶ͘ҿŶǀҷůăŐŞ͍
ϭϴ͘dƌŞŶŚďăǇŬŚĄŝŶŝҵŵǀăĜҷŶŚŶŐŚšĂǀҲĜҾůŝŶŚĜҾŶŐ͘dŚӈŶŐƵǇġŶůăŐŞ͍
ϭϵ͘'ŝңŝƚŚşĐŚƚҢŝƐĂŽĐĄĐŚҢƚƚңŝĜĂƐҺǀăŚҢƚƚңŝƚŚŝҳƵƐҺĐſĜҾůŝŶŚĜҾŶŐŬŚĄĐŶŚĂƵ͍
ϮϬ͘dҢŝƐĂŽŵҾƚďĄŶĚҧŶƉŚĂƚҢƉůҢŝĚҧŶĜŝҵŶƚҺƚŚҿŶŵҾƚďĄŶĚҧŶƚŚƵҥŶ͍
Ϯϭ͘dŚұŶăŽůăƚĄŶǆҢƚƌġŶƚҢƉĐŚҤƚŝŽŶŚſĂ;ŝŽŶŝǌĞĚŝŵƉƵƌŝƚǇƐĐĂƚƚĞƌŝŶŐͿ͍dĄŶǆҢŶăǇŵҢŶŚŚҿŶŬŚŝ
ƉŚĂƚҢƉŶҭŶŐŚĂǇƉŚĂƚҢƉŶŚҮ͍<ŚŝӂŶŚŝҵƚĜҾĐĂŽŚĂǇӂŶŚŝҵƚĜҾƚŚҤƉ͍dҢŝƐĂŽ͘
ϮϮ͘dĄŶǆҢƉŚŽŶŽŶůăŐŞ͍EſŵҢŶŚŚҿŶӂŶŚŝҵƚĜҾƚŚҤƉŚĂǇŶŚŝҵƚĜҾĐĂŽ͍dҢŝƐĂŽ͘
Ϯϯ͘ĄĐĜŝҵŶƚӊůƵƀŶŬŚƵұĐŚƚĄŶǀҲŵŝҲŶĐſŶһŶŐĜҾƚŚҤƉŚҿŶ͘ŝҲƵŶăǇĐſĜƷŶŐĜҺŝǀӀŝůҽƚƌҺŶŐ͍
Ϯϰ͘dƌŞŶŚďăǇƐӌŬŚĄĐŶŚĂƵŐŝӋĂŚŝҵŶƚӇӄŶŐƋƵĂŶŐƐŝŶŚ;ŽƉƚŝĐĂůĐĂƌƌŝĞƌŐĞŶĞƌĂƚŝŽŶͿǀăŶŚŝҵƚƐŝŶŚ
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Ϯ͘ ^ӌŬŚĄĐŶŚĂƵŐŝӋĂĐҤƵƚƌƷĐǀƶŶŐŶĉŶŐůӇӄŶŐĐӆĂŵҾƚĐŚҤƚĜŝҵŶŵƀŝǀăŵҾƚĐŚҤƚďĄŶĚҧŶůăŐŞ͍
ϯ͘ EġƵŬŚĄŝŶŝҵŵůҽƚƌҺŶŐƚƌŽŶŐĐŚҤƚďĄŶĚҧŶ͘
ϰ͘ DҺŝƋƵĂŶŚҵŐŝӋĂŶһŶŐĜҾĜŝҵŶƚӊǀăůҽƚƌҺŶŐƚƌŽŶŐďĄŶĚҧŶƚŚƵҥŶ;ŝŶƚƌŝŶƐŝĐƐĞŵŝĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌͿ͍
ϱ͘ EġƵŬŚĄŝŶŝҵŵŽŶŽƌǀăĐĐĞƉƚŽƌ͍
ϲ͘ DҾƚďĄŶĚҧŶĜӇӄĐƉŚĂƚҢƉĜһŶŐƚŚӁŝŽŶŽƌǀăĐĐĞƉƚŽƌ͘sŝұƚƉŚӇҿŶŐƚƌŞŶŚǆĄĐĜҷŶŚŶһŶŐĜҾ
ĜŝҵŶƚӊǀăůҽƚƌҺŶŐӂƚƌҢŶŐƚŚĄŝĐąŶďҪŶŐ͘
ϳ͘ <ŚŝŶăŽǆҤƉǆšŽůƚǌŵĂŶŶĐſƚŚҳƐӊĚӅŶŐƚŚĂǇĐŚŽŚăŵ&ĞƌŵŝͲŝƌĂĐĐŚŽŚăŵƉŚąŶďҺĜŝҵŶƚӊ
ƚƌŽŶŐďĄŶĚҧŶ͘
ϴ͘ ,ĂŝĐҿĐŚұĐҿďңŶĐӆĂĚžŶŐĜŝҵŶƚƌŽŶŐĐŚҤƚďĄŶĚҧŶůăŐŞ͍
ϵ͘ ^ӌŬŚĄĐŶŚĂƵŐŝӋĂĚžŶŐĜŝҵŶǀăŵҨƚĜҾĚžŶŐĜŝҵŶ͍
ϭϬ͘ ҷŶŚŶŐŚšĂĜҾĚҧŶĜŝҵŶ͘ҿŶǀҷůăŐŞ͍
ϭϭ͘ dƌŞŶŚďăǇŬŚĄŝŶŝҵŵǀăĜҷŶŚŶŐŚšĂǀҲĜҾůŝŶŚĜҾŶŐ͘dŚӈŶŐƵǇġŶůăŐŞ͍
