CHAPTER —7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1 CONCLUSIONS The conclusions drawn, based on this research, related to soil types and their distribution, and about ground water table, are given in the following sub-sections. The first objective of this study was to analyze sufficient reliable data regarding physical properties, classification, bearing capacities, and shear strength characteristics of soils of various zones. From this data the physical properties like cohesion (c), angle of internal friction (6), density (y), bearing capacity, ground water table, unified soil classification system (USCS) and standard penetration test number of blows SPT N-values were set out in Table 3.1 and 3.2 in Annexure-A. Since the target area comprises rather uniform fluvial deposits these values range within rather narrow limits. 7.1.1 SOIL TYPES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION i) Pakistani soils are composed of two types of parent materials a) Residual material obtained from weathering of rocks. The Himalayas, Saled Kol/Wazirastan hills, Sulaiman and Kirthar, Balochistan and Potwar/Salt Range have this type of soil. b) Soils comprised of alluvium, loess and wind blown sands, These soils of Indus Plains constitute Piedmont Plains, alluvial terraces, active and old flood plains, deltaic plains and rolling sand plains (dunes). ii) Consistency of the cohesive soils as determined by SPT performed in accordance with ASTM D-1586, usually varies between firm and stiff with SPT values in the common range of 4 and 25, and max, value of upto 36, These values are susceptible to moisture change. iii) Very fittle data regarding compressibility characteristics of the cohesive strata are available in the geotechnical studies carried out in Pakistan. Compressibility characteristics are therefore estimated, using different correlations available in geotechnical Siterature between index properties and compression index (Ce) and SPT resistance (N-value) and coefficient of volume compressibility (mv). 307iv) N-values recorded indicate that the relative density of the coarse grained soils ranges between loose to medium dense, Typically the N-values improve with depth vi Strength parameters along with N-values of fine grained soils/cohesive soil means ‘c- soils’ with ranges of 4 to 25 SPT (biows/f), and the coarse-grained soils/non cohesive soils, p-soils, means sandy soils with ranges of 4 to 36 SPT (blows/f). The unconfined compressive strength (qu) ranges from 0.5 to 0.75 ton per square foot (TSF) or kg/em®, The angle of internal friction (}p) ranges from 26 to 34 degree. vi In the area which lies between River Sutle} and River Chenab and which was studied in detail there are no problematic soils, However as a whole in Pakistan the problematic soils or engineering behavior of soils which present special problems during and after construction such as sheared clays, liquefiable soils, collapsible soils, dispersive soils, residual soils and volume change sniis are found in limited areas D. 1. Khan has expansive soil, Chashma has liquefiable soils, and D. G. Khan has expansive / collapsible soils. The areas such as Khushab, Mianwali and Quaidabad have volume change soils. The sheared clay is found in Mangla and Kalabagh while Gujar Khan area has expansive soil Geotechnical Zonation map prepared for (1 m) 3 & depth below existing grade, shows variation of soils within Pakistan, The higher / northern areas consist of limestone, sandstone, shale, igneous and metamorphic rocks. The soils derived from these rocks are composed mainly of gravel, sand and silt (GM) up to G6. The study area (studied in detail) falls in zone G7 to G12 i.e. the area between Rivers Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. The rolling area shows congiomerate i.e, mostly boulders, gravel and sands (GM, SM) up to G9. The upper plain area consists mostly of wind blown deposits i.e., sands (SM, SP, CL-ML, CL/ML) up to G12, The middie plain area mostly consists of fine to medium sand and occasional gravel between sand and clay layers. Rocks and gravel in higher areas of Balochistan i.e, (GM, CL/ML, CL-ML, ML, CL,) up to G16. The lower plain area consists of stream and flood plain deposits with fine sand, silt and clay deposits i.e. (SW, SM, CL/ML, CL-ML, CL, ML) upto G20, The lower most plain area consists of surficial deposits of silt, sand and gravel i.e. (GM, SM, SP, ML, CL, CL/ML) upto G24. The coastal area comprises gravel, sand and silt mixture i.e. (GM, SW, SM, and ML) upto