Trainer’s manual
Part I – Content
Release no.: 2
Date of issue: May 2013
Forewords
The
course
is
an
introduction
to
the
topic
and
designed
for
personnel
having
different
skills,
knowledge
and
experience
in
air
emission
by
ships.
The
objective
of
the
course
is
to
provide
a
common
set
of
knowledge
and
skills
to
all
participants
in
order
to
enable
them
to
spread
the
information
in
their
respective
countries/organizations
and
to
promote
the
implementation
of
energy
efficiency
policies
and
MARPOL
Annex
VI.
Considering
that
the
topic
is
new
and
due
to
the
complexity
of
the
issue,
no
false
expectations
should
be
raised
(i.e.
it
should
be
highlighted
that
there
is
not
one
receipt
for
all
situations).
The
current
state
of
knowledge
is
limited
and
under
development.
This
course
has
a
global
dimension,
and
it
is
not
specific
to
any
country
in
particular.
Therefore,
trainers
are
expected
to
adapt
the
course
to
their
own
context
and
audience.
The
trainees
should
bear
in
mind
that,
while
taking
the
course,
they
are
not
representing
their
institutions.
On
the
contrary,
to
enhance
the
productivity
of
work
in
class,
it
is
recommended
that
they
set
aside
the
specific
position
of
their
organizations
or
countries,
and
think
globally.
The
course
provides
an
excellent
opportunity
to
share
ideas,
to
gather
stakeholders
together
and
to
establish
cooperative
networks.
This
not
an
academic
course
but
a
hands-‐on
course
with
exercises,
discussion
of
case
studies
and
a
number
of
practical
activities.
The
Instructors
present
the
content
of
the
modules
and
guide
the
discussion
of
the
most
relevant
issues.
It
is
expected
that
the
participants
will
contribute
substantially,
by
sharing
their
knowledge
and
experiences.
Disclaimer
The
views
expressed
in
this
report
are
purely
those
of
the
authors
and
may
not
in
any
circumstances
be
regarded
as
stating
an
official
position
of
the
organizations
involved.
©
WMU-‐IMO
All
rights
reserved.
This
document,
or
any
part
thereof,
may
not
be
photocopied,
stored
in
any
medium
by
electronic
means
or
otherwise,
published,
transferred,
reproduced
or
performed
in
public
in
any
form
or
by
any
means
without
prior
written
permission
from
the
copyright
owners.
Enquiries
should
be
directed
to
WMU
or
IMO.
WMU
or
IMO
shall
not
be
liable
to
any
person
or
organization
for
any
loss,
damage
or
expense
caused
by
reliance
on
the
information
or
advice
in
this
document
or
howsoever
provided.
Please
cite
this
document
as
WMU-‐IMO,
2013:
Training
course
on
Energy
Efficient
Operation
of
Ships.
ii
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
INSTRUCTOR:
• This course was designed to be flexible. Therefore, the course plan below is purely
indicative. The instructors must adapt the course schedule and structure to their
audiences, contexts and experiences.
• Questions to the participants are included in some slides to encourage their participation
and to advance on the issues dealt with in the module. Those questions are usually
shown after a click of the mouse.
• Inform the participants that the slides present a summary of the key points and it is an
opportunity for the participants to question the instructor and other participants about
details/doubts on the issues presented. A comprehensive text is found in the Participants
Manual.
• Remember that the Participants are knowledgeable in their areas. Use their knowledge
and skills to enrich discussions and to help you to convey the Module. However, do not
forget that you are the leader of the training process.
• The presentations provided during this training course are generic and meant to be
adapted by each participant according to their own needs and the needs of their
audience.
MODULE 1
Total time.................................................. 1:30
Presentation............................................... 1:30
Exercise:
Short questions are inserted in the presentation. Do not jump over them. They are inserted to attract the
participants’ attention
MODULE 2
Total time.................................................. 3:00
Presentation……………………………… 2:00
Exercises………………………………… 1:00
Exercise
A true and false exercise. This exercise is to be completed after completion of Module 2 in groups
iii
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
of three to four persons per group. The instructor will allow the participants 20 minutes to
complete the exercise. The instructor will ask for 3-4 groups to provide answers to 3-4 questions.
He or she will then give the answers (with justification) to the participants.
MODULE 3
Total time.................................................. 1:30
Presentation……………………………... 1:00
Exercise…………………………………. 0:30
Exercise: none
Case study to develop as per instructor wishes and confidence
MODULE 4
Total time.................................................. 3:00
Presentation……………………………... 2:00
Exercise…………………………………. 1:00
Exercise
A Q & A exercise to be completed individually or in groups of three to four participants after slide
10. The instructor will allow 20 minutes to the participants to complete the exercise. He or she will
ask the groups to provide answers to 3-4 questions. The instructor will then hand out the answers
(with justification) to the participants.
MODULE 5
Total time.................................................. 3:00
Presentation……………………………... 1:30
Exercise…………………………………. 1:30
Exercise I
A Q & A exercise to be completed after completion of Module 5 individually or in groups of three
to four persons per group. The instructor will allow 20 minutes to the participants to complete the
exercise. He or she will ask the groups to provide answers to 3-4 questions. The instructor will
then hand out the answers (with justification) to the participants.
Exercise II – OPTIONAL
A true or false exercise to be completed after completion of the first exercise if time allows only
in groups of three to four persons per group. The instructor will allow 20 minutes for the
participants to complete the exercise. He or she will ask the groups to provide answers to 3-4
questions. The instructor will then hand out the answers (with justification) to the participants.
iv
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Module 4 – En Route
Based on
CONTENTS
-‐
Page
1
-‐
Module
1
–
The
climate
change
and
the
international
response
Author:
Dr.
Raphaël
Baumler,
World
Maritime
University,
Malmö,
Sweden
-‐
Page
51
-‐
Module
2
–
From
Management
to
Operation
Author:
Captain
Colin
Thomas,
UK
-‐
Page
104
-‐
Module
3
–
Port
stay
and
its
impacts
Authors:
Dr.
Zabi
Bazari,
Energy
and
Emissions
Solutions
Ltd,
London,
UK
Prof.
Daniel
Moon,
World
Maritime
University,
Malmö,
Sweden
-‐
Page
150
-‐
Module
4
–
En
Route
Authors:
Dr.
Aykut
Ölçer,
World
Maritime
University,
Malmö,
Sweden
Dr.
Zabi
Bazari,
Energy
and
Emissions
Solutions
Ltd,
London,
UK
Dr.
Michael
Baldauf,
World
Maritime
University,
Malmö,
Sweden
-‐
Page
189
-‐
Module
5
–
Energy
Efficiency
Management
Systems
Authors:
Prof.
Takeshi
Nakasawa,
World
Maritime
University,
Malmö,
Sweden
Dr.
Michael
Baldauf,
World
Maritime
University,
Malmö,
Sweden
-‐
Page
215
-‐
Appendix
:
MARPOL
Annex
VI
Chapter
4
vi
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
MODULE
1
The
climate
change
and
the
international
response
Introduction
to
Greenhouse
Gas
(GHG)
issues
in
shipping
1
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Contents
Module
Aims
and
Objectives
.......................................................................................................................
5
1.
Greenhouse
Gas:
a
global
concern
.......................................................................................................
6
1.1
Air
contamination,
from
local
to
global
issue
................................................................................
6
2
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
IMO
commitment
to
protect
the
environment
and
the
atmosphere
...............................................
35
2.2
Emissions
from
shipping
..............................................................................................................
37
First
IMO
study
on
GHG
2000
............................................................................................................
38
3
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
4
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• Describe
the
international
response
to
the
problem,
and
list
the
various
initiatives
established
to
deal
with
the
problem;
• Identify
the
main
International
Maritime
Organization
(IMO)
instruments
to
address
the
issue.
5
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Resultantly,
unexpected
and
harmful
substances
floating
in
the
air
may
damage
the
respiratory
system
and/or
the
body
through
the
absorption
of
gases,
vapours
and
aerosols
by
blood
through
the
lungs.
The
first
effort
to
manage
air
quality
was
initiated
due
to
observed
negative
impacts
to
humans
by
air
pollutants
such
as
smell,
smoke
thickness,
and
particulate
matter
in
large
cities.
Evidence
of
air
contamination
has
been
documented
from
the
ancient
Greece,
China
and
Rome
as
well
as
during
the
Middle
Ages.
7
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
These
two
sources
of
fossil
energy
formed
the
elementary
materials
which
provided
power
to
launch
and
develop
the
industrialized
world.
The
industrialization
of
an
increasing
number
of
human
activities
and
the
expansion
of
the
transport
network
led
to
the
increasing
demand
of
energy
which
consequently
accelerated
the
fossil
fuel
consumption
and
the
related
air
emission.
Now,
coal
is
particularly
used
in
land-‐based
facilities
while
oil
is,
by
far,
the
main
source
of
transportation
systems.
Figure
1:
Registered
world
fleet
from
1914
to
2007
(source:
Lloyd's
Register
of
Shipping,
2000)
The world trade transportation system is based on fossil fuels.
8
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
effect
on
another
100,000
people
was
directly
linked
to
this
air
pollution.
Recent
have weighed down on global growth. These include, r esearch
suggests
that
Tighter monetary policies in many developing regions
this
event
caused
around
12,000
fatalities.
and social unrest in North Africa and Western Asia, contributed to moderate growth in industrial activity.
natural disasters in Japan and Thailand which have In China for example, industrial production grew
market
economy.
In
such
contexts,
industrialization
and
exchange
exploded
and
new
industrialized
Figure 1.1. The OECD Industrial Production Index and indices for world GDP, world merchandise trade
countries
emerged.
and world seaborne trade (1975–2012) (1990 = 100)
350
250
200
World GDP
150
OECD Industrial
Production Index
100
50
1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011
Source: UNCTAD secretariat, on the basis of OECD Main Economic Indicators, May 2012; UCTAD, The Trade and Development
Report 2012; UNCTAD Review of Maritime Transport
press release 658, April 2012, World Trade 2011, Prospects for 2012. The 2012 index for seaborne trade is calculated on
the basis of the growth rate forecast by Clarkson Research Services in Shipping Review & Outlook, spring 2012.
Figure
2:
World
Industrial
production
Index
1919-‐2013
(source
Data360)
&
Evolution
of
world
trade
structure
1975-‐2010
(source:
UNCTAD,
2012)
Since
2010,
China
became
the
second
world
largest
economy
and
should
reach
the
first
position
within
few
years.
This
rise
of
BRIC
countries
demonstrates
that
the
overwhelming
western
domination
on
world
economy
during
the
last
two
centuries
is
coming
to
an
end.
This
tendency
shows
the
success
of
the
industrial
and
trade
models
but
tends
to
omit
serious
drawbacks,
particularly
if
national
policy
does
not
contain
adequate
pollution
control
mechanisms.
The
extension
of
manufacturing
and
energy
intensive
systems
induced
an
increase
of
air
released
in
the
atmosphere
at
unprecedented
levels
during
the
human
era.
So,
from
restricted
to
UK
and
developed
economies,
the
situation
of
harmful
air
pollution
is
becoming
a
worldwide
issue
in
the
21st
century,
which
particularly
affects
the
emerging
economies
(Brazil,
China,
Egypt,
India,
Mexico,
Nigeria,
Pakistan,
Senegal,
etc.).
9
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
3:
PM10
measurement
in
large
city
–
data
from
2003
to
2010
(WHO)
Fortunately,
the
undeniable
impacts
of
air
pollutants
triggers
regulatory
processes
aiming
to
mitigate
the
issue
while
concurrently
raising
awareness
among
the
public
as
well
as
enhancing
research
on
pollution
–
e.g.
Chinese
Ministry
of
Environmental
Protection
carefully
monitors
air
emissions
in
large
cities
and
develops
regulations
to
mitigate
the
issue.
So,
through
its
deadly
aftermath,
the
air
contamination
acquired
social
visibility
and
political
recognizance.
The
amounts
of
pollutant
emitted
in
the
air
are
becoming
so
large
that
their
consequences
cannot
be
ignored,
both
at
local
and
global
levels.
The
invisible
air
pollution
obtains
a
social
visibility
and
publicity
through
its
unfortunate
effects
locally
and
through
its
impacts
on
the
global
climate
system.
Economic
models
and
population
growth
modify
faster
than
ever
the
air
quality.
10
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
quality
of
life
has
been
increased
exposure
to
air
pollution
coming
from
industrial
activities,
traffic
and
energy
production”
(WHO,
2007).
• The
power
acquired
by
the
humankind
forces
it
to
be
responsible
for
the
consequences
of
its
actions
(Jonas,
1984).
In
short,
environmental
and
moral
justifications
presently
merge
with
an
economic
motivation
:
“We
stand
at
a
juncture
where
our
words
need
to
be
matched
by
actions,
so
that
climate
change
will
not
accelerate
its
adverse
effect
on
everybody.
And
the
decisions
and
actions
we
must
take
without
further
delay,
will
be
of
paramount
importance
for
generations
to
come
(…)
that
said,
mid-‐range
scenarios
show
that,
by
2050,
those
emissions
could
grow
by
a
factor
of
2
to
3
if
no
regulations
to
stem
them
are
enacted.
Successfully
addressing
climate
change
will
be
far
from
easy;
but
the
consequences
of
failing
to
do
so
are
too
dire
to
contemplate.”
(Mitropoulos
as
cited
in
IMO,
2009).
But,
before
introducing
the
international
response
to
climate
change,
we
need
to
detail
the
combustion
outputs
which
constitute
the
main
origins
of
global
warming.
11
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
basic
elements
of
fire
do
not
depend
on
external
factors
unmanageable
by
human
beings.
By
controlling
the
ignition
source
and
fuel
availability,
humans
adjust
the
energy
produced
by
the
combustion
according
to
their
needs.
In
addition,
most
of
the
components
of
combustion
are
easily
available
on
earth.
Oxygen
is
available
everywhere,
many
fuels
exist
and
ignition
has
been
known
for
years.
Assembled
properly,
these
elements
provide
efficient,
reliable
and
controllable
sources
of
energy.
However,
the
mastery
and
the
proper
use
of
combustion
require
appropriate
technology.
The
fuel
combustion
produces
energy
but
generates
a
certain
number
of
by-‐products.
As
a
chemical
transformation,
the
combustion
follows
the
well-‐known
principle
defined
by
Lavoisier
(1743-‐1794):
"nothing
is
lost,
nothing
is
created,
everything
is
transformed”.
Therefore,
the
identification
of
input
elements
determines
combustion
outputs.
Fossil
fuels
were
created
millions
of
years
ago,
most
certainly
from
the
compression
and
chemistry
occurring
inside
layers
of
organic
matter
accumulated
and
covered.
So,
these
fuels
contain
high
level
of
carbon
captured
long
time
ago.
Coal
usually
contains
up
to
95%
of
carbon,
the
rest
being
hydrogen,
water
and
ash.
Crude
oil
demonstrates
a
carbon
proportion
of
around
82-‐87%
by
weight.
While
coal
is
predominantly
made
of
carbon,
crude
oil
is
a
complex
mixture
of
hydrocarbons.
In
addition
to
carbon
and
hydrogen,
crude
oil
and
coal
may
hold
a
large
variety
of
chemical
compounds
trapped
in
their
structures:
• Coal
contains
mainly
carbon
on
an
average
of
90%
but
also
sulphur
and
many
other
noxious
matters
such
as
mercury.
• “An
‘average’
crude
oil
contains
about
84%
carbon,
14%
hydrogen,
1%-‐3%
sulfur,
and
less
than
1%
each
of
nitrogen,
oxygen,
metals,
and
salts”
(OSHA,
2012)
12
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
INPUT:
AIR
+
COMBUSTIBLE
Figure
4:
boiler
burner
principle
in
external
combustion
engines
13
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
5:
steam
generator
principle
onboard
ships
Coal
produced
thick
smoke
and
the
energy
efficiency
of
steam
systems
remained
low.
These
drawbacks
fostered
the
use
of
oil
and
encouraged
technical
innovation,
particularly
the
modification
of
the
main
engine
principle.
Indeed,
the
first
diesel
ocean-‐going
ship,
the
MV
Selandia,
was
launched
in
1912.
The
novelty
was
the
direct
use
of
the
energy
of
combustion
without
utilizing
steam
systems
–
i.e.
combustion
occurred
inside
the
engine
operating
the
propeller.
Such
engines
improved
the
energy
efficiency
of
ships.
14
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
6:
internal
combustion
engine
The
efficiency
of
the
internal
combustion
engine
is
higher
than
the
external
combustion
engine.
Thus,
after
the
1973
oil
crisis
and
the
rise
of
oil
prices,
diesel
engines
dominated
the
shipping
industry.
However,
some
narrow
sectors
of
the
industry
still
rely
on
other
kind
of
engines.
In
terms
of
exhaust
gas
release,
the
theoretical
combustion
reaction
to
consider
takes
place
among
the
oxygen
of
the
air
and
the
hydrocarbons
of
the
fuel:
𝑦 𝑦
𝐶𝑥𝐻𝑦 + 𝑥 + 𝑂2 → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2𝑂
4 2
However,
air
is
not
purely
made
of
oxygen.
Air
contains
around
21%
of
oxygen
(O2)
and
78%
of
nitrogen
(N2)
and
small
quantities
of
other
gases.