ϭϮ͘ 'ŝңŝƚŚşĐŚƚҢŝƐĂŽĐĄĐŚҢƚƚңŝĜĂƐҺǀăŚҢƚƚңŝƚŚŝҳƵƐҺĐſĜҾůŝŶŚĜҾŶŐŬŚĄĐŶŚĂƵ͍
ϭϯ͘ dҢŝƐĂŽŵҾƚďĄŶĚҧŶƉŚĂƚҢƉůҢŝĚҧŶĜŝҵŶƚҺƚŚҿŶŵҾƚďĄŶĚҧŶƚŚƵҥŶ͍
ϭϰ͘ dŚұŶăŽůăƚĄŶǆҢƚƌġŶƚҢƉĐŚҤƚŝŽŶŚſĂ;ŝŽŶŝǌĞĚŝŵƉƵƌŝƚǇƐĐĂƚƚĞƌŝŶŐͿ͍dĄŶǆҢŶăǇŵҢŶŚŚҿŶŬŚŝ
ƉŚĂƚҢƉŶҭŶŐŚĂǇƉŚĂƚҢƉŶŚҮ͍<ŚŝӂŶŚŝҵƚĜҾĐĂŽŚĂǇӂŶŚŝҵƚĜҾƚŚҤƉ͍dҢŝƐĂŽ͘
ϭϱ͘ ĄĐĜŝҵŶƚӊůƵƀŶŬŚƵұĐŚƚĄŶǀҲŵŝҲŶĐſŶһŶŐĜҾƚŚҤƉŚҿŶ͘ŝҲƵŶăǇĐſĜƷŶŐĜҺŝǀӀŝůҽƚƌҺŶŐ͍
ϭϲ͘ dƌŞŶŚďăǇƐӌŬŚĄĐŶŚĂƵŐŝӋĂŚŝҵŶƚӇӄŶŐƋƵĂŶŐƐŝŶŚ;ŽƉƚŝĐĂůĐĂƌƌŝĞƌŐĞŶĞƌĂƚŝŽŶͿǀăŶŚŝҵƚƐŝŶŚ
;ƚŚĞƌŵĂůĐĂƌƌŝĞƌŐĞŶĞƌĂƚŝŽŶͿ͍
ϭϳ͘ dŚұŶăŽůăŵҾƚďҧǇŚҢƚƚңŝ͍
ϭϴ͘ dŚұŶăŽůăĐĄĐŚҢƚƚңŝƚŚӉĂ;ĞǆĐĞƐƐĐĂƌƌŝĞƌͿ͍
ϭϵ͘ ҷŶŚŶŐŚšĂƚŚӁŝŐŝĂŶƐҺŶŐĐӆĂŚҢƚƚңŝƚŚӉĂ͍
ϮϬ͘ dƌŞŶŚďăǇǉŶŐŚšĂĐӆĂƉŚӇҿŶŐƚƌŞŶŚůŝġŶƚӅĐ͘
WŚҥŶ//͘ăŝƚҨƉ;ϱĜŝҳŵͿ
ϭ͘ ŚŽŵҾƚŶҺŝƉͲŶ^ŝůǉƚӇӂŶŐӂŶŚŝҵƚĜҾƉŚžŶŐ͘
Ă͘ dşŶŚƚŚұƉŚąŶĐӌĐĜӇӄĐĄƉǀăŽĚŝŽĚĞƉͲŶůǉƚӇӂŶŐƐĂŽĐŚŽĚžŶŐŶŐӇӄĐĜҢƚϵϬйĚžŶŐŶŐӇӄĐ
ďĆŽŚžĂ͘
ď͘ ,ĆǇƚşŶŚĚžŶŐďĆŽŚžĂŶŐӇӄĐĐӆĂĚŝŽĚĞǀӀŝĐĄĐƚŚƀŶŐƐҺƐĂƵ͗EсϯǆϭϬϭϴĐŵͲϯ͕EсϭϬϭϲ
ĐŵͲϯ͖WŶсϮPƐ͕WƉсϬ͘ϱPƐ͕ŶсϮϭĐŵϮͬƐĞĐ͕Ɖ сϭϬĐŵϮͬƐĞĐǀăƚŝұƚĚŝҵŶůăϭ͘ϮǆϭϬͲϱĐŵϮ͕Ŷŝс
ϵ͘ϲϱǆϭϬϵĐŵͲϯ͘
Đ͘ dşŶŚĚžŶŐƚŚƵҨŶŬŚŝŐŝĄƚƌҷƚŚұƉŚąŶĐӌĐůăϬ͘ϲϱs͘
Ϯ͘ ҔŶŚŝҵƚĜҾƉŚžŶŐ͕ŵҾƚƚƌĂŶƐŝƐƚŽƌƉͲŶͲƉ^ŝĐſŶһŶŐĜҾŚҢƚƚңŝƚƌŽŶŐĐĄĐŵŝҲŶĐӌĐƉŚĄƚ͕ĐӌĐŶҲŶ
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ůăϭPŵ͕ƚŝұƚĚŝҵŶŶŐĂŶŐůăϬ͘ϯŵŵϮ͘'ŝңƐӊŶҺŝͲƉŚąŶĐӌĐƚŚƵҨŶϬ͘ϲsǀăŶҺŝͲƉŚąŶĐӌĐ
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