G24, 3087.1.2 GROUND WATER TABLE The observations on ground water table are summarized below: i) The alluvial sediments of Pakistan contain numerous aquifers. The ground water from these aquifers is being pumped out through wells, hand pumps and tube wells. ii) Increase in population, reduced recharge from rivers due to Indus Basin Treaty, and excessive water supply net work, adversely affect the recharge into the adjoining aquifers. iii) Shallow ground water table creates construction problems as well as reduction in shear strength and bearing capacity. iv) In most of the areas, GWT is at greater depth and the foundation design/construction should not be affected by GWT. v) However in water logged areas and the areas, which are near the rivers, GWT is at relatively shallow depth and may even be on surface, therefore affecting the foundation design/construction The Indus plain is a huge ground water basin with very poor surface drainage. There is frequent flooding and periods of drought due to which water table may fluctuate widely at places. Poor irrigation practices Jead to fluctuation in water table. In view of above, the engineering properties at a particular place and depth may not remain constant every where but are subject to variation in GWT and surface accumulation of water, It has been noticed that poor drainage areas with high GWT can have SPT N-values and bearing capacity values much lower than they had prior to the rise of GWT or surface flooding 7.1.3 SOME IMPORTANT CONCLUSIONS. i) The most important conclusion drawn is that the SPT N-values increase with increase in depth of soil, However it may be noted that in general with increase in depth the amount of clay and silt decrease while sand increases. SPT N-values increase in kankar horizons which develop in mature soils (geological soil) specially in bar uplands i) SPT N-values also increase in soils which are over compacted or are otherwise weakly cemented by carbonates. iii) By using SPT N-values and other parameters, bearing capacities for various footing breadths at different depths can be computed with varying levels of confidence. 309iv) In limited areas relationship between engineering properties and (uvial facies could be established in a general way. But this could not be generalized for the entire study area v) Ground water table fluctuations also affect these SPT N-values and bearing capacity. 7.2 RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations regarding foundation type and depth, and about net allowable bearing capacities of the soils in Pakistan, are described in the following sub-sections. 7.2.1 FOUNDATION TYPE AND DEPTH Sub-soil conditions of Pakistan, in general, offer adequate bearing capacity to support conventional single storey buildings (Case-1) and other multi-storey structures with and without basement (Case-Il) on shallow foundations and heavy structure (Case-lil). Some areas of Pakistan have problematic soils where special treatments are required for foundation design and construction. The type, depth, width ete. of these foundations are summarized below in Table 7.1 Table 7,1: Shows Foundation Type / Parameters of Various Structures. [DESCRIPTION OF STRUCTURE [Single storey residential non res, Strip, Pad. SFLor tm building no basement with load isolated, or bearing walls and (RC) reinforced {Sauare, conerete / (RB) reinforced brick rooting. CASE |Multi storey residential, 10.75 to 1m. ‘Column footing 13-4 1. 4-1.25m.|3-0" to 5-0" ‘Commercial and Industrial (isolated, below NSL_ [1 to 1.5m buldings of (RCC) reintorced Combined, of SFA. (1m) [cement concrete frame structure |Strap or below FFL of Iwith or without basement. Continuous). basement jwhich ever is applicable CASE-lilHeavy structures, over head Mat Ratt, Varies Varies reserviors, bridges, flyavers, Piles, Machine foundations, etc. NOTE. CASE-I: Foundations may be designed using the findings of this research. For critical sub-soils conditions at site, however, detailed exploration is recommended prior to foundation design 310CASE-I: The findings of this research may only be used for preliminary estimate / design of foundations and feasibility studies For final designs. detailed geotechnical investigation is recommended CASE-IIL; Detailed geotechnical investigations are recommended 7.2.2. NET ALLOWABLE BEARING CAPACITIES Net allowable bearing capacities of different soils for different areas of Pakistan are summarized below as Table 7.2 Table 7.2: Showing Net ABC of Various Structures NET ALLOWABLE BC in TSF. (kg/sq.cm). CASE 0510075 Th most cases cohesive/fine grained formations are present. CASE | 0.7510 1.0 in most cases non cohesive/coarse or> 1.0 lgrained formations are present 7.2.3 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS Some general recommendations are also presented in the following sub-sections. i) Moisture Content Variations Coarse-grained soils ie, (gravels boulders, etc.) are not very sensitive to moisture change, where as fine-grained soils (clays) are generally sensitive to moisture changes Shear strength and compressibility characteristics of fine grained soils are influenced greatly by moisture variations. Therefore, it is recommended that the following considerations must be taken into account during design and construction stage of foundations to avoid ingress of water into soils below the foundations. a) During and afler foundation excavation stage, flooding of the foundation trenches should never be allowed under any circumstances. Foundation excavation sub- contractors usually prefer to excavate after flooding, only because of ease in excavation. b Immediately after excavating to the final foundation sub-grade level, the bottom of the foundation must be covered with lean concrete layer and under no circumstances should the pit be exposed to the extreme weather conditions for a long period of time. c) All buildings resting in or on cohesive soils must be properly protected by plinth protection slab of at Jeast (1 m) 3 ft width surrounding the buildings along the 3Hperiphery of the structure. The plinth protection slab must be sloped away from the structure for effective and quick drainage of surface run off or water from other source, Pounding of water within a distance of about (3.05 m) 10 ft from the structure should never be allowed d All utility lines must be designed and constructed leak proof. The invert level of the sewer must be kept at least (0.61 m) 2 fi above the foundation sub-grade and the sewer line be kept as away as possible from the structure, but not less that (1 m) 3 fi from the periphery of the structure e) It is anticipated that the foundation pit will remain stable with vertical walls without any significant sloughing upto a depth of about (3.05 m) 10 ft below existing grade in firm cohesive soils. Pits deeper than (3.05 m) 10 fi must be properly sloped or protected using sheathing or shores for the safety of labor, Deep foundation pits should not be left open for a long period ii) Foundation Protection Foundations must be protected from deleterious materials. Sulphate content level of sub- soils and ground. water may be higher in water logged areas, and in the areas adjacent to the dumping sites of chemical waste. It is therefore, recommended that detailed chemical analysis of soil and ground water be performed to evaluate pH, Cl, SOs, TDS, etc. and corrective / protective measures be adopted in accordance with BS / ASTM Standards. iii) Foundation Cushion In the areas having low bearing capacity or in water logged areas, the bearing capacity may be improved by providing a. cushion (i.e. of sand, gravel, brick ballast & stone eto.) under the foundation. The thickness of the cushion depends upon the load of the structure. iv) Replacement of Foundation Soils If the foundation soils are very weak or sensitive, replace the soil by other easily available good soils. 3127.3 FUTURE WORK Suggestions for some future research related to this study are i) The new geotechnical data related to the stations as and when available should be incorporated in the geotechnical map and the relationships / graphs should be updated periodically ii) Geotechnical maps should be developed for depths greater than (0.91 m) 3 Rie, (1.83 m) 6 ft, (2.74 m) 9 ft,, (3.66 m) 12 fete. on Pakistan basis. iit) Detailed geotechnical sub-maps should be prepared for major cities of Pakistan, iv) Problematic soil areas in Pakistan should be located, demarcated and detailed geotechnical sub-maps should be prepared for thein v) Detailed geotechnical sub-maps regarding water logged and saline areas of Pakistan should be prepared, vi) Computer simulation of geotechnical map of Pakistan, should be carried out vii) There is very little data regarding the compressibility characteristics of the Pakistan soils available Detailed study regarding the compressibility characteristics of the cohesive soils must be carried out to decide: a Weather the clay is normally consolidated (NC) or pre-consolidated (PC). 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