In
the
same
way,
fuels
are
not
purely
made
of
carbon
and
hydrogen
chains.
So,
the
outcome
of
combustion
results
in
compounds
combinations
despite
the
clear
dominance
of
carbon
dioxide
and
water
release.
15
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
main
components
resulting
from
combustion
are
listed
below.
Water
is
voluntarily
forgotten
because
it
does
not
present
any
harm
or
impact
on
humans
and
the
environment.
Carbon
dioxide
(CO2)
This
gas
is
naturally
present
in
the
air
and
mainly
associated
with
the
living.
While
CO2
concentration
was
280
parts
per
million
(ppm)
prior
to
1750,
the
present
concentration
is
about
390
ppm
by
volume
(IPCC,
2007b).
It
has
been
observed
that
the
amount
of
CO2
in
the
atmosphere
steadily
increased
since
the
industrial
revolution.
Such
level
of
CO2
in
the
air
does
not
affect
human
health.
However,
CO2
contributes
to
global
warming
and
ocean
acidification.
Nitrogen
oxide
(NOx)
NOx
refer
to
many
types
of
nitrogen
and
oxygen
compounds.
Such
compounds
originate
from
the
combustion
process.
During
the
combustion,
a
small
quantity
of
nitrogen
is
oxidized
to
form
various
nitrogen
oxides.
The
amount
of
NOx
emitted
by
the
engine
is
“primarily
a
function
of
flame
or
combustion
temperature
and,
if
present,
the
amount
of
organic
nitrogen
available
from
the
fuel”
(IMO,
2009a).
These
by-‐products
of
combustion
have
detrimental
effects
on
the
environment
and
the
human
body.
Sulphur
oxide
(SOx)
SOx
refer
to
various
compounds
containing
sulphur
and
oxygen
which
reacted
during
combustion.
The
amount
of
SOx
release
is
directly
linked
to
the
sulphur
content
of
the
fuel
used.
So,
the
quality
of
the
fuel
determines
the
release
of
SOx
in
the
atmosphere.
As
a
global
trend,
while
terrestrial
sulphur
compounds
releases
declined,
the
amount
of
SOx
emitted
by
shipping
increased
from
1970
to
2005,
particularly
before
the
entry
into
force
of
regulations
(Smith
S.J.,
van
Aardenne
J.,
Klimont
Z.,
Anders
R.J.,
Volke
A.
and
Delgado
Arias
S.,
2011).
Particulate
Matter
(PM)
PM
is
made
of
tiny
solid
or
liquid
elements
suspended
in
gases.
They
result
from
imperfect
combustion
processes.
The
type
and
size
of
PM
release
determine
the
effects
on
human
health
and
the
environment.
Despite
the
existence
of
numerous
substances
released
in
the
atmosphere
which
may
impact
the
climate,
the
main
problem
is
CO2
because
of
the
volumes
emitted.
16
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Energy
Efficiency
strategy
The
first
strategy
to
reduce
emissions
without
modifying
socio-‐economics
is
to
enhance
energy
efficiency.
The
concept
of
Energy
Efficiency
refers
to
the
optimization
of
work
by
unit
of
energy
consumed.
In
the
shipping
context,
where
most
emissions
are
linked
to
engine
consumption,
fuel
savings
mathematically
shrink
air
emissions.
Such
a
strategy
possesses
a
clear
validity
in
the
context
of
energy
scarcity
and
air
emission
concern.
In
addition,
it
avoids
radical
changes
in
emission
control
and
therefore
limits
socio-‐economic
disturbance.
Figure
8:
energy
flow
on
board
for
propulsion
(Source
:
Nakasawa,
2012)
The
improvement
of
each
leg
reduces
the
overall
engine
consumption
without
disturbing
the
crew
and
ship
management.
However,
it
was
established
by
the
IMO
that
the
Energy
Efficiency
strategy
must
encompass
all
aspects
influencing
fuel
consumption,
including
design
-‐
hull
and
engine
-‐
and
operation
–
i.e.
onboard
and
ashore
management.
17
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
But
before
reviewing
the
international
response,
some
definitions
of
air
pollution
and
clarification
of
the
main
air
pollutants
present
in
the
atmosphere
are
necessary.
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985
Article
1
2.
“Adverse
effects”
means
changes
in
the
physical
environment
or
biota,
including
changes
in
climate,
which
have
significant
deleterious
effects
on
human
health
or
on
the
composition,
resilience
and
productivity
of
natural
and
managed
ecosystems,
or
on
materials
useful
to
mankind.
In
1992,
the
United
Nation
Framework
Convention
on
Climate
Change
(UNFCCC)
adopted
a
very
similar
definition,
which
in
fact
extended
the
concept
of
air
pollution
to
its
effects
on
global
climate
and
ecosystems
alterations.
18
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
UNFCCC, 1992
Article
1:
1.
"Adverse
effects
of
climate
change"
means
changes
in
the
physical
environment
or
biota
resulting
from
climate
change
which
have
significant
deleterious
effects
on
the
composition,
resilience
or
productivity
of
natural
and
managed
ecosystems
or
on
the
operation
of
socio-‐economic
systems
or
on
human
health
and
welfare.
2.
"Climate
change"
means
a
change
of
climate
which
is
attributed
directly
or
indirectly
to
human
activity
that
alters
the
composition
of
the
global
atmosphere
and
which
is
in
addition
to
natural
climate
variability
observed
over
comparable
time
periods.
Over
a
short
time
period,
the
definition
of
air
pollution
has
progressively
integrated
and
assimilated
the
idea
of
adverse
effects
and
the
global
impacts
of
air
pollution.
The
next
step
is
the
clear
identification
of
the
main
drivers
of
air
pollution.
Such
drivers
are
identified
in
many
UN
documents.
“Quantitatively,
the
three
important
life
cycles,
namely,
the
sulphur
cycle,
the
nitrogen
cycle
and
the
carbon
cycle,
play
a
big
role
in
contributing
to
air
pollutants
and
also
as
sinks
of
excess
of
these
gases.”
(UNEP/UNDP/DUTCH,
1999)
The World Health Organization (WHO) merges definitions and focuses on human health impacts.
“Air
pollution
is
contamination
of
the
indoor
or
outdoor
environment
by
any
chemical,
physical
or
biological
agent
that
modifies
the
natural
characteristics
of
the
atmosphere.
Household
combustion
devices,
motor
vehicles,
industrial
facilities
and
forest
fires
are
common
sources
of
air
pollution.
Pollutants
of
major
public
health
concern
include
particulate
matter,
carbon
monoxide,
ozone,
nitrogen
dioxide
and
sulfur
dioxide.
Outdoor
and
indoor
air
pollution
cause
respiratory
and
other
diseases,
which
can
be
fatal”
(http://www.who.int/topics/air_pollution/en/)
To
summarize,
air
pollution
is
the
contamination
of
the
atmosphere
affecting
human
beings
and
the
environment,
which
ultimately
alters
the
global
climate.
According
to
the
various
definitions
provided
by
UN
bodies,
climate
change
relates
to
air
pollution.
19
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Climate
system
The
climate
is
usually
defined
as
the
average
weather
over
a
long
term
period.
Or
in
a
more
scientifically
accurate
way,
the
World
Meteorological
Organization
defines
climate
as
“the
statistical
description
in
terms
of
the
mean
and
variability
of
relevant
quantities
over
a
period
of
time
ranging
from
months
to
thousands
or
millions
of
years”
(http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/wcp/ccl/faqs.html).
So,
the
climate
differs
from
the
daily
weather
which
is
of
chaotic
nature
and
barely
predictable
on
a
short
time
basis.
The
climate
proposes
an
image
of
the
weather
over
time
inside
which
the
extreme
events
are
obviously
invisible.
However,
the
climate
is
not
only
an
addition
of
average
parameters
dependant
on
daily
observations.
The
climate
is
a
whole
system
which
combines
numerous
interactions
and
retroactions
between
various
complex
subsystems:
the
atmosphere,
oceans,
land,
ice
and
snow,
living
creatures
including
human
beings
and
their
activities
(IPCC,
2007a).
The
dynamics
of
the
earth
climate
are
impacted
by
the
alteration
of
each
of
the
following
system:
• the
atmosphere
-‐
i.e.
gases;
• the
hydrosphere
-‐i.e.
water;
• the
lithosphere
-‐
i.e.
solid
layer
of
the
earth;
• the
cryosphere
-‐
i.e.
frozen
waters;
• the
biosphere
-‐
i.e.
living
things.
These
intertwined
elements
form
and
influence
the
climate
system
which
in
return
influences
them.
A
permanent
retroactive
feedback
connects
the
whole
and
the
parts
of
the
climate
system
(Berkes
F.,
Colding
J.
&
Folke
C.Berkes,
2003).
In
such
a
complex
and
dynamic
system
of
interactions,
there
is
no
permanent
stability.
This
global
pattern
possesses
day-‐by-‐day
effects
on
the
weather
which
affects
human
beings
and
their
activities.
20
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
9:
schematic
view
of
the
components
of
the
climate
system,
their
processes
and
interactions
(Source:
IPCC,
2007b)
In
such
complex
system
interactions,
the
alteration
of
the
system
affects
the
whole
set
pattern.
The
modification
of
the
atmospheric
properties
affects
the
other
systems
which
by
retroaction
influence
again
the
atmosphere.
As
an
example,
global
warming
increases
ice
melting
which
retroactively
increases
the
warming
effect
by
reducing
the
reflection
of
sun
radiation,
which
is
called
albedo.
21
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
10:
an
idealised
model
of
the
natural
greenhouse
effect
(Source
:
IPCC,
2007)
The
present
GHG
effect
results
from
the
interaction
of
various
mechanisms
affecting
the
incoming
and
outgoing
energy
from
the
sun.
Some
components
contained
in
the
air
enhance
the
warming
effect
while
others
diminish
it.
The
balance
of
both
influences
establishes
a
living
environment
on
earth
beneficial
to
human
beings
and
their
activities.
Presently,
anthropogenic
air
emissions
perturb
the
long-‐term
established
atmospheric
pseudo-‐
equilibrium
and
the
mechanisms
which
increase
the
warming
effect
on
the
climate
tend
to
overwhelm
the
others.
The
paleoclimatologists
consider
that
“there
is
no
indication
in
the
ice
core
record
that
an
increase
comparable
in
magnitude
and
rate
to
the
industrial
era
has
occurred
in
the
past
650
kyr
“
(IPCC,
2007a).
With
the
rise
in
anthropogenic
sources
of
GHG
and
the
perturbation
of
natural
sinks
–
e.g.
forests,
the
amount
of
GHG
present
in
the
atmosphere
increases
and,
therefore,
amplify
the
GHG
effect
and
the
warming
of
the
planet.
The
modification
of
the
gases
distribution
in
the
air
is
now
considered
to
be
the
result
of
human
activities.
“Global
atmospheric
concentrations
of
carbon
dioxide,
methane
and
nitrous
oxide
have
increased
markedly
as
a
result
of
human
activities
since
1750
and
now
far
exceed
pre-‐industrial
values
determined
from
ice
cores
spanning
many
thousands
of
years
(see
Figure
SPM.1).
The
global
increases
in
carbon
dioxide
concentration
are
due
primarily
to
fossil
fuel
use
and
land
use
change,
while
those
of
methane
and
nitrous
oxide
are
primarily
due
to
agriculture.”
(IPCC,
2007c).
22
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
11:
evolution
of
atmospheric
concentration
of
main
GHG
(Source:
IPCC,
2007a)
The
impact
of
the
industrial
era
on
the
GHG
amount
in
the
air
results
in
an
increment
of
around
25%
for
CO2,
120%
for
CH4
and
9%
for
N2O
(IPCC,
2007b).
Because
these
gases
have
an
impact
of
the
overall
energy
distribution
on
the
earth
and
the
climate
system,
the
modification
of
their
concentration
may
jeopardize
the
present
balance
of
the
climate
and
earth
system.
The
main
heat-‐trapping
gases
are:
Carbon
dioxide
The
IPCC
believes
that
CO2influences
the
most
global
warming
(IPCC,
2001)
because
of
the
quantities
released
and
its
lifetime
in
the
atmosphere.
However,
as
a
natural
compound,
CO2
belongs
to
a
large
carbon
circulation
between
land,
atmosphere
and
oceans
in
which
carbon
sources
(release)
and
carbon
sinks
(capture)
coexist.
The
main
sources
of
human-‐related
CO2
emissions
are
fossil
fuels
burnt
for
electricity
generation,
transportation,
industrial
and
household
uses,
cement
manufacturing
by-‐product,
and
deforestation.
“Globally,
over
the
past
several
decades,
about
80
percent
of
human-‐induced
carbon
dioxide
emissions
came
from
the
burning
of
fossil
fuels,
while
about
20
percent
resulted
from
deforestation
and
associated
agricultural
practices.
The
concentration
of
carbon
dioxide
in
the
atmosphere
has
increased
by
roughly
35
percent
since
the
start
of
the
industrial
revolution.”
(Karl
Thomas
R.,
Melillo
Jerry
M.,
and
Peterson
Thomas
C.,
2009)
23
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
hydrocarbon
used
released
fossil
carbon
in
the
atmosphere
which
was
captured
in
the
bowels
of
the
earth.
This
carbon
supplemented
the
existing
carbon
cycle
and
increased
the
CO2
present
in
the
air.
In
addition,
deforestation,
land-‐use
change
and
soil
degradation
are
affected
by
human
activities
which
reduce
their
abilities
to
capture
carbon
as
sinks.
Moreover,
there
are
serious
uncertainties
in
the
capacity
of
the
ocean
to
retain
increasing
amounts
of
CO2.
Figure
12:
major
carbon
pools
and
fluxes
of
the
global
carbon
balance
(Source
:
FAO
:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5738e/y5738e05.htm)
Methane
Main
sources
of
human-‐related
CH4
emissions
are
agriculture
and
livestock,
mining,
transportation,
use
of
certain
fossil
fuels,
sewage,
and
decomposing
garbage
in
landfills.
CH4
quantities
in
the
air
are
far
less
than
CO2
but
its
warming
capacity
is
very
high
despite
its
short
lifetime.
Nitrous
oxide
Industrial
farming
use
large
quantities
of
fertilizers
and
accounts
for
the
majority
of
the
nitrous
oxide
release.
The
second
source
is
the
combustion
of
the
fossil
fuels.
Halocarbons
These
manufactured
compounds
are
extensively
used
as
refrigerant
but
may
be
found
in
other
industrial
processes.
Despite
their
scarcity
in
the
air,
their
radiative
forcing
effect
is
important
and
they
may
remain
active
very
long
time:
“therefore,
these
compounds,
even
with
relatively
small
emissions,
have
the
potential
to
influence
climate
far
into
the
future.
Perfluoromethane
(CF4)
resides
in
the
atmosphere
24
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
for
at
least
50,000
years.”(IPCC,
2001)
Their
quantities
seem
to
have
peaked
in
1994,
and
are
now
declining
slowly.
The
regulations
on
ozone
depleting
substances
(ODS)
contribute
to
this
decline.
Other
gases
Among
numerous
others,
ozone
or
water
vapour
have
GHG
properties.
In
addition,
particulate
matter
emitted
in
the
atmosphere
may
have
varying
properties
and
“depending
on
their
type,
aerosols
can
either
mask
or
increase
the
warming
caused
by
increased
levels
of
greenhouse
gases.”
(Karl
T.L.
et.
al.,
2009)
Pollution
knows
no
frontiers
and
spreads
throughout
the
world.
26
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
In
1982,
the
Third
United
Nations
Conference
on
the
Law
of
the
Sea
integrated
some
of
the
UNCHE
principles
into
the
United
Nations
Convention
on
the
Law
of
the
Sea
(UNCLOS),
particularly
in
Part
XII
(provisions
on
prevention
of
pollution
of
the
marine
environment).
In
1992,
the
Earth
Summit
held
in
Rio
prompted
important
trends
through
the
adoption
of
the
Rio
Declaration
on
Environment
and
Development,
which
sets
27
principles.
In
addition,
several
instruments
were
adopted.
In
parallel
to
the
development
and
promotion
of
international
environmental
principles,
the
first
legally
binding
instrument
to
address
air
pollution
was
adopted
in
1979
under
the
auspices
of
the
United
Nations
Economic
Commission
for
Europe
(UNECE).
The
1979
Convention
on
Long
Range
Transboundary
Air
Pollution
(LRTAP)
entered
into
force
in
1983.
Another
event
marked
the
year
1979.
In
February,
the
First
World
Climate
Conference
was
organized
by
the
World
Meteorological
Organization
(WMO)
as
a
major
scientific
meeting.
The
international
gathering
made
an
appeal
to
Nations:
“the
Conference
finds
that
it
is
now
urgently
necessary
for
the
nations
of
the
world:
[…]
(c)
to
foresee
and
prevent
potential
man-‐made
changes
in
climate
that
might
be
adverse
to
the
well-‐being
of
humanity”
and
recalled
the
importance
of
acting
internationally
for
the
climate:
“The
climates
of
the
countries
of
the
world
are
interdependent.
For
this
reason
and
in
view
of
the
increasing
demand
for
resources
by
the
growing
world
population
that
strives
for
improved
living
conditions,
there
is
an
urgent
need
for
the
development
of
a
common
global
strategy
for
a
greater
understanding
and
a
rational
use
of
climate.
[…]
There
is
serious
concern
that
the
continued
expansion
of
man’s
activities
on
earth
may
cause
significant
extended
regional
and
even
global
changes
of
climate.
This
possibility
adds
further
urgency
to
the
need
for
global
co-‐operation
to
explore
the
possible
future
course
of
global
climate
and
to
take
this
new
understanding
into
account
in
planning
for
the
future
development
of
human
society.”
(The
Declaration
of
the
World
Climate
Conference,
1979).
A
concern
grew
about
anthropogenic
changes
in
climate,
the
development
of
binding
regulations
to
address
the
issue
of
air
pollutants
seriously
commenced
in
1979.
In
the
early
1980s
the
global
consequences
of
air
emissions
came
onto
the
scene
through
the
issue
of
ozone
holes
above
poles.
This
global
threat
was
addressed
directly
at
the
international
level.
Adopted
in
1985,
the
Vienna
Convention
for
the
Protection
of
the
Ozone
Layer
is
a
framework
Convention
aimed
to
address
the
issue
of
the
ozone
depletion.
The
adoption
of
the
Montreal
Protocol
on
Substances
that
Deplete
the
Ozone
Layer
in
1987
enabled
binding
implementation
of
the
Convention’s
provisions.
These
instruments
are
considered
the
first
action
towards
the
control
of
substances
impairing
global
atmosphere
balance.
The
Protocol
banned
man-‐made
compounds
known
as
stratospheric
ozone
depleting
substances
(ODS).
These
substances
increase
ultraviolet
radiation
at
Earth’s
surface
by
damaging
the
ozone
layer.
Additionally,
ODSs
were
known
to
have
a
warming
effect
by
allowing
ultraviolet
radiation
from
the
sun
to
penetrate
without
mitigation.
This
was
accomplished
through
the
“ozone
hole”
discovered
above
polar
regions.
The
Montreal
Protocol
has
had
lasting
impact
in
both
protecting
the
ozone
layer
and
reducing
climate
change.
“Since
most
ODSs
are
also
potent
greenhouse
gases,
actions
under
the
Montreal
Protocol
have
had
the
very
positive
side
effect
of
substantially
reducing
a
main
source
of
global
warming.”
(UNEP,
2011).
Despite
the
decline
of
ODSs
as
a
consequence
of
the
regulation
enforcement,
the
ozone
layer
remains
affected
because
these
substances
remain
in
the
atmosphere
long
after
emission.
27
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Efforts
during
the
1970s
and
1980
produced
multiple
international
regulatory
instruments
to
protect
air
quality.
These
instruments
aimed
to
control
identified
substances
but
did
not
intend
to
holistically
address
the
issue
of
climate
change.
In
parallel
to
the
creation
of
such
instruments,
several
international
conferences
were
organized
but
no
internationally
binding
instrument
was
adopted.
Figure
13:
Graphical
representation
of
the
principle
of
Sustainable
Development.
Logo
developed
for
the
United
Nations
Conference
on
Sustainable
Development
(Rio+20)
In
such
context
promoting
sustainable
development,
the
objectives
(UN,
2010)
of
RIO+20
event
were
to:
• Secure
renewed
political
commitment
for
sustainable
development
• Assess
the
progress
to
date
and
the
remaining
gaps
in
the
implementation
of
the
outcomes
of
the
major
summits
on
sustainable
development
28
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
29
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
United
Nations
Framework
Convention
on
Climate
Change
(UNFCCC)
After
two
years
of
intensive
negotiations
through
the
Intergovernmental
Negotiating
Committee
on
Climate
Change,
during
the
early
1992,
the
United
Nations
Framework
Convention
on
Climate
Change
(UNFCCC)
was
adopted
and
opened
for
signature
a
few
months
later
during
the
Rio
Summit.
The
UNFCCC
entered
into
force
in
March
1994.
This
Convention
was
drafted
in
accordance
with
the
format
designed
for
the
Vienna
Convention
for
the
Protection
of
the
Ozone
Layer.
The
UNFCCC
is
another
framework
Convention
which
focuses
on
promoting
cooperation
by
means
of
systematic
observations,
research
and
information
exchange
on
the
effects
of
human
activities
on
climate,
and
adopting
legislative
or
administrative
measures
against
activities
likely
to
have
adverse
effects.
This
instrument
does
not
set
precise
objectives.
This
is
the
reason
why
such
a
framework
Convention
is
followed
by
Protocols
detailing
obligations
and
that
may
affect
the
Convention.
The
UNFCCC
was
adopted
on
the
following
grounds:
• Climate
change
is
a
common
concern
of
humankind
requiring
a
global
response;
• Human
activities
increase
GHG
emissions;
• Historically,
developed
countries
played
the
first
role
in
GHG
release
and
should
act
immediately;
• Developing
countries
have
a
high
degree
of
reliance
on
fossil
fuels
and
may
have
difficulties
addressing
GHG
issues.
In
addition,
sustainable
social
and
economic
development
may
need
additional
energy
consumption;
• Predictions
have
to
deal
with
numerous
uncertainties;
• States
have
the
responsibility
to
make
sure
the
activities
under
their
jurisdiction
do
not
harm
other
areas
(UNCHE,
1972
-‐
Principle
21);
and
• The
protection
of
the
climate
must
encompass
the
environmental,
social
and
economic
impacts
of
the
measures
taken
and
be
science-‐based.
The
objective
of
the
Convention
(Art.2)
is
to
prevent
Climate
System
alteration
by
stabilizing
GHG
to
a
harmless
level
in
order
to
avoid
ecosystem
disruption
and
economic
disturbance.
Among
the
guiding
principles
(Art.3)
set
in
the
UNFCCC,
the
following
should
be
mentioned:
• The
UNFCCC
introduces
the
notion
of
“common
but
differentiated
responsibilities
and
respective
capabilities.”
Two
elements
form
this
notion
-‐
the
common
responsibility
of
States
to
participate
in
the
protection
and
preservation
of
the
environment;
and
the
differentiate
responsibility
-‐
linked
the
available
capacity
and
historical
contribution
to
the
evolution
of
a
particular
problem.
Consequently,
the
Convention
defines
obligations
for
all
Parties
and
specific
requirements
for
developed
countries
which
are
listed
in
the
Annex
I
&
II.
• The
precautionary
principle
is
highlighted
by
recalling
that
the
lack
of
scientific
data
should
not
inhibit
action.
• Sustainable
development
remains
a
guiding
principle.
• The
open
international
economic
system
should
be
promoted
and
measures
implemented
to
combat
climate
change
should
not
justify
restrictions
on
international
trade.
Despite
these
declarations,
the
commitment
does
not
require
imperative
GHG
release
reduction.
30
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
requirements
imposed
on
States
are
limited
to
commitments
(Art.4)
and
communication
regarding
implementation
(Art.12).
In
short,
all
Parties
have
to:
• Develop
and
communicate
to
the
Conference
of
Parties
a
“national
inventory
of
anthropogenic
emissions
by
sources
and
removals
by
sinks”.
• Commit
to
develop
and
communicate
the
measures
related
to
GHG
control.
• Promote
“technology
transfer
and
the
sustainable
management,
conservation,
and
enhancement
of
greenhouse
gas
sinks
and
reservoirs
(such
as
forests
and
oceans).”
(UNEP/UNFCCC,
2002)
• Consider
climate
change
in
social,
economic
and
environmental
policy
development.
• Cooperate
in
sciences,
techniques
and
education
as
well
as
exchange
information
related
to
climate
change
• Promote
public
awareness
and
education.
Following
the
“common
but
differentiate
principle,”
the
developed
countries
have
to
commit
to
additional
requirements:
• They
must
play
a
leading
role
and
demonstrate
their
commitment
by
developing
measures
and
creating
adequate
strategy
to
reduce
GHG
emission.
• Their
policies
should
aim
at
returning
to
their
1990’s
GHG
emission
level.
• Several
countries
may
join
to
pursue
a
common
target.
• The
countries
in
transition
to
market
economy
benefit
from
certain
flexibility
in
the
implementation.
• The
richest
nations
shall
provide
additional
funding
and
facilitate
technology
transfer.
The
UNFCCC
“supreme
body”
is
the
Conference
of
the
Parties
(COP)
which
meets
every
year.
The
COP
is
a
large
forum
of
information
exchange
beneficial
for
all
participants.
The
COP
plays
an
important
role
in
promoting,
reviewing
and
supporting
the
Convention
and
its
members
needing
support
to
implement
regulations.
In
addition
to
the
normal
discussion,
the
COP
may
develop
and
adopt
a
protocol,
like
in
1997
during
the
3rd
COP
in
Kyoto.
31
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• joint
implementation;
• clean
development;
and
• emission
trading.
These
mechanisms
were
designed
to
limit
the
cost
of
measures
by
permitting
the
investment
in
other
countries
(both
Annex
I
and
non-‐Annex
I)
in
which
emission
reduction
can
be
achieved
at
cheaper
costs.
However,
such
offset
strategies
of
emission
reduction
must
supplement
domestic
actions
and
not
being
the
main
objective
of
the
country.
Conclusion
Added
to
natural
emissions,
the
non-‐natural
releases
of
pollutants
find
their
sources
in
the
social
world.
The
amounts
and
types
of
human-‐made
emissions
depend
on
the
population
size
and
their
related
activities.
In
this
respect,
the
industrialization
process
of
the
world
seriously
modified
the
human-‐made
emissions
in
terms
of
quantity
and
quality.
Since
then,
air
emissions
released
in
the
atmosphere
accumulate
and
modify
atmosphere
properties
which
in
return
may
endanger
human
beings
and
their
societies.
As
this
gives
cause
for
concern,
the
international
community
tries
to
limit
alteration
processes
by
adopting
regulations.
Climate
change
affects
or
will
affect
all
activities
and
locations
around
the
world.
Therefore,
all
sectors
engage
actions
and
the
shipping
activity
participate
in
GHG
reduction.
Human
societies
are
presently
facing
a
singular
era
of
risks
in
which
contrivances
are
under
construction.
32
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Both
set
comprehensive
regulatory
regimes
to
be
enforced
by
States.
UNCLOS
As
previously
mentioned,
UNCLOS
possesses
extensive
references
to
the
protection
of
the
environment.
In
its
Preamble,
UNCLOS
recalls
the
importance
of
“promot[ing]
the
peaceful
uses
of
the
seas
and
oceans,
the
equitable
and
efficient
utilization
of
their
resources,
the
conservation
of
their
living
resources,
and
the
study,
protection
and
preservation
of
the
marine
environment.”
In
addition
to
this
statement,
a
complete
part
of
the
text
is
dedicated
to
the
protection
of
the
environment.
Part
XII
reflects
the
main
objectives
of
the
UN
in
terms
of
environmental
protection
which
occurred
in
parallel
to
the
extensive
negotiations
to
adopt
UNCLOS.
The
most
significant
articles
demonstrating
the
importance
of
State
responsibility
to
protect
the
environment
are
presented
in
the
boxes
below.
Art.192:
“General
obligation
States
have
the
obligation
to
protect
and
preserve
the
marine
environment”
Art.194:
“Measures
to
prevent,
reduce
and
control
pollution
of
the
marine
environment
2.
States
shall
take
all
measures
necessary
to
ensure
that
activities
under
their
jurisdiction
or
control
are
so
conducted
as
not
to
cause
damage
by
pollution
to
other
States
and
their
environment,
and
that
pollution
arising
from
incidents
or
activities
under
their
jurisdiction
or
control
does
not
spread
beyond
the
areas
where
they
exercise
sovereign
rights
in
accordance
with
this
Convention.”
Art.
195:“Duty
not
to
transfer
damage
or
hazards
or
transform
one
type
of
pollution
into
another
In
taking
measures
to
prevent,
reduce
and
control
pollution
of
the
marine
environment,
States
shall
act
so
as
not
to
transfer,
directly
or
indirectly,
damage
or
hazards
from
one
area
to
another
or
transform
one
type
of
pollution
into
another.”
Art.197:
“Cooperation
on
a
global
or
regional
basis
States
shall
cooperate
on
a
global
basis,
an
as
appropriate,
on
a
regional
basis,
directly
or
through
competent
international
organizations,
in
formulating
and
elaborating
international
rules,
standards
and
recommended
practices
and
procedures
consistent
with
this
Convention,
for
the
protection
and
preservation
of
the
marine
environment,
taking
into
account
characteristic
regional
features.”
Art.204:
“Monitoring
of
the
risks
or
effects
of
pollution
1.
States
shall,
consistent
with
the
rights
of
other
States,
endeavour,
as
far
as
practicable,
directly
or
through
the
competent
international
organizations,
to
observe,
measure,
evaluate
and
analyse,
by
recognized
scientific
methods,
the
risks
or
effects
of
pollution
of
the
marine
environment.
2.
In
particular,
States
shall
keep
under
surveillance
the
effects
of
any
activities
which
they
permit
or
in
which
they
engage
in
order
to
determine
whether
these
activities
are
likely
to
pollute
the
marine
environment.”
Art.212:
“Pollution
from
and
through
the
atmosphere
1.
States
shall
adopt
laws
and
regulations
to
prevent,
reduce
and
control
pollution
of
the
marine
environment
from
or
through
the
atmosphere,
applicable
to
the
air
space
under
their
sovereignty
and
to
the
vessels
flying
their
flag
or
vessels
or
aircraft
of
their
registry,
taking
into
account
internationally
agreed
rules,
standards
and
recommended
practices
and
procedures
and
the
safety
of
air
navigation.
2.
States
shall
take
other
measures
as
may
be
necessary
to
prevent,
reduce
and
control
such
pollution
3.
States,
acting
especially
through
competent
international
organizations
or
diplomatic
conference,
shall
endeavour
to
establish
global
and
regional
rules,
standards
and
recommended
practices
and
procedures
to
prevent,
reduce
and
control
such
pollution.”
33
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
In
addition,
various
articles
deal
with
the
enforcement
mechanisms
by
Flag
State
(Art.217),
Port
State
(Art.218)
and
Coastal
State
(Art.220).
In
short,
the
UNCLOS
recalls:
• State
duty
to
protect
the
environment
and
responsibility
not
to
harm
others;
• The
measures
developed
should
not
transfer
the
damage
or
risks;
• The
global
and
regional
cooperation
are
paramount
in
environmental
protection;
• The
risks
and
effects
of
pollution
must
be
assessed
scientifically;
• The
air
pollution
is
an
established
concern;
• Compliance
Monitoring
and
Enforcement
systems
have
to
be
developed
to
verify
the
compliance
of
the
activities.
UNCLOS
demonstrates
the
importance
of
protecting
the
environment
and
developing
proper
enforcement
mechanisms
which
can
be
materialized
through
certification
and
inspection
regimes.
ASSEMBLY
COUNCIL
The
aims
of
the
Organization
are
summarized
in
the
article
1
of
its
constitutive
Convention:
“
(a)
To
provide
machinery
for
co-‐operation
among
Governments
in
the
field
of
governmental
regulation
and
practices
relating
to
technical
matters
of
all
kinds
affecting
shipping
engaged
in
international
trade;
to
encourage
and
facilitate
the
34
general
adoption
of
the
highest
practicable
standards
in
matters
concerning
the
maritime
safety,
efficiency
of
navigation
and
prevention
and
control
of
marine
pollution
from
ships;
and
to
deal
with
administrative
and
legal
matters
related
to
the
purposes
set
out
in
this
Article;
(b)
To
encourage
the
removal
of
discriminatory
action
and
unnecessary
restrictions
by
Governments
affecting
shipping
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
For
environmental
purposes,
the
IMO
has
to
support
the
enforcement
of
highest
practical
standards
as
well
as
maintain
a
close
link
with
other
UN
bodies
on
such
matters.
The
IMO
provides
governing
tools
and
policies
but
the
implementation
and
enforcement
of
IMO
tools
falls
in
the
hand
of
the
governments.
“The
IMO’s
role
is
thus
primarily
to
adopt
legislation,
while
enforcement
lies
with
the
Contracting
Governments
(the
flag
States)”
(IMO,
2009).
The
Maritime
Environment
Protection
Committee
(MEPC)
is
the
IMO
committee
in
charge
of
addressing
environmental
issues
for
the
IMO.
This
committee
is
supported
by
sub-‐committees
sometimes
shared
with
the
Maritime
Safety
Committee.
The
Committees
are
supported
by
the
Secretariat.
The
MEPC
may
issue
circulars
and
resolutions
as
well
as
draft
resolutions
to
be
adopted
by
the
Assembly.
The
MEPC
meets
twice
a
year.
During
MEPC
sessions,
various
Working
Groups
may
be
established
to
address
particular
issues.
All
States
represented
at
the
IMO
may
participate
to
discuss
the
issues
related
to
pollution
prevention
and
control.
The
Marine
Environment
Division
(MED)
supports
the
MEPC
and
deals
on
a
daily
basis
with
the
pollution
issues
and
therefore
with
the
air
emissions
issues.
The
MED
supports
national
implementation
and
enforcement
of
IMO
instruments.
35
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Today,
IMO
regulations
cover
the
whole
ship
pollution
risks
as
presented
below.
The
risk
of
pollution
related
to
the
dumping
is
addressed
through
the
London
Convention.
MARINE POLLUTION
Discharge of various types of
wastes, oil, chemical substances MARPOL Annex
I-Oil / II- Noxious subs. in bulk / III-
Harmful subs. in package / IV- Sewage /
AIR EMISSIONS / GLOBAL V- Garbage / VI- Air
WARMING SUBSTANCES
ODS, SOx, NOx, VOCs, GHG
Anti-fouling SystemsConvention
DAMAGE TO ECOSYSTEMS
Harmful paints and coatings, alien
species carried by ballast water &
biofouling Ballast Water Management
Convention
Figure
15:
IMO
Conventions
relating
to
the
prevention
of
marine
pollution
associated
with
ship
operations
The
latest
Conventions
adopted
but
not
yet
entered
into
force
are
the
International
Convention
for
the
Control
and
Management
of
Ships’
Ballast
Water
and
Sediments,
2004,
and
the
Hong
Kong
International
Convention
for
the
Safe
and
Environmentally
Sound
Recycling
of
Ships,
2009.
The
1973
International
Convention
for
the
Prevention
of
Pollution
from
Ships
(MARPOL)
integrates
the
issue
of
air
pollution
by
ships
in
its
Annex
VI.
The
IMO
and
its
member
States
recognize
the
importance
of
environmental
protection
which
became
over
the
years
a
major
item
of
concern
for
the
Organization.
During
his
MEPC
63
speech
on
27
February
2012,
Secretary
General
Sekimizu
stated:
“[…]
I
see
the
promotion
of
sustainable
shipping
and
sustainable
maritime
development
as
one
of
the
major
priorities
of
my
tenure.
[…]
Rio+20
is
an
opportunity
to
launch
a
vision
for
sustainable
maritime
development
that
will
underpin
future
maritime
developments
within
a
green
economy
in
which
IMO
should
play
a
major
and
significant
role.”
In
addition,
the
IMO
shows
a
strong
willingness
to
address
the
issue
of
climate
change
by
promoting
innovative
regulations
in
the
framework
of
the
UN
discussion
on
GHG
emissions.
This
disposition
has
been
demonstrated
through
the
adoption
of
various
instruments
during
MEPC
62
and
the
intensive
discussions
on
the
implementation
of
market-‐based
measures.
“IMO
will
continue
to
make
its
contribution
to
global
efforts
to
reduce
greenhouse
gas
emissions
within
the
context
of
the
ongoing
UN-‐wide
debate
on
climate
change.
We
will
continue
to
co-‐operate
closely
with
the
United
Nations
Framework
Convention
on
Climate
Change
and
with
other
relevant
UN
bodies,
as
appropriate.
Also
in
this
context,
IMO
will
evaluate
the
implications
for
shipping
of
any
mechanism
to
be
36
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
established
for
the
envisaged
Green
Climate
Fund
and
impress
upon
the
UNFCCC
that
any
contributions
must
be
proportionate
to
shipping’s
contribution
to
the
global
emission
of
greenhouse
gases.
While
participating
in
the
Climate
Change
debate
at
the
UN,
IMO
will
proceed
in
parallel
with
its
own
programme
of
work.
In
this
respect,
it
is
encouraging
that
last
December’s
Durban
Conference
on
climate
change
welcomed
the
progress
made
by
IMO.
“(IMO
SG
Mr.
Sekimizu
speech,
27
February
2012)
These
regulations
belong
to
the
IMO
plan
to
proceed
beyond
RIO+20.
In
order
to
fulfill
this
mission,
a
task
force
was
established
with
aim
to
work
on
eight
pillars
identified
by
the
Organization:
Figure
16:
linkage
between
world
trade,
shipping,
GDP
and
OECD
Industrial
Production
(Source
:
UNCTAD,
2011)
While
shipping,
in
comparison
to
other
transport
modes,
was
considered
environmentally-‐friendly,
the
large
development
of
seaborne
trade
and
its
externalities
modified
this
perception.
37
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
growth
of
transportation
by
ships
increased
the
energy
consumed
by
shipping
and,
in
spite
of
the
improvement
in
the
energy
efficiency
of
ship
engines,
the
global
shipping
emissions
amplified
mathematically.
This
traffic
and
volume
growth
increment
also
affected
air
quality
in
port
areas.
Therefore,
ship
emission
could
not
be
disregarded.
Thus,
after
the
adoption
of
Kyoto
Protocol,
shipping
could
not
stay
away
from
the
trend
towards
GHG
reduction.
In
1997,
the
IMO
launched
its
first
study
on
GHG
in
shipping
in
order
to
assess
the
extent
of
the
issue
and
to
determine
the
best
options
supported
by
rigorous
scientific
approach.
38
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Before
making
the
inventory
of
the
GHG
emission
by
shipping,
the
chapter
began
with
few
introductory
comments
on
the
scope
and
uncertainties.
The
scope
of
the
emission
included
in
the
inventory
copes
with
the
UNFCCC
guidance.
“In
line
with
the
above-‐mentioned
guidelines
for
creating
an
inventory
of
emissions,
the
following
pollutants
were
considered
for
exhausts:
NOx,
SO2,
PM,
CO,
CO2,
N2O,
CH4
and
NMVOC.”(IMO,
2009)
Several
remarks
detailing
the
limits
of
the
inventory
are
established.
The
same
restrictions
and
uncertainties
on
quantities
released
in
the
air
were
detailed
as
in
the
previous
study.
Each
limit
of
each
emission
source
is
addressed:
• Exhaust
gases
uncertainties
are
the
same
as
those
released
in
the
previous
study
and
is
estimated
to
be
around
+/-‐
20%.
• Emission
of
ODS
are
detailed
by
sources:
refrigerants,
reefer
ships
&
reefer
containers;
calculation
limits
are
presented.
• Limits
and
uncertainties
in
estimating
the
release
of
Methane
(CH4)
and
Non-‐Methane
Volatile
Organic
Compound
(NMVOC)
are
presented.
• Sulfur
hexafluoride
(SF6)
and
Fluorocarbon
(PFCs)
on
board
ship
are
not
emitted
to
any
sufficient
degree
to
be
considered
as
significant
issues.
Despite
all
these
limitations,
the
inventory
was
established
and,
among
the
GHG
released
by
shipping
activity,
shows
an
overwhelming
domination
of
CO2.
Therefore,
CO2
is
established
as
the
main
GHG
concern
for
shipping.
Figure
17:
Summary
of
GHG
emissions
from
shipping
during
2007
(Source
:
IMO,
2009b)
In
addition,
the
data
presented
highlights
that
the
emissions
of
GHG
nearly
doubled
during
the
period
concerned
by
the
study
(1990-‐2007).
NOx
SOx
PM
CO
NMVOC
CO2
CH4
N2O
Increase
from
1990
to
78,6%
89,9%
80,0%
92,3%
100,0%
86,8%
100,0%
200,0%
2007
Figure
18:
Increase
of
exhaust
emissions
from
total
shipping
1990-‐2007
(adapted
from
source:
IMO,
2009b)
Chapter
4:
Reduction
in
emissions
achieved
by
implementation
of
MARPOL
Annex
VI
39
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
This
chapter
assesses
the
effectiveness
of
present
regulations
to
reduce
emissions.
The
increase
of
seaborne
trade
induces
an
increase
in
absolute
volumes
of
emission.
Therefore,
the
calculations
consider
the
emission
reduction
according
to
two
scenarios:
no-‐regulation
hypothesis
and
MARPOL
Annex
VI
regulation.
Regulation
12
–
Ozone-‐depleting
substances.
The
MARPOL
Annex
VI
plus
the
Montreal
Protocol
demonstrate
a
serious
efficiency
in
emission
reduction.
Figure
19:
Reduction
in
estimated
annual
emissions
(tonnes)
of
refrigerants
from
ships
(Source:
IMO,
2009b)
Regulation
13
–
Nitrogen
Oxides
(NOx).To
address
this
element,
typical
emission
levels
before
and
after
2000
have
to
be
assessed
because
NOx
emission
depends
on
engine
type,
conditions
and
settings
but
also
on
fuel
quality.
These
numerous
factors
make
the
evaluation
complicated.
However,
it
seems
that
the
reduction
achieved
with
the
new
regulation
is
about
7%.
Regulation
14
–
SOx.
The
SOx
emitted
is
directly
correlated
with
the
sulfur
content
of
the
fuel
burned.
Therefore,
the
limitation
of
sulfur
to
4.5%
(now
3.5%)
in
fuels
has
a
small
impact
of
the
emission
because
even
before
the
enforcement
of
the
rule,
the
fuel
oil
rarely
contained
more.
So,
in
order
to
demonstrate
the
impact
of
stringent
regulation
on
such
emissions,
the
SOx
Emission
Control
Area
were
analysed
and
compared
to
the
total.
Figure
20:
estimated
emissions
(million
tonnes)
of
SO2
(2008)
(Source:
IMO,
2009b)
Regulation
15
–
Volatile
Organic
Compounds
(VOCs).
The
regulation
addressing
the
issue
seemed
to
have
been
properly
implemented
on
tankers
but
not
on
shore
terminals.
The
analysis
of
NOx,
SOx&
VOCs
demonstrates
the
effectiveness
of
the
regulations
to
reduce
the
rate
of
emission
of
these
pollutants.
Chapter
5:
Technological
and
operational
potential
for
reduction
of
emissions
This
chapter
is
the
most
relevant
for
the
training
package
because
it
proposes
undertaking
several
solutions
in
order
to
build
a
comprehensive
emission
reduction
policy.
Four
solutions
are
investigated:
• Improving
energy
efficiency
–
the
main
aim
of
the
present
training
package.
• Using
renewable
energy
sources.
40
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• Using
fuels
with
less
total
fuel-‐cycle
emission
per
unit
of
work
done.
• Using
emission
reduction
technologies.
Improving
energy
efficiency
remains
the
main
and
easiest
target
to
reduce
GHG
but
requires
studying
two
domains:
design
and
operation.
The
following
table
highlights
the
main
ideas
to
improve
energy
efficiency
in
shipping
and
their
probable
impact
on
CO2
emission
reduction.
Figure
21:
Assessment
of
potential
reductions
of
CO2
emissions
from
shipping
by
using
known
technology
(Source:
IMO,
2009b)
The
IMO
promotes
Energy
efficiency
policies
through
the
creation
of
the
Energy
Efficient
Design
Index
(EEDI)
and
the
Ship
Energy
Efficiency
Management
Plan
(SEEMP).
These
two
elements
are
inside
MARPOL
Annex
VI.
Two
other
ideas
emerge
from
Chapter
5:
renewal
energy
on
board
can
be
used
as
additional
power
and
LNG
represents
a
serious
alternative
to
achieve
NOx,
PM
and
SOx
requirements.
Finally,
the
chapter
recalls
the
inherent
difficulties
to
accept
changes
of
practices.
Chapter
9:
Comparison
of
emissions
of
CO2
from
ships
with
emissions
from
other
modes
of
transport
This
part
of
the
study
investigates
the
emission
efficiency
of
various
transportation
means.
The
unit
serving
to
calculate
and
compare
the
modes
of
transport
for
a
given
period
relates
CO2
emitted
and
tonne*kilometers.
41
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
22:
CO2
emission
efficiency
calculation
(Source
:
IMO,
2009b)
Despite
large
variations
and
uncertainties
in
the
emission
assessments,
ranges
of
efficiencies
are
determined
for
sea,
air,
road
and
rail.
The
benchmarking
of
sectors
highlights
the
relatively
higher
efficiency
of
sea
transport
modes.
The
historic
trend
toward
efficiency
is
established
and
shows
that
the
growing
size
enhances
their
efficiency.
In
addition,
the
share
of
shipping
emissions
is
presented
in
relation
with
the
total
emissions.
42
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Policy approaches
Market-‐based
Command
and
control
policy
focus
instrument
focus
on
on
Ships
and
management
Global
objective
Figure
25:
IMO
policy
approaches
of
the
GHG
emission
reduction
43
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Equipment
related
emissions
(ODS
-‐
Engine
related
refrigerants
&
fire
emissions
(NOx,
SOx,
Cargo
related
emissions
extinguishing
systems)
GHG)&
incineration
(VOCs
on
tankers)
Since
the
MEPC
62,
the
MARPOL
Annex
VI
includes
4
chapters.
Chapter
1
–
General:
introduces
some
of
the
basics
of
the
Convention
as
well
as
certain
useful
definitions.
44
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Chapter
2
–
Survey,
certification
and
means
of
control:
describe
the
Survey
requirements,
certification
system
and
control
principles
including
Port
State
Control
issues
and
violation
detection
and
enforcement.
Chapter
3
–
Requirement
for
control
of
emissions
from
ships:
this
chapter
details
the
measures
to
address
various
air
pollutants
and
important
related
issues
as
bunker
management
and
incinerator.
Chapter
4
–
Regulation
on
energy
efficiency
for
ships:
the
purpose
of
the
chapter
is
to
regulate
some
operational
and
design
aspects.
Some
elements
of
this
new
part
of
the
Annex
VI
enters
into
force
in
January
2013.
• Regulation
12
–
Ozone-‐depleting
substances
(ODS).
The
regulation
prohibits
deliberate
release
of
ODS.
• Regulation
13
–
Nitrogen
oxides
(NOx).
This
part
of
the
Annex
regulates
the
NOx
emissions
by
ship
for
engines
installed
after
2000.
Three
tiers
describe
the
NOx
limits
to
achieve
after
2000,
2011
and
2016.
In
addition
to
the
International
Air
Pollution
Prevention
Certificate,
the
ship
must
comply
with
the
NOx
technical
code
2008
and
possesses
technical
file
and
a
record
book
of
engine
parameters.
• Regulation
14
–
Sulphuroxides
(SOx)
-‐
and
the
concept
of
SOx
Emission
Control
area
(SECA).
This
resulation
sets
maximum
sulfur
contents
for
fuels
used
on
ships
(3.5%
after
January
2012).
In
addition,
the
concept
of
SECA
is
introduced
and
detailed
in
Appendix.
• Regulation
15
–
Volatile
Organic
Compounds
(VOCs).
The
regulation
emphasizes
on
the
need
to
regulate
ports
and
terminals
because
about
70%
of
VOC
release
occurs
during
loading.
Tankers
must
be
equipped
with
collection
systems
and
after
2010
a
VOC
management
plan
must
be
implemented.
• Regulation
16
–
Shipboard
incineration.
Incinerators
have
to
be
approved
and
meet
the
IMO
standards.
Various
substances
are
prohibited
to
incinerate.
• Regulation
18
–
Fuel
Oil
quality.
The
regulation
covers
the
availability,
the
quality,
the
supervision
of
suppliers,
the
PSC,
the
bunker
delivery
note,
etc.
The
NOx
technical
code
and
some
other
IMO
resolutions
support
the
implementation
of
the
MARPOL
Annnex
VI.
45
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Greenhouse
gas
provisions
–
outcome
of
the
MEPC
62
As
previously
mentioned,
the
Kyoto
Protocol
emphasizes
on
the
responsibility
of
the
specialized
agencies
to
regulate
their
own
domain.
Therefore,
the
UN
involvement
and
the
member
States
recognizance
of
the
global
warming
imposed
the
IMO
to
police
the
issue.
The
first
and
present
set
of
regulations
was
adopted
in
July
2011
during
MEPC
62.
The
option
chosen
by
the
delegates
was
to
add
a
Chapter
4
to
MARPOL
Annex
VI.
The
new
regulations
aim
to
improve
ships
energy
efficiency.
These
measures
cover
technical
and
operational
aspects
by
implementing
the
Energy
Efficiency
Design
Index
(EEDI)
which
focuses
in
ship/fleet
design
and
by
introducing
the
Ship
Energy
Efficiency
Management
Plan
(SEEMP)
which
focuses
on
ship/fleet
management.
• Regulations
20
&
21
deal
with
the
EEDI
and
its
calculation
processes.
Regulation
21.5
recalls
that
the
EEDI
achievement
must
not
impair
the
safe
maneuverability
of
the
ships.
Based
on
the
design
of
the
vessel,
this
index
will
remain
the
same
for
the
whole
ship’s
life.
The
intent
is
to
stimulate
the
innovation
and
promotion
of
energy
efficient
hull
and
engine
design.
Figure
27:
EEDI
short
description
(Source
:
T.
Nakasawa,
2012)
• Regulation
22
introduces
the
SEEMP.
Its
development
must
take
into
account
the
existing
guidelines.
This
document
has
to
be
kept
on
board
and
may
be
inserted
into
the
Safety
Management
System
(SMS).
This
document
aims
to
improve
the
operational
aspects
that
may
influence
the
fuel
consumption
and
thereafter
the
air
emissions
through
a
set
of
good
practices.
• Regulation
23
emphasizes
the
importance
of
enhancing
technical
cooperation
and
transfer
of
technology
to
support
energy
efficiency
improvements
on
the
world
fleet.
The
present
measures
neither
include
Energy
Efficiency
Operational
Indicator
(EEOI)
nor
Market-‐Based
Measures
(MBM).
These
two
elements,
particularly
the
MBM,
are
intensively
discussed
at
the
IMO.
In
short,
the
present
regulations
on
GHG
in
the
shipping
are
limited
to
the
design
and
operational
aspects
of
the
vessel.
These
regulations
are
not
stringent
and
depend
on
the
willingness
of
the
ship
operator
to
implement
good
practices
which
can
be
detailed
in
the
SEEMP
and
the
shipping
company
to
seek
good
vessel
design.
We
can
reasonably
be
optimistic
for
the
implementation
of
energy
efficient
practices
because
there
is
a
direct
link
between
emissions
and
fuel
consumption.
Energy
efficiency
policy
entails
fuel
oil
savings
which
constitutes
a
significant
incentive
to
accept
and
implement
the
regulations
with
seriousness.
46
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• (1)
GHG
and
particularly
CO2
are
not
directly
harmful
substances
for
human
beings;
• (2)
the
consequences
of
their
release
have
global
effects
and
therefore
the
mitigation
strategy
cannot
be
reduced
at
national
level;
• (3)
the
concept
of
common
but
differentiate
responsibility
influences
the
negotiations
and
management
of
the
issue.
In
addition
to
the
UN
instruments,
the
IMO,
representing
the
shipping
community,
developed
its
own
regulatory
framework.
The
IMO
demonstrated
its
concerns
by
enacting
MARPOL
Annex
VI
to
address
some
GHG
issues.
The
regulations
entering
into
force
on
January
2013
cover
the
ship
operation
with
SEEMP
and
the
design
with
EEDI.
This
first
step
does
not
determine
a
global
target
reduction
for
the
shipping
but
focus
on
ships
and
ship
management
involvement.
Despite
the
reduced
scope
of
the
present
regulations,
additional
elements
should
complement
the
IMO’s
action
in
a
near
future.
Intensive
discussion
at
IMO
and
a
strong
willingness
at
the
highest
level
of
the
Organization
show
the
disposition
to
achieve
global
reduction
by
promoting
MBM.
47
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
GHG
issues
to
address
in
the
next
years
(2012-‐2015)
as
identified
by
the
Secretary
General
of
the
IMO
during
MEPC
63
48
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
49
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
UN(1972).
Institutional
and
financial
arrangements
for
international
environmental
cooperation.
Resolution
2997
(XXVII).
New
York:
USA
UN
(1988).
Protection
of
global
climate
for
present
and
future
generations
of
mankind,
A/RES/43/53.
New
York:
USA
UN
(2010).
Implementation
of
Agenda
21,
the
Programme
for
the
Further
Implementation
of
Agenda
21
and
the
outcomes
of
the
World
Summit
on
Sustainable
Development.
Resolution
A/RES/64/236.
New
York:
USA
UNCTAD
(2011).
The
Review
of
Maritime
Transport.
UN
publication
Geneva:
Switzerland
UNEP/UNDP/DUTCH
Joint
Project
on
Environment
Law
and
Institutions
in
Africa
(1999),
Report
on
the
development
and
harmonization
of
environmental
standards
in
East
Africa,
http://www.unep.org/padelia/publications/VOLUME2K32.htm
UNEP
2011.
HFCs:
A
Critical
Link
in
Protecting
Climate
and
the
Ozone
Layer.
United
Nations
Environment
Programme
(UNEP),
http://www.unep.org/dewa/Portals/67/pdf/HFC_report.pdf
UNEP.
Organization
profile.
http://www.unep.org/PDF/UNEPOrganizationProfile.pdf
UNEP/UNFCCC
(2002),
Edited
by
Michael
Williams.
Climate
Change
information
kit.
Geneva:
Switzerland
UNFCC
(2006).
United
Nations
Framework
Convention
on
Climate
Change:
Handbook.
Bonn,
Germany:
Climate
Change
Secretariat
US
Environmental
Protect
Agency,
Effects
of
Air
Pollutants
–
Health
Effects,
http://www.epa.gov/apti/course422/ap7a.html
US
Department
of
Labor
–
Occupational
Safety
and
Health
Administration,
OSHA
technical
manual
section
IV:
chapter
2
–
Petroleum
Refining
Processes,
http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iv/otm_iv_2.html
Wilden
A.
(1987).
The
rules
are
no
game
–
the
strategy
of
communication.
New
York:
Routledge
and
Kegan
Paul
Inc.
World
Health
Organization,
http://www.who.int/topics/air_pollution/en/
World
Health
Organization
(1961),
Air
Pollution
–
monograph
series
No.46.
WHO:
Geneva.
World
Health
Organization
(2007),
Health
risks
of
heavy
metals
from
long-‐range
transboundary
air
pollution.
WHO
Regional
Office
for
Europe.
http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/78649/E91044.pdf
World
Meteorological
Organization
(1979).
The
Declaration
of
the
World
Climate
Conference.
Geneva:
February
1979
Zaelke,
Durwood
and
James
Cameron
(1990).
"Global
Warming
and
Climate
Change
-‐
An
Overview
of
the
International
Legal
Process."
American
University
International
Law
Review
5,
no.
2
(1990):
249-‐290.
50
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
MODULE
2
From
Management
to
Operation
51
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Contents
Module
Aims
and
Objectives
.............................................................................................
54
1
Ship
Management
..........................................................................................................
55
1.1
The
Role
of
the
Management
in
Reducing
GHG
Emissions
....................................
55
The
shipping
company
management
...................................................................................................
55
The
link
between
fuel
savings
and
GHG
reduction
and
the
incentives
for
operators
to
save
fuel
............................................................................................................................................................
55
Incentives
.........................................................................................................................................................
55
Split
incentive
.................................................................................................................................................
55
Corporate
Social
Responsibility
.............................................................................................................
56
1.2
Contract
of
carriage
............................................................................................................
58
The
main
types
of
shipping
contract
of
carriage.
...........................................................................
58
Common
Law
..................................................................................................................................................
58
Bill
of
Lading
...................................................................................................................................................
60
Voyage
Charter
..............................................................................................................................................
61
Time
Charters
.................................................................................................................................................
62
Demise
Charter
&
bare-‐boat
charter
....................................................................................................
63
Contracts
of
Affreightment
(COA)
.........................................................................................................
63
1.3
Impact
of
shipping
contracts
of
carriage
and
possible
conflicts
of
interest.
...
63
When
the
charter-‐party
and
bill
of
laden
are
different
................................................................
63
Jurisdiction
......................................................................................................................................................
65
1.4
Energy
efficient
policy
and
commitment
.....................................................................
66
Company
policy
to
determine
and
set
the
agenda
and
the
participants.
.............................
66
Commitment
from
the
company
management
at
the
highest
level
.......................................
67
Awareness
and
training
and
the
provision
of
guidance
and
advise
to
ship
and
shore
staff.
....................................................................................................................................................................
67
The
Companies’
Energy
Efficiency
Policy
..........................................................................................
68
Adjust
the
company
policy
to
provide
for
specific
ships
and
specific
trades
.....................
69
Adequate
resources
for
maintenance
and
repairs
.........................................................................
70
1.5
Fleet
optimisation
and
adjusted
steaming
speed
.....................................................
71
Determination
of
optimum
speed
.........................................................................................................
71
Viability
of
Slow
Steaming
........................................................................................................................
72
Slow
Speed
Steaming
Example
...............................................................................................................
72
1.6
Loading
and
proper
cargo
weight
management
.......................................................
74
Cargo
load
factor
...........................................................................................................................................
74
The
1969
tonnage
convention
................................................................................................................
74
The
importance
of
accurate
weight
declaration
.............................................................................
75
Upgrade
of
cargo
equipment
...................................................................................................................
76
Risk
of
installing
GHG
reducing
equipment
in
present
regulatory
context
........................
77
The
type
of
ships
and
equipment
to
be
considered
.......................................................................
77
2
Ship
Technical
Management
......................................................................................
78
2.1
Role
of
the
technical
management
to
support
GHG
reductions.
..........................
78
Overall
energy
management
....................................................................................................................
78
Cost
of
fuel
.......................................................................................................................................................
78
Economies
of
scale
.......................................................................................................................................
79
The
importance
of
innovation
................................................................................................................
79
Adequate
lighting
of
the
vessel.
..............................................................................................................
84
Energy
Audit
...................................................................................................................................................
84
52
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
53
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
objectives
of
this
module
are
to
provide
practical
information,
in
an
easily
understandable
form,
on
the
operational,
technical,
economic
and
legal
issues
that
may
be
encountered
by
shipping
companies'
operational
and
technical
management
when
implementing
a
GHG
reductions
strategy
for
its
fleet.
Ship
Management
• The
links
between
fuel
savings
and
GHG
reduction.
• The
incentives
for
the
operator
to
improve
fuel
consumption.
• The
main
type
of
shipping
contract
of
carriage.
• Impact
of
shipping
contracts
of
carriage
and
possible
conflicts
of
interest.
• Company
policy
to
determine
and
set
the
agenda
and
the
participants.
• Commitment
from
the
company
management
at
the
highest
level.
• Awareness
and
training
and
the
provision
of
guidance
and
advise
to
ship
and
shore
staff.
• The
companies’
energy
efficiency
policy.
• Adjust
the
company
policy
to
provide
for
specific
ships
and
specific
trades.
• Adequate
resources
for
maintenance
and
repairs.
• Fleet
optimisation
and
adjusted
steaming
speed.
• Slow
steaming
and
its
limitations
• Determination
of
optimum
speed.
• The
need
to
anticipate
loading
• The
importance
of
proper
cargo
weight
management.
Ship
Technical
Management
• The
role
of
the
technical
management
to
support
GHG
savings
in
terms
of
safety,
cost
and
regulatory
conflict
for
the
following;
• Overall
energy
management
• Continuous
performance
monitoring
• Policy
on
heat
management
• Hull
and
propeller
maintenance,
monitoring
planning
• Engine
operation,
maintenance
and
repair
• The
importance
of
determining
the
correct
fuel
type
for
the
engine
and
the
potential
GHG
reduction.
54
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
1 Ship
Management
1.1 The
Role
of
the
Management
in
Reducing
GHG
Emissions
The
shipping
company
management
The
shipping
company
management
will
have
the
overall
responsibility
for
reducing
GHG
within
the
fleet.
Although
the
Ship-‐board
Energy
Efficient
Management
Plan
(SEEMP)
is
prepared
for
each
individual
ship
the
shipping
company
management
must
look
at
the
shipping
company
as
a
whole
to
achieve
maximum
fleet
GHG
reduction.
The
process
of
the
commercial
shipping
of
goods
and
passengers
is
a
complex
system
involving
many
players
and
the
ship
manager
should
be
aware
of
how
these
elements
interact
if
he
is
to
formulate
an
optimum
strategy
for
reducing
GHG
in
the
fleet.
The
link
between
fuel
savings
and
GHG
reduction
and
the
incentives
for
operators
to
save
fuel
There
is
no
doubt
that
an
energy
efficiency
policy
implemented
and
managed
correctly
will
not
only
reduce
GHG
and
pollutants
but
will
also
reduce
fuel
costs
which
will
in
turn
reduce
the
operating
cost
and
increase
the
companies
overall
profits.
If
a
ship
burns
less
fuel
for
the
same
amount
of
work
done
it
will
reduce
the
ship
operator's
costs,
which
could
also
reduce
the
cost
of
shipment,
which
may
then
be
passed
on
to
the
charterer
and
ultimate
buyer.
It
is
a
win-‐win
situation.
In
many
cases
there
will
be
no
simple
answers
to
reducing
GHG
emissions
but
considering
all
the
options
available
and
deciding
on
the
most
appropriate
strategy
will
be
a
very
good
start
for
any
ship
manger.
The
ship
manager
should
not
focus
on
one
particular
area
but
consider
the
possibility
for
savings
in
the
whole
transport
chain.
Incentives
The
incentive
for
an
operator
to
reduce
fuel
and
thereby
reduce
GHG
emissions
is
reduced
costs.
While
there
are
many
opportunities
to
optimise
and
improve
operational
efficiency
it
will
require
the
participation
of
several
parties
it
is
essential
that
each
of
the
parties
has
the
incentives
and
flexibility
to
join
the
energy-‐saving
effort.
It
is
particularly
important
that
they
do
not
have
incentives
to
contribute
to
inefficient
behaviour,
which
means
the
issue
of
‘split
incentives’
needs
to
be
overcome.
The
following
sections
will
highlight
the
many
benefits
there
are
to
reducing
GHG
emissions.
The
incentives
covered
will
include
not
only
the
main
and
ancillary
engines
but
also
look
at
the
hull
coating,
the
operational
speed,
cargo
handling,
contracts
of
carriage,
management
of
the
company
and
the
ships
electrical
services.
Benefits
can
include
not
only
the
reduction
of
operation
costs
but
also
result
in
the
ship
being
kept
in
service
for
longer
resulting
in
decreased
down
time
both
at
sea
and
in
port.
Some
savings
may
not
be
directly
passed
on
to
the
shipping
company
such
as
the
reduction
of
fuel
consumption
in
a
time
charter
but
the
ship
will
become
more
attractive
to
charters
with
the
possibility
of
demanding
a
higher
freight
rate
for
a
particular
charter.
If
a
ship
is
properly
maintained
to
reduce
fuel
costs
it
will
also
have
the
effect
of
the
power
plants
such
as
the
main
engine
lasting
longer
with
less
expensive
repair
bills.
Split
incentive
A
‘split
incentive’
refers
to
a
situation
where
the
people
benefiting
from
the
energy
efficiency
are
not
the
people
paying
for
it.
In
the
shipping
industry
it
mainly
occurs
when
vessels
such
as
bulk
carriers,
tankers
and
container
ships
are
hired
under
on
a
time
charter
or
a
bareboat
charter
in
this
case
it
is
the
charterer
who
pays
for
the
fuel
but
the
ship
owner
who
is
55
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
responsible
for
any
investment
in
energy-‐
efficiency
equipment.
This
is
in
some
part
taken
into
account
by
the
fact
that
more
fuel
efficient
ships
will
have
a
higher
chapter
rate
but
is
practice
is
difficult
to
implement
as
a
particular
vessel
can
be
affected
in
different
ways
in
different
sea
conditions
which
can
make
it
impossible
to
guarantee
an
improved
fuel
consumption
on
a
particular
vessel.
A
situation
can
arise
where
the
ship
is
on
time
charter
and
operated
by
the
owner
who
may
tend
to
minimise
time
in
dry-‐dock
and
other
maintenance
costs
such
as
anti
fouling
reducing
the
time
lost
off-‐hire
while
at
the
same
time
handing
the
fuel
bill
to
the
time
charterer.
The
result
may
be
low
flexibility
for
efficient
operation
and,
in
the
worst
cases,
incentives
for
inefficient
operation.
56
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
recognised
that
the
active
participation
of
the
private
sector
is
critical
to
achieving
sustainable
development
and
the
private
sector
is
invited
to
explore
this
with
due
reference
to
business
practices,
such
as
those
endorsed
by
the
United
Nations
Global
Compact.
Further
guidance
is
provided
by
ISO
26000
“Guidance
on
Corporate
Social
Responsibility”
which
states
“the
aim
of
the
social
responsibility
is
to
contribute
to
sustainable
development”.
Following
the
above
outcome,
The
International
Maritime
Organisation
(IMO)
has
selected
“Sustainable
Development:
IMOs
contribution
beyond
Rio+20”
as
the
World
Maritime
Day
theme
for
2013.
The
introduction
of
the
term
‘triple
bottom
line’
(related
to
the
notion
of
sustainable
development)
in
the
1990s
has
enhanced
the
development
of
the
concept
of
CSR
and
the
need
for
business
to
account
to
a
constituency
beyond
its
shareholders.
Figure
1:
A
triple-‐bottom
line
for
business
57
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
initiatives
mentioned
above
are
only
a
few
examples
for
developments
in
the
maritime
sector
under
a
CSR
framework.
The
central
problem
of
all
these
initiatives
is
that
they
focus
on
single
items
only.
As
of
today
no
comprehensive
guidelines
or
good
practices
have
been
established
for
benchmarking
purposes,
neither
improved
maritime
governance
of
maritime
administrations
and
other
organizations
(i.e.
port
authorities)
nor
the
CSR
performance
of
shipping
companies.
For
shipping
companies,
the
CSR
concept
can
be
seen
as
synonymous
with
good
business
or
a
tool,
what
they
can
use
to
act
responsibly
and
proactively
to
provide
a
financial
or
operational
advantage
and
to
avoid
criticism
be
it
justified
or
not
in
all
three
areas
of:
(1)
Maritime
governance,
(2)
Social
responsibility,
and
(3)
Environmental
and
ocean
responsibility
(Coady
and
Strandberg
2012).
CSR
activities
in
the
maritime
industry
are
both
evolving
and
transforming
market
conditions.
There
are
now
new
demands
from
regulators,
customers,
investors,
NGOs
in
regards
to
energy,
climate
change,
pollution,
waste,
hazards,
spills
and
sustainable
supply
chain
management.
These
new
demands
are
in
turn
transforming
market
conditions
by
creating
new
challenges,
such
as
requirements
for
Ecosystem-‐based
management
and
Oceans
governance.
These
are
just
some
of
the
developments
of
CSR
activities,
which
by
no
means
covers
the
full
scope
of
initiatives
and
developments
in
CSR
in
the
maritime
industry.
Coady
and
Strandberg
(2012)
have
provided
an
excellent
overview
of
key
CSR
components
for
the
maritime
industry,
which
is
well
worth
the
read
in
order
to
gain
further
insight.
Common
Law
Most
contracts
of
carriage
will
be
subject
to
The
Hague
Visby
or
Hague
Rules,
which
superseded
the
old
common
law
rules.
The
‘common
law’
rules
that
are
referred
to
will
be
based
on
‘English/Welsh’
law
but
it
will
be
found
that
other
jurisdictions
will
have
similar
provisions
in
their
national
legislation.
The
issue
of
jurisdiction,
that
will
be
touched
on
later,
is
a
very
important
consideration
for
any
contract
of
carriage
so
it
should
not
be
assumed
that
this
is
58
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
always
the
case.
There
will
be
a
jurisdiction
and
arbitration
clause
in
a
contract
of
carriage
and
this
should
be
verified.
The
Hague
Rules
and
the
Hague
Visby
Rules
are
a
set
of
internationally
agreed
rules
for
the
carriage
of
goods
at
sea
and
most
maritime
and
non-‐maritime
nations
will
follow
these
rules.
However,
there
are
some
specific
situations
in
which
these
internationally
agreed
rules
do
not
apply
and
the
rights
and
obligations
of
the
parties
are
still
governed
by
common
law.
In
this
course
it
would
take
too
long
to
go
into
these
specific
situations
but
for
students
that
are
interested
any
good
maritime
law
book
will
give
more
details.
At
common
law
there
are
four
basic
obligations
on
the
carrier
and
the
latter
two
are
of
particular
interest
to
any
ship
manager
considering
either
changing
the
voyage
plan
from
the
most
direct
route
or
reducing
the
speed
of
vessels
to
reduce
GHG
emissions.
-‐ The
carrier
must
deliver
the
goods
in
the
same
condition
as
when
they
are
shipped,
and
this
is
a
non-‐delegable
duty.
There
is
however
four
common
law
exceptions;
o Act
of
god
o Act
of
Queens/Kings
enemies
o Loss
or
damage
resulting
from
inherent
vice
of
the
goods.
o Loss
resulting
from
jettison
-‐ The
carrier
has
an
absolute
duty
to
provide
a
seaworthy
ship.
This
is
a
much
stricter
obligation
than
in
The
Hague
Visby
Rules
which
only
require
due
diligence
on
the
part
of
the
ship-‐owner
and
is
one
of
the
main
reasons
that
The
Hague
rules
came
about.
-‐ The
carrier
undertakes
to
proceed
on
a
voyage
with
without
unjustifiable
deviation.
If
there
is
a
deviation,
the
carrier
is
liable
for
any
subsequent
loss
unless
he
can
rely
on
a
common
law
exception
(such
as
to
save
life),
and
can
show
that
the
loss
or
damage
would
have
occurred
in
the
absence
of
the
deviation.
The
question
is
relation
to
GHG
is
would
an
alteration
of
the
voyage
plan
to
take
a
different
route
to
save
GHG
be
regarded
as
an
‘unjustifiable
deviation’.
In
nearly
all
cases
the
answer
to
this
would
be
‘no’
as
the
aim
would
normally
be
to
reduce
the
distance
travelled
and
not
increase
it
but
there
may
be
examples
where
this
is
not
the
case.
-‐ The
carrier
must
complete
the
voyage
with
reasonable
dispatch.
If
there
is
undue
delay,
the
carrier
is
liable
in
damages
for
any
loss
caused
by
the
delay,
unless
the
loss
falls
within
one
of
the
excepted
perils,
and
the
carrier
can
show
that
he
has
not
been
negligent.
This
clause
has
implications
for
slow
speed
steaming
as
it
could
be
argued
that
the
cargo
was
not
delivered
with
‘reasonable
dispatch’
if
the
ship
slows
down.
This
could
particularly
be
the
case
if
the
cargo
is
lost
when
the
ship
was
slow
steaming
and
it
could
be
show
that
if
the
ship
proceeded
to
the
discharge
port
at
the
normal
speed
the
cargo
would
have
arrived
safely.
-‐ At
common
law
the
carrier
may
limit
or
exclude
his
liability
under
the
contract,
which
can
mean
that
the
buyer,
who
has
no
right
to
dictate
the
terms
of
the
contract,
could
end
up
with
nothing
when
the
loss
was
totally
the
fault
of
the
carrier.
For
this
reason
international
agreement
was
reached,
as
referred
to
earlier,
in
the
form
of
The
Hague
Rules
as
amended
by
The
Hague
Visby
Rules.
These
rules
preserve
the
four
common
law
obligations
in
to
contracts
in
a
less
strict
form
but
protect
the
buyer
by
ensuring
there
is
no
possibility
of
contracting
out
or
reducing
the
carriers
liability.
These
rules
will
be
discussed
in
greater
detail
in
the
next
sub-‐section.
59
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
bill
of
lading
will
normally
be
either
a
‘bearer’,
‘order’
or
a
‘straight
consigned
bill’,
which
will
dictate
who
the
goods
can
be
delivered
to.
The
‘bearer
bill’
is
the
most
open
type
of
bill
that
allows
the
cargo
to
be
released
to
anyone
who
holds
the
bill.
There
are
two
types
of
‘order
bills’
that
basically
allow
delivery
‘to
order’
to
allow
transferability
with
out
naming
the
consignee.
The
‘straight
consigned
bill’
or
‘non-‐
negotiable
bill’
makes
the
goods
only
transferable
to
a
named
consignee
and
no
other
so
is
very
restrictive
in
this
respect.
The
type
of
bill
will
have
important
implication
for
the
shipper
on
what
it
can
be
used
for
as
it
is
only
possible
to
raise
cash
from
a
bank
on
a
shipped
bearer
or
order
bill
as
they
are
fully
negotiable
documents
even
when
still
documents
of
title.
The
functions
of
the
bill
of
laden
for
a
particular
contract
will
depend
on
several
things.
For
example,
how
the
goods
are
purchased.
When
the
contract
between
the
shipper
and
the
buyer
is
a
classic
‘fob’
(free
on
board)
the
buyer
nominates
the
ship,
procures
the
shipping
space
and
is
the
legal
shipper.
In
the
case
of
goods
purchased
on
a
‘cif’
(Cost,
Insurance
and
Freight)
basis
the
seller
will
ship
the
goods
at
his
own
expense
and
arrange
for
the
insurance.
Other
issues
will
be
whether
the
contract
of
carriage
are
covered
by
just
the
bill
of
lading,
a
voyage
or
time
charter
and
whether
the
Hague
or
Hague
Visby
Rules
will
apply.
You
may
be
asking
what
the
above
has
to
do
with
my
GHG
strategy?
The
broad
answer
to
this
question
is
that
it
is
important
to
establish
who
can
rely
solely
on
the
terms
contained
in
the
bill
of
lading
rather
than
any
other
terms
contained
in
a
voyage
or
time
charter.
There
is
a
general
principle
that
if
the
bill
of
lading
is
transferred
to
a
third
person,
which
can
often
happen
is
the
case
of
a
bulk
cargo
of
oil
or
one
of
the
solid
bulk
commodities
that
are
sold
many
time
whilst
the
vessel
is
on
route,
the
holder
of
the
bill
can
rely
on
‘Hague
Visby’
rather
than
the
terms
in
any
previously
agreed
charter
party.
This
can
only
happen
with
either
a
‘bearer
bill’
or
‘order
bills’,
which
are
negotiable
documents
as
the
‘straight
consigned
bill’
are
non-‐negotiable
and
cannot
be
exchanged.
Bill
of
lading
can
be
issued
for
either
all
the
cargo
in
the
case
of
a
bulk
cargo
(dry
or
liquid),
individual
item
or
a
pallet
in
the
case
of
a
general
cargo
ship
or
a
number
of
items
stored
on
in
a
container
in
a
container
ship.
There
are
different
types
of
bills
of
lading
such
as;
container
bill,
through
bill,
group-‐age
and
house
bill
of
lading.
The
type
of
bill
will
often
depend
on
the
requirements
of
the
particular
trade
and
the
requirements
of
the
particular
carrier
and
shippers
involved.
Under
The
Hague
Visby
Rules
it
is
a
requirement
that;
‘After
receiving
the
goods
into
his
charge
the
carrier
or
the
master
or
agent
of
the
carrier
shall,
on
demand
of
the
shipper,
issue
to
the
shipper
a
bill
of
lading
showing…’
.
The
shipper
will
therefore
often
ask
for
a
bill
of
lading
even
if
the
contract
of
carriage
is
already
contained
in
the
charter
party.
60
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Many
cargos
are
shipping
with
a
bill
of
lading
covered
by
The
Hague-‐Visby
Rules
that
are
an
amendment
of
the
earlier
Hague
Rules
which
were
agreed
on
September
1921
at
a
meeting
of
the
International
Law
association
held
at
the
Hague
with
the
objective
of
securing
adoption
a
set
of
rules
relating
to
the
bills
of
lading
so
that
the
rights
and
liabilities
of
cargo
owners
and
ship
owners
might
be
subject
to
rules
of
general
application.
The
rules
were
revised
and
contained
in
an
International
Convention
signed
a
Brussels
in
1924.
The
Hague
Visby
Rules
were
agreed
on
by
a
protocol
sighed
in
Brussels
in
February
1968
amending
the
International
Convention
agreed
there
in
1924.
Many
States
have
incorporated
either
the
Hague
Rules
or
the
Hague
Visby
Rules
into
their
own
national
legislation
giving
them
the
force
of
law
for
all
cargos
shipped
using
a
bill
of
laden
under
their
jurisdiction.
The
Rules
cover
all
types
of
goods
except
live
animals
and
deck
cargo.
For
a
cargo
to
be
deck
cargo
the
contact
must
state
that
it
is
being
carried
on
deck.
So
just
because
a
cargo
is
carried
on
deck
does
not
mean
that
it
is
not
covered
by
the
rules.
This
may
particularly
be
so
in
the
case
of
containers
that
may
or
may
not
be
stowed
on
deck.
The
rules
may
even
apply
if
the
cargo
is
shipped
on
a
‘way
bill’
rather
that
bills
of
lading
as
long
as
it
is
clear
that
is
the
intention.
This
was
shown
to
be
the
case
under
the
English
law
interpretation
of
the
rules
and
is
contained
in
the
United
Kingdoms
‘Carriage
of
Goods
at
Sea
Act
1971.
This
means
that
even
carrying
cargos
under
a
‘way
bill’
as
is
often
done
in
the
container
trade
does
not
mean
that
the
cargo
will
not
be
subject
to
The
Hague
Visby
Rules.
*
Hague
Visby
Rules:
s1
(6)
COGSA
1971
‘…’Rules
shall
have
force
of
law
in
relation
to…b)
any
receipt
which
is
a
non-‐negotiable
EXAMPLE
document
marked
as
such
if
the
contract
contained
in
or
evidenced
by
it
is
a
contract
for
carriage
of
goods
by
sea
which
expressly
provide
that
the
Rules
are
to
govern
the
contract
as
if
the
receipt
were
a
bill
of
lading.
It
is
very
important
to
establish
who
the
various
parties
are
to
any
contract
and
what
their
responsibilities
are
and
the
Hague
Visby
Rules
are
designed
to
do
that.
In
The
Hague
Visby
Rules
a
definition
of
‘carrier’
in
Art.
I
(a)
include
the
owner
or
charterer
who
enters
into
a
contract
of
carriage
with
a
shipper.
If
the
contract
is
made
between
the
charterer
and
the
shipper
and
not
the
ship-‐owner
it
is
very
important
that
the
ship-‐owner
is
aware
of
any
clauses
that
may
prevent
him
from
undertaking
any
GHG
reduction
techniques
such
as
slow
speed
steaming
or
Virtual
Arrival
which
will
be
discussed
fully
later
in
the
modules.
Voyage
Charter
A
voyage
charter
is
a
contract
of
carriage
for
one
voyage
or
a
series
of
voyages.
Cargo
carried
during
a
voyage
charter
may
also
have
a
bill
of
laden
so
may
also
be
covered
by
the
Hague-‐Visby
Rules
but
there
is
normally
no
mandatory
application
of
these
rules
in
a
voyage
charters
unless
the
goods
are
transferred
to
a
third
person
as
explain
in
the
section
on
bills
of
lading.
The
contract
will
normally
have
a
‘due
dispatch’
clause
that
requires
all
reasonable
speed
or
a
stated
61
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
date
and
a
‘cancellation
clause’
that
will
allow
the
charterer
to
abandon
the
contract
if
the
vessel
has
not
arrived
in
a
reasonable
time
the
ship-‐owner
is
then
liable
to
damages.
Under
a
typical
voyage
charter-‐party
the
ship
operator
decides
what
speed
the
vessel
will
steam
at
on
the
voyage
so
as
to
arrive
at
the
port
at
the
due
date.
There
are
also
a
number
of
days
‘lay
days’
agreed
in
the
contract
for
the
load
and
discharge
the
cargo.
For
the
commencement
of
lay-‐time
three
things
are
required;
-‐ The
vessel
must
be
fit
to
load
or
unload.
-‐ She
must
be
an
‘arrived
ship’.
-‐ The
‘notice
of
readiness’.
(NOR)
to
load
or
discharge
must
be
given
to
the
charterer.
For
a
ship
to
be
an
‘arrived
ship’
the
master
must
tend
his
notice
of
readiness
and
where
and
how
he
can
legally
do
this
will
depend
on
whether
the
contract
states
‘port’
or
‘berth’.
Interpreting
what
‘berth’
means
is
quite
clear
but
there
have
been
several
legal
differences
of
option
on
what
constitutes
a
‘port’.
Common
law
only
requires
the
NOR
to
be
tended
by
the
master
at
the
loading
port
but
most
voyage
charter
provide
for
NOR
to
be
given
at
the
discharge
port.
If
the
ship
arrives
in
good
time
to
discharge
or
load
the
cargo
and
the
port
cannot
work
cargo
once
the
agreed
‘lay
days’
are
use
up
then
the
ship
owner
is
also
entitled
to
an
economic
compensation
called
‘demurrage’.
If
the
ship
arrives
ready
to
load
the
cargo
and
port
is
not
able
to
load
the
ship
due
to
port
congestion
the
ship
operator
has
the
option
to
take
on
a
new
cargo
if
one
is
available
or
wait
for
the
port
congestion
to
clear
and
be
compensated
by
the
‘demurrage’.
The
demurrage
rate
will
depend
on
the
particular
contract
but
are
often
as
high
if
not
higher
than
the
freight
rate
that
the
ship
owner
would
have
received.
The
incentive
is
therefore
for
the
ship
operator
is
to
sail
the
ship
as
fast
as
it
can
so
as
to
be
sure
the
ship
arrives
in
good
time
and
become
an
arrived
ship
so
that
the
lay
days
start
to
count.
The
frequent
outcome
of
this
process
is
that
ships
will
steam
at
full
speed
to
a
port,
wasting
large
amounts
of
fuel
and
producing
extra
GHG,
to
arrive
at
the
port
and
be
too
early
to
start
cargo.
This
often
results
in
the
ship
sitting
at
anchor
or
a
long
side
for
possible
weeks
waiting
for
the
cargo
and
wasting
yet
more
fuel
and
producing
more
GHG.
A
possible
solution
to
this
problem
is
the
concept
of
‘virtual
arrival’
that
will
be
covered
in
depth
in
a
subsequent
module.
Time
Charters
Time
charters
are
set
for
a
set
period
of
time
which
may
be
in
months
or
even
years.
It
is
normal
that
the
charter
pays
for
the
fuel
and
port
costs
but
the
ship
owner
must
take
care
of
the
other
operating
cost
like
maintaining
the
ships
engine,
hull
and
crew.
Time
charters
will
normally
have
a
speed
and
fuel
warranty
clause
stating
the
speed
and
fuel
consumption
of
a
ship.
Despite
its
name
this
term
of
the
contract
is
usually
an
intermediate
term
and
not
a
warranty.
Thus
the
charter
can
only
repudiate
the
contract
if
the
statement
as
to
the
fuel
and
speed
is
substantially
incorrect.
It
is
unclear
how
this
could
be
applied
to
virtual
arrival,
just
in
time
and
optimum
speed.
62
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
*
Time
charter:
The
Berge
Tasta
[1975]
1
Lloyd’s
Rep
422
Donaldson
J
‘…
in
which
the
ship-‐owner
undertakes
to
make
the
vessel
available
to
the
charterer
within
a
specified
area
over
a
specified
period.
The
ship
owner’s
remuneration
is
a
fixed
EXAMPLE
rate
for
a
unit
of
time
regardless
of
how
the
vessel
is
used
by
the
charterer.
The
ship-‐
owner
meets
the
costs
of
maintaining
the
vessel
and
paying
the
crew’s
wages
but
the
cost
of
the
fuel
and
port
charges
fall
on
the
charterer’.
The
time
charter
is
a
good
example
of
the
‘split
incentive’
problem
mentioned
earlier,
as
the
ship
owner
will
not
pay
for
the
fuel
there
is
no
incentive
for
him
to
look
at
ways
of
reducing
the
fuel
costs.
1.3 Impact
of
shipping
contracts
of
carriage
and
possible
conflicts
of
interest.
When
the
charter-‐party
and
bill
of
laden
are
different
A
ship
operator
may
arrive
in
a
busy
harbour,
only
to
wait
for
days
or
weeks
to
unload,
while
receiving
compensation
‘demurrage’
for
each
day
of
waiting.
It
is
evident
that
contractual
arrangements
and
incentives
have
a
significant
influence
on
operations
and
hence
on
efficiency
and
the
current
legal
system
is
anything
but
clear
as
will
be
described
next.
In
time
and
voyage
charter-‐parties,
the
master
of
the
ship
normally
signs
the
bills
of
lading
when
issued
to
the
charterers
as
the
agent
of
the
ship
owner.
A
problem
that
may
arise
is
the
inconsistencies
between
the
charter-‐party
and
the
bill
of
lading
such
as
when
the
bill
of
laden
imposing
greater
liabilities
on
the
shipowner
than
the
charter-‐party
itself.
This
problem
is
resolved
by
considering
which
of
the
charter-‐party
and
the
bill
of
lading
has
contractual
force
between
the
relevant
parties.
63
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
This
will
depend
on
whether
the
shipowner
is
the
actual
or
legal
carrier,
and
whether
the
seller
is
the
actual
or
legal
shipper
or
not
the
shipper
at
all.
The
legal
shipper
of
the
goods
is
the
party
primarily
liable
on
the
contract
of
carriage.
When
the
ship
is
not
under
charter,
the
legal
and
actual
carrier
is
the
shipowner
and
the
master
signs
and
issues
the
bill
of
lading
as
agent
of
the
shipowner.
When
the
ship
is
chartered
by
demise,
the
master
signs
the
bill
of
laden
as
the
agent
of
the
charterer,
not
the
shipowner
and
will
apply
even
if
the
holder
of
the
bill
of
lading
is
unaware
of
this.
This
makes
the
charterers
by
demise
both
the
actual
and
legal
carrier.
In
time
or
voyage
charter-‐parties
the
master
has
the
normal
authority
to
sign
bills
of
lading
on
behalf
of
the
shipowner
he
is
treated
as
the
agent
of
the
shipowner
unless
there
are
any
clauses
to
the
contrary.
The
contract
is
therefore
with
the
shipowner
and
not
the
charterer.
Therefore
the
shipowner
may
be
the
actual
but
not
legal
carrier.
*
Holder
of
the
Bill
of
Lading:
Temperley
v
Smythe
[1905]
2
KB
791
‘On
the
other
hand,
in
the
case
where
the
holder
of
the
bill
of
lading
is
not
charterer,
EXAMPLE
there
is
no
presumption
that
he
contracts
on
any
terms
other
than
those
in
the
bill
of
lading.’
It
was
shown
in
Kruger
v
Moel
Tryvan
Ship
Co
that
if
there
is
an
implication
in
the
contract
of
carriage
between
the
shipper
and
shipowner
that
the
master
is
to
sign
a
bill
of
lading
at
the
shippers
request
the
bill
should
not
be
in
the
form
of
a
contract
that
would
strike
out
any
clause
from
the
charter-‐party.
However,
the
opposite
was
also
said
to
apply
in
The
C
Joyce
[1986]
2
All
ER
177.
In
this
case
the
shipowner
let
the
vessel
to
the
charterer
who
then
used
it
to
ship
a
cargo.
On
discharge
the
holder
of
the
bill
of
lading
claimed
for
damage
to
the
cargo
and
short
delivery.
The
shipowner
settled
the
claim
and
then
sought
indemnity
from
the
charterer
as
in
the
charter-‐party
the
shipowner
was
relieved
from
liability
for
loss
or
damage
unless
there
was
proof
of
personnel
lack
of
due
diligence
by
the
ship
owner.
However,
the
charter-‐party
also
expressly
agreed
that
any
bill
of
lading
issued
under
the
charter-‐party
should
be
subject
to
The
Hague
Visby
Rules
that
do
not
permit
exclusions
for
negligence.
The
holder
of
the
bill
of
lading
applying
the
contract
contained
in
the
bill
sued
the
shipowner.
This
put
the
shipowner
under
a
greater
liability
than
that
set
out
in
the
charter-‐party.
In
this
case
it
decided
by
Bingham
J
that
as
the
charterers
were
obliged
to
tender
a
bill
of
lading
which
imposed
the
liability
of
the
Hague
Visby
Rules
on
the
shipowner
there
was
no
breach
of
the
charter-‐party.
This
meant
that
no
contract
of
indemnity
could
be
implied
which
meant
that
the
shipowner
could
not
claim
back
his
losses
from
the
charterer.
Keeping
in
mind
that
it
is
possible
for
a
ship
on
‘Demise
Charter’
(sometimes
called
a
‘Bareboat
Charter’)
to
be
on
a
time
charter
where
the
cargo
is
carried
under
a
voyage
charter
with
states
that
the
master
must
issue
a
bill
of
laden
that
is
subject
to
the
Hague
Visby
or
Hague
Rules
(which
will
depending
on
the
jurisdiction)
it
is
clear
that
this
can
be
a
very
complex
situation.
The
answer
to
the
question
of
whether
a
reduction
of
speed
to
reduce
fuel
costs
which
will
be
mainly
for
the
benefit
of
the
ship
owner
rather
than
the
charterer
can
be
considered
a
reasonable
deviation
needs
to
be
resolved
by
the
ship
manager
for
each
ship
and
contract
of
64
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
carriage
that
applies
to
that
ship
before
any
decision
can
be
made.
Apart
from
establishing
what
contract
of
carriage
applies
and
to
who
are
liable
under
it
there
is
the
question
of
jurisdiction
as
The
Hollandia
[1882]
2
WLR
556
(Court
of
Appeal
Lord
Denning
MR)
made
clear
is
also
far
from
simple
as
it
may
not
matter
what
is
in
the
contact
of
carriage
it
may
be
down
to
where
the
cargo
was
loaded
as
to
what
rules
should
apply.
*
Reasonable
Deviation:
Stag
Line
Ltd
v
Foscolo
Mango
[1932]
AC
328
Lord
Akin
“…
A
deviation
may,
and
often
will,
be
caused
by
fortuitous
circumstances
never
contemplated
by
the
original
parties
to
the
contract;
and
may
be
reasonable
though
it
is
made
solely
in
the
interests
of
the
ship
or
solely
in
the
interests
of
the
cargo,
or
EXAMPLE
indeed
in
the
direct
interests
of
neither;
…
The
true
test
seems
to
be,
what
departure
from
the
contract
might
a
prudent
person
controlling
the
voyage
at
the
time,
make
and
maintain,
having
in
mind
all
the
relevant
circumstances
existing
at
the
time,
including
the
terms
of
the
contract
and
the
interests
of
all
parties
concerned,
but
without
obligation
to
consider
the
interests
of
anyone
as
conclusive…”
Jurisdiction
Ship
managers
need
to
be
aware
of
possible
problems
with
jurisdiction
and
where
the
case
will
be
held
regardless
of
what
clauses
are
contained
in
a
bill
of
lading.
In
the
Hollandia
[1882]
2
WLR
556
(Court
of
Appeal
Lord
Denning
MR)
the
bill
of
lading
contained
a
clause
stated
that
Dutch
law
should
apply.
At
that
time
Dutch
law
did
not
apply
the
Hague-‐Visby
Rules,
but
uses
its
predecessor
The
Hague
Rules
that
lessened
the
liability
of
the
carrier.
The
case
went
to
arbitration
in
the
United
Kingdom
and
it
was
decided
there
that
as
the
cargo
was
shipped
from
the
United
Kingdom,
although
the
contract
stated
that
Dutch
law
and
the
Hague
Rule
should
apply,
that
the
United
Kingdom
law
should
apply
which
incorporates
the
Hague
Visby
Rules.
The
message
is
clear,
if
you
amend
the
contract
of
carriage
to
permit
slow
speed
steaming,
virtual
arrival
or
any
other
GHG
reduction
strategy,
make
sure
you
are
aware
of
where
a
disputes
for
cargo
claims
are
going
to
be
brought
as
you
may
find
the
term
incorporated
into
the
contact
that
permit
this
do
not
apply.
(Cashmore)
65
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
6:
Major
players
involved
in
the
ship
of
goods
at
sea
In developing the policy ship managers should (at least) consider stakeholders such as;
66
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Meteorological
offices
Traffic
Management
Services
Effective
co-‐ordination
It
is
important
that
there
is
effective
co-‐ordination
amongst
all
the
stakeholders.
In
most
cases
co-‐ordination
will
be
administered
from
the
shore
office
rather
than
the
ship
but
the
ships
staff
should
still
be
involved
in
the
development
of
the
policy,
as
they
will
be
the
people
who
are
expected
to
implement
it.
Transport
efficiency
is
greatly
affected
by
time
spent
in
port
and
in
addition
to
the
parties
listed
above,
other
services
providers
such
as
shipping
agents,
stevedores,
tug
operators,
pilots
and
bunker
suppliers
will
have
a
role
to
play
in
minimising
time
spent
in
port.
The
inclusion
of
the
VTS
(Vessel
Traffic
Services)
may
be
consider
by
changing
the
queue
prioritisation
criteria
from
first
to
arrive
“first
in”
to
a
system
that
is
more
efficient
in
respect
to
cargo
handling,
berthing
and
mooring.
There
may
however
but
issues
with
this
particularly
option
in
a
‘on
berth
voyage
charter-‐party
where
it
may
prevent
the
ship
becoming
an
‘arrived
ship’
though
no
fault
of
the
ships
owner
or
operator.
Inter-‐modal
transportation
For
inter-‐modal
transportation
the
company
may
also
need
to
consider
stakeholders
in
other
transport
modes
by
road,
rail
or
sea.
This
first
section
will
mainly
deal
with
the
ship
operators,
charterers,
banks,
ship-‐manager
and
how
each
party
can
influence
the
companies
GHG
policy
within
the
legal
framework
of
the
transportation
of
good
by
sea.
(Branch)
Awareness
and
training
and
the
provision
of
guidance
and
advise
to
ship
and
shore
staff.
Increasing
the
energy
awareness
of
the
crew
by
means
of
training
can
lead
to
a
change
in
67
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
behaviour
that
has
a
positive
impact
on
the
reduction
of
ship
board
energy
use
and
fuel
consumption.
For
effective
implementation
of
the
company's
energy
efficiency
policy
it
is
necessary
to
raise
awareness
and
providing
the
necessary
training
both
for
shore
based
and
shipboard
personnel.
As
the
ship
is
operated
and
lived
on
by
the
ships
crew
they
will
have
a
major
role
in
any
methods
used
to
make
the
ship
more
energy
efficient
and
save
energy.
A
full
awareness
of
the
reasons
for
improving
efficiency
on
board
as
well
as
an
understanding
of
the
options
to
be
implemented
by
the
company
require
training.
Implementing
an
onboard
awareness
campaign
together
with
training
on
the
fundamentals
of
the
management
plan
can
ensure
the
efficiency
measures
agreed
by
the
company
are
implemented
successfully.
It
is
often
a
good
policy
for
officer
and
in
particular
senior
officers
joining
company
vessels
to
be
briefed
in
the
shore
office
by
the
superintendent
responsible
for
implementing
the
energy
efficiency
policy.
The
senior
officers
should
be
asked
to
study
the
documented
energy
efficient
policy
prior
to
joining
a
vessel
and
verify
that
they
understand
it.
If
this
is
not
practical
for
officers
at
operating
level
then
they
should
be
required
to
study
the
policy
document
on
board
and
confirm
that
they
have
read
and
understand
it.
The
designated
on
board
environmental
officer
may
consider
regular
onboard
awareness
and
training
programs
for
shipboard
personnel
which
could
form
part
of
the
onboard
Safety
Management
System
(SMS)
training
program.
The
results
of
these
training
sessions
should
be
reported
back
to
shore
office
for
information.
Energy
Audits
If
the
company
policy
decides
to
implement
energy
audits
for
the
electrical
systems
on
the
ships
in
the
fleet
it
will
be
necessary
to
train
the
crew
in
conducting
these
audits
so
that
they
can
effectively
identify
heat
losses.
68
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
understandable
objectives.
The
policy
should
including
the
roles
and
responsibilities
of
the
persons
tasked
with
implementation
and
also
include
any
targets
that
have
been
set.
As
the
setting
of
targets
is
voluntary
there
is
no
need
to
release
results
outside
the
company
and
the
company
will
not
subject
to
any
external
audit
by
the
Administration
or
PSC
officers.
The
Targets
should
be
measurable
and
easy
to
understand
for
example
it
could
be
the
annual
fleet
fuel
consumption
or
a
specific
energy
efficiency
target
taking
into
account
miles
travelled
and
cargo
carried.
Policy
document
The
policy
document
should
also
detail
how
it
intends
to
monitor
the
performance
of
any
measures.
The
results
of
the
monitoring
and
targets
should
also
be
made
available
to
relevant
employees
so
that
they
are
aware
of
the
progress
that
has
been
made
in
implementing
the
policy.
The
policy
should
also
stress
the
importance
of
the
ships
SEEMP
that
is
also
intended
as
a
management
tool
to
assist
the
company
in
managing
the
environmental
policy
of
all
its
vessels.
The
policy
should
contain
the
strategy
for
improving
the
utilisation
of
its
fleet's
capacity
and
stress
the
need
for
planning.
This
could
include
the
reduction
of
long
ballast
voyages,
port
down
time,
time
it
takes
to
load
or
discharge
or
the
use
shore
power
or
weather
routing
services.
The
policy
could
also
include
the
replacement
of
older
tonnage
new
more
efficient
ships
off
set
older
ships
on
its
fleet.
ISO
14001
The
company
policy
may
include
the
implementation
of
‘ISO
14001’
on
its
vessels
which
contains
procedures
for
selecting
the
best
environmental
measures
for
a
particular
vessel
and
then
sets
objectives
for
the
measurement
of
relevant
parameters
along
with
relevant
control
and
feedback
features.
The
implementation
of
‘ISO
14001’
also
has
the
advantage
that
some
ports
allow
a
reduction
in
port
dues
such
as
the
green
ship
programs
which
are
in
place
in
Rotterdam
and
Antwerp.
Other
equivalent
standards
may
be
used
and
recognized.
Adjust the company policy to provide for specific ships and specific trades
Specialised
ships
For
certain
specialised
ships
in
certain
trades
it
may
not
be
possible
to
use
many
on
the
methods
that
can
be
applied
to
normal
sea
going
vessels
so
other
options
should
be
looked
at.
An
example
of
this
would
be
trying
to
apply
slow
speed
streaming
or
virtual
arrival
to
a
fleet
of
dredgers,
DP
vessels
or
cable
laying
ship.
This
may
prove
difficult
if
not
impossible!
This
does
not
mean
that
the
company
policy
should
not
include
a
GHG
reduction
strategy
but
it
does
means
that
they
will
need
to
be
more
creative
in
formulating
it.
It
is
often
the
case
that
ships
that
perform
specialised
operations
and
ships
that
carry
passengers
use
a
much
higher
percentage
of
auxiliary
power
so
this
may
be
the
best
area
to
focus
the
companies
GHG
reduction
policy.
As
suggested
in
the
section
on
contract
of
carriage
a
particular
ship
on
a
particular
voyage
on
a
particular
contact
may
or
may
not
be
able
to
slow
speed
steam
or
apply
virtual
arrival
69
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
techniques,
which
is
why
both
the
ship
managers
and
chartering
department
must
be
involve
in
any
policy
decision
before
the
vessel
commences
the
voyage.
70
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
ships
in
the
fleet
to
verify
that
the
maintenance
required
by
the
planned
maintenance
system
is
being
carried
out
and
the
company
supplies
the
necessary
resources
in
the
way
of
parts
or
shore-‐side
assistance.
This
audit
of
the
ship
should
be
part
of
the
internal
audits
required
by
the
ISM
code
and
not
left
to
the
statutory
audit
for
the
issue
or
maintenance
of
the
safely
management
certificate
by
the
Administration
or
classification
society.
Speed
optimisation
does
not
mean
the
minimum
speed
as
sailing
at
less
that
optimum
speed
may
consume
more
fuel
rather
than
less.
A
ship
has
specific
operating
speed
that
the
engine
and
ship
is
designed
and
although
modern
engines
with
electronically
controlled
fuel
injection
do
have
a
wider
operation
power
outputs
that
will
maintain
high
efficiency
there
are
still
limits.
Engine
manufactures
power
to
fuel
consumption
curves
and
ships
propellers
curves
should
be
consulted
when
deciding
what
the
optimum
speed
for
a
particular
ship
on
a
particular
voyage
should
be.
The ships speed is normally defined by 3 categories that are;
-‐ Service speed (about 70% of the Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) of the engine)
-‐ Maximum speed (ship is running at MCR but with high fuel consumption)
The
speed
orders
given
by
the
company
or
charterer
should
be
defined
and
understood
by
all
parties
to
the
venture
so
that
there
is
no
misunderstanding
in
the
interpretation
by
the
different
parties.
Port
considerations
As
a
part
of
speed
optimisation
process
due
account
should
be
taken
of
the
need
to
co-‐ordinate
arrival
times
with
the
availability
of
loading
or
discharge
berths
on
a
particular
trade
or
route.
The
number
of
ships
engaged
on
that
trade
must
also
be
considered.
A
gradual
increase
in
71
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
speed
when
leaving
a
port
or
estuary
whilst
keeping
the
engine
load
within
certain
limits
may
help
reduce
fuel
consumption.
Regulatory
requirements
It
must
be
further
noted
that
to
comply
with
NOx
technical
code,
engine
operation
should
be
maintained
within
the
prescribed
range
defined
in
the
engine
technical
file
and
the
speed
must
be
consistent
with
charter
party
requirements.
An
emission
saving
can
be
gained
when
a
vessel
is
slow
steaming,
however,
the
specific
fuel
oil
consumption
will
decline
when
a
ship
is
no
longer
operating
at
its
design
speed.
If
the
power
consumption
of
individual
ships
is
reduced
by
the
third
power,
the
net
effect
on
emissions
is
a
second-‐power
reduction;
hence,
a
reduction
of
speed
by
10%
roughly
equates
to
a
reduction
in
shaft
power
by
27%
and
an
energy
saving
of
19%
on
a
tonne-‐mile
basis.
Reductions
in
scheduled
speed
(i.e.
accepting
longer
voyage
times)
will
increase
efficiency,
but
result
in
more
ships
being
needed
to
maintain
a
particular
service.
The
number
of
ships
on
a
particular
trade
will
therefore
need
to
be
taken
into
account
when
deciding
on
a
fleet
wide
slow
steaming
policy.
For
example,
slow
steaming
on
a
liner
container
run
may
require
the
use
of
another
ship
to
maintain
the
service
and
this
may
not
be
economically
viable
particularly
if
there
are
only
2
or
3
ships
presently
on
the
run.
Reductions
in
scheduled
speed
can
be
expensive,
since
they
directly
affect
the
amount
of
freight
carried
and
hence
the
income
of
a
ship.
However,
there
is
a
trade-‐off
between
freight
rates
and
fuel
cost,
as
when
freight
rates
are
low
and
fuel
prices
are
high
it
may
be
more
profitable
to
reduce
speed
and
save
fuel
costs
and
live
with
a
lower
freight
rate.
The
shipping
company
concerned
has
managed
to
get
savings
of
fuel
and
reduction
of
CO2
on
average
of
14%
per
vessel
and
10%
per
service.
It
was
found
that
a
ship
that
reduces
its
average
speed
from
20.5
Knots
to
19
knots
can
expect
to
release
16%
less
CO2
and
when
speed
is
reduced
by
20%,
fuel
consumption
is
reduced
by
approximately
40%
per
mile.
To
compensate
72
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
for
lower
average
speed
an
extra
vessel
(13
in
stead
of
12)
needed
to
be
added
to
ensure
the
same
frequency
of
service.
This
has
still
resulted
in
reduce
the
overall
reduction
of
from
12,000
MT
to
10,000
MT
which
means
a16%
savings
on
fuel
costs
as
well
as
reducing
pollutants
and
CO2.
The
flexibility
offered
by
slow
steaming
has
can
improve
the
fleets
reliability
as
the
lower
average
speeds
give
the
ships
the
flexibility
to
speed
up
to
when
needed
to
make
deadlines
when
other
ships
in
the
fleet
are
experiencing
delays.
The
shipping
company
also
achieved
an
overall
reduction
in
supply
chain
CO2
with
a
cut
of
emissions
per
container
by
12.5%
from
2007
to
2009
with
a
further
reduction
of
approximately
7%
over
the
next
2
year
per
moved
container.
The
benefits
to
customers
are
reduced
inventory
costs
as
the
produce
gets
there
on
time
with
reduced
warehouse
storage
time,
demurrage
and
detention
costs.
Slow
speed
steaming
also
helps
maintain
the
supply
chain
integrity
as
it
improves
the
speed
of
turn-‐
round
on
outstanding
freight
as
well
as
the
scheduling
of
labour
and
road/rail/ship
trans-‐shipment.
73
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
74
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Increased
freeboards
The
cost
of
port
dues
is
the
main
answers
to
the
question
of
why
it
can
be
advantages
to
have
several
assigned
freeboard.
The
reduction
of
gross
tonnage
of
the
ship
by
claiming
the
larger
freeboard
can
result
in
lower
port
dues.
If
a
ship
is
operating
on
a
trade
where
there
is
a
draught
restriction
in
the
port,
lack
of
transport
demand
or
where
the
cargo
has
a
high
volumetric
value
and
the
ship
does
not
need
to
go
down
to
its
maximum
assigned
freeboard
operating
on
the
increased
freeboard
with
a
reduced
gross
tonnage
can
reduce
port
dues
and
other
taxes
that
use
gross
tonnage
to
charge
the
ship.
Container
packing
A
Container
will
normally
be
stuffed
(packed)
in
a
warehouse
some
miles
from
the
port
and
transported
to
the
dock
by
a
truck.
As
the
packing
of
the
container
is
relatively
low
qualified
work,
often
the
persons
packing
the
container
will
have
little
knowledge
of
the
importance
of
lashing
the
cargo
properly.
In
addition,
the
weight
declaration
may
be
inaccurate.
“This discrepancy is widespread within the container ship industry and is due to many
packers and shippers not having the facilities to weigh containers on their premises. It is
also due to shippers deliberately under-declaring containers’ weights in order to: minimise
import taxes calculated on cargo weight; allow the over-loading of containers; and to keep
the declared weight within limits imposed by road or rail transportation.” (MAIB, 2008)
This
leads
to
the
situation
where
the
container
is
often
packed
poorly
with
little
regard
to
the
true
weight
of
the
cargo
being
packed.
The
container
is
then
moved
to
the
docks
by
either
truck
or
rail.
When
the
container
arrives
at
the
dock
with
it’s
manifest
of
cargo
containing
the
declaration
of
weights
that
were
declared
to
the
freight
forwarder
by
the
person
wanting
the
cargo
shipped
there
is
not
normally
a
check
of
the
weight
of
the
container
before
it
is
removed
from
the
truck
or
rail
carriage.
This
has
lead
to
a
situation
where
the
declared
weights
on
the
cargo
declaration
are
often
incorrect.
Once
on
the
ship
and
loaded
and
secured
it
is
impossible
to
weight
or
in
most
cases
even
open
the
container
to
check
that
the
weight
inside
it
are
as
declared.
On
some
occasions
the
first
the
ship
may
know
that
there
is
a
problem
is
when
the
cargo
is
discharged
and
it
is
found
that
it
is
too
heavy
to
be
lifted
by
the
ships
crane
or
shore
facilities.
This has lead to a situation where it is difficult for the ships master to rely on the weights
75
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
declared.
This
means
that
the
loading
plan
and
the
final
cargo
plan
provide
to
the
ship,
which
will
have
the
declared
weights
are
often
inaccurate.
This
can
lead
to
major
problems
particularly
if
the
container
is
carrying
dangerous
goods
that
have
not
been
declared
correctly
in
a
poorly
packed
container
with
incorrectly
declared
weights.
The
other
issue
is
that
if
the
cargo
weight
is
not
declared
correctly
loading
heavy
containers
on
top
of
light
container
outside
the
requirements
contained
in
the
ships,
cargo-‐securing
manual
can
lead
to
a
failure
of
the
structure
of
the
containers
on
deck
and
the
parting
of
the
container
lashings.
Such
poor
loading
could
and
has
led
to
containers
collapsing
on-‐deck/cargo
holds
or
overboard
in
heavy
weather.
The
ships
master
must
therefore
rely
on
the
ships
final
drafts
to
ensure
that
stability
is
maintained
though
out
the
intended
voyage
taking
into
account
the
consumption
of
fuel
oil
and
any
international
load-‐line
requirements.
The
master
will
then
ballast
the
ship
to
get
the
optimum
trim
for
the
actual
draft.
This
situation
does
not
normally
apply
to
general
cargo
ships
with
block
stowage
as
such
weight
are
normally
accurately
declared
but
may
do
if
they
are
also
carrying
a
number
of
incorrectly
declared
containers.
It
may
be
possible
in
some
situations
to
upgrade
the
cargo
equipment
either
fitted
to
the
ship
or
used
ashore
to
improve
the
energy
efficiency
of
the
operation.
This
may
require
the
development
and
installation
of
more
advanced
equipment
which
can
be
expensive,
however,
this
cost
may
well
be
off
set
by
a
more
speedy,
as
well
as
efficient,
load
and
discharge
of
the
vessel
reducing
downtime
and
the
need
to
pay
demurrage.
Both
the
owner
and
the
ports
concerned
should
consider
such
options.
76
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
method
of
discharge
or
loading
is
from
shore
equipment
the
amount
of
CO2
produced
will
depend
on
the
source
of
the
power.
If
it
is
from
hydroelectric
source
the
CO2
production
will
be
low
but
is
the
power
is
produced
from
coal
powered
power
stations
the
ships
own
generators
could
be
a
more
efficient
source.
Risk
of
installing
GHG
reducing
equipment
in
present
regulatory
context
If
new
equipment
is
installed
to
reduce
GHG
in
many
cases
it
will
result
in
the
internal
measured
dimensions
of
the
ship
on
which
the
gross
tonnage
is
measured
increasing.
The
international
tonnage
regulations
do
give
some
allowances
for
the
parts
of
the
ship
that
do
not
carry
cargo
but
if
a
ship
is
designed
with
GHG
reducing
equipment
that
increase
the
gross
tonnage
(GT)
there
will
be
a
financial
penalty
over
the
whole
lifetime
of
the
ship.
This
situation
could
be
resolved
by
amending
the
1969
convention
at
the
IMO
so
that
allowances
can
be
made
for
installation
of
equipment
that
reduce
GHG
but
this
has
proved
to
be
very
difficult
to
do
even
for
safety
reasons.
The
shipmanager
must
take
these
considerations
into
account
when
deciding
if
it
is
viable
to
install
any
new
equipment
to
reduce
GHG
on
a
new
or
existing
ship
if
the
modification
leading
to
an
increase
in
the
measured
gross
tonnage.
77
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Shipmanagers
options
There
are
many
different
ways
to
reduce
the
power
on
board
for
example,
low
energy
lighting,
energy
efficient
heating,
ventilation
and
air
conditioning.
The
technical
manager
should
also
be
aware
that
a
GHG
reduction
strategy
that
may
work
on
a
particular
type
of
ship
on
particular
trade
might
not
work
on
other
ships
operating
on
different
routes
and
carrying
different
cargoes.
This
section
will
look
at
the
options
the
ship
manager
has
managed
the
energy
of
the
fleet
and
where
GHG
savings
can
be
made.
Financial
viability
Perhaps
the
most
important
factor
when
considering
energy
management
is
the
cost
of
fuel
which
can
either
make
or
break
any
GHG
strategy
particularly
when
it
involves
buying
expensive
equipment.
Some
approaches
to
reduce
GHGs
are
only
financially
viable
when
oil
prices
reach
a
specific
level
and
are
expected
to
stay
above
that
level
long
enough
to
provide
an
adequate
financial
return
on
the
investment
in
the
particular
energy
efficiency
improvement
method.
78
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
EXAMPLE
Hull
form
Other
operators
have
concentrated
on
different
technologies
that
are
aimed
at
increasing
the
overall
efficiency
of
the
hull
to
reduce
the
power
needed
to
push
the
vessel
though
the
water
79
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
EXAMPLE
The
Vectis
Falcon
is
one
of
four
8,556
DWT
sister-‐ships
designed
in
the
Netherlands
and
built
with
a
number
of
GHG
reducing
features
including
a
hydrodynamically-‐optimised
hull
form
and
large
ducted
propeller
that
enable
the
ship
to
operate
with
de-‐rated
24,000kW
main
engines
and
to
perform
at
similar
levels
to
more
powerful
vessels.
The
ship
also
has
a
Groot
Cross-‐Bow
that
reduces
pitching
and
helps
cut
down
the
amount
of
water
that
is
shipped
on
deck
in
heavy
weather
resulting
in
reduced
load
fluctuations
of
the
main
engine
and
speed
losses.
Wind
power
With
a
kite
that
is
attached
to
the
bow
of
the
ship
wind
energy
can
be
used
to
substitute
the
power
or
the
ships
engines.
Can
be
used
on
vessels
with
a
minimum
average
length
of
30m
and
works
best
on
ships
with
an
average
speed
of
no
higher
than
16
knots.
This
system
can
be
retrospectively
fitted.
EXAMPLE
The
Sky
Sails
kite
is
expected
to
reduce
annual
fuel
bills
and
GHG
by
10-‐35%.
The
kite
operates
at
10
to
300m
above
sea
level
where
wins
are
stronger
and
more
stable
and
can
be
use
in
winds
of
up
to
40
knots.
80
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
9:
Wind
power
Flettner
Rotors
Rotors
place
on
deck
of
a
ship
can
generate
thrust,
taking
advantage
of
the
‘Magnus
Effect’.
Enercon
has
built
a
cargo
ship
equipped
with
four
wind
engines
that
started
operation
in
2011
carrying
turbine
blades
for
wind
farms.
The
likely
future
application
will
probable
be
with
large
oil
tankers
and
bulk
carriers.
EXAMPLE
The
E-‐Ship
is
equipped
with
nine
Mitsubishi
marine
diesel
engines
with
a
total
output
of
35
MW.
The
ship’s
exhaust
gas
boilers
are
connected
to
a
Siemens
downstream
steam
turbine,
which
in
turn
drives
four
Enercon-‐developed
Flettner
rotors.
These
rotors
resemble
four
large
cylinders
mounted
on
the
ship’s
deck,
are
27m
tall
and
4m
in
diameter.
The
system
relies
on
the
‘Magnus’
effect,
that
is
a
force
on
a
spinning
body
in
a
moving
air
stream,
which
acts
perpendicular
to
the
direction
of
the
air
stream.
Anton
Fetter
who
discovered
the
concept
built
a
ship
named
the
‘Buckau’
in
the
1920’s
where
this
effect
was
used.
81
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
EXAMPLE
NYK
Super
Eco
Ship
2030
is
used
as
a
benchmark
for
evaluating
the
technical
advances
made
in
reducing
GHG
at
the
year
2030.The
project
was
carried
out
by
NYK
Line
/
MTI,
(Japan),
Elomatic
Marine,
(Finland)
and
Garroni
Design,
(Italy).
Figure
11:
Eco
Ship
2030
Alternative
fuels
Making
use
of
alternative
fuels
will
lead
to
a
reduction
of
CO2
emissions
from
heating
and
separating
of
heavy
fuel
oil.
CO2
emissions
can
be
reduced
when
alternative
fuels
are
used
instead
of
or
as
well
as
diesel
oil.
LNG
and
biofuels
are
alternative
fuels
that
are
associated
with
lower
life-‐cycle
CO2
emissions.
For
instance
the
carbon
the
plants
absorbed
while
growing
offsets
the
carbon
emitted
when
burning
biofuels.
Biofuels
currently
include
the
“first-‐
generation”
biofuels
made
from
sugar,
starch,
vegetable
oil
or
animal
fats,
using
conventional
technology.
Among
these,
biodiesel
(Fatty
Acid
Methyl
Esters
or
‘FAME’)
and
vegetable
oils
can
be
used
for
ship
diesel
engines.
Biodiesel
could
substitute
distillate
fuels
and
vegetable
oils
could
substitute
residual
fuels.
With
some
biofuels,
there
may
be
issues
with
stability
during
storage,
acidity,
lack
of
water
shedding,
blocking
of
fuel
filters
and
wax
formation.
This
means
that
care
must
be
exercised
in
selecting
the
fuel
and
adapting
the
engine.
Blending
bio-‐derived
fuel
fractions
into
diesel
or
heavy
fuel
oil
is
also
possible
but
the
compatibility
must
be
checked.
Future
processes
to
convert
biomass
into
liquid
fuels
could
be
designed
to
produce
fuels
that
are
suitable
for
use
on
board
ships.
Currently,
biofuels
are
significantly
more
expensive
than
oil-‐
derived
fuels.
LNG
is
a
marine
fuel
that
delivers
very
significant
reduction
of
NOx,
SOx
and
PM
emissions
and
also
at
the
same
time
a
reduction
in
CO2
equivalents.
Where
available,
LNG
is
expected
to
remain
a
less
expensive
fuel
than
distillate
fuels.
This
combination
makes
it
particularly
interesting
for
use
within
future
ECAs.
There
are
however
problems
with
using
LNG
on
certain
types
of
ships
such
as
passenger
ships
with
the
need
to
store
large
tanks
of
fuel
and
biofuel
is
available
on
the
market
but
there
is
only
a
limited
supply.
Hybrid
Propulsion
Currently
most
tankers,
bulk
carriers,
container
ships
and
general
cargo
ships
have
one
large
low
speed
propulsion
engine
directly
connected
to
the
propeller.
This
arrangement
has
proven
to
be
very
efficient
and,
since
the
ships
operate
mainly
at
high
engine
load,
there
is
little
to
gain
by
82
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Heat
given
out
by
the
condensers
from
the
reefer
containers
operating
inside
the
cargo
hold
should
be
vented
outside,
otherwise
heat
will
build
up
inside
the
cargo
hold
and
the
refrigeration
machinery
will
not
function
efficiently.
The
ship's
cargo
hold
ventilation
system
should
be
designed
to
allow
the
required
number
of
air
changes
to
maintain
the
temperature
inside
the
hold
within
the
pre-‐set
limits.
Water
cooled
reefer
plants
have
a
much
lower
energy
consumption
so
can
lead
to
substantial
reduction
in
the
production
of
GHGs
than
current
systems.
When
water-‐cooled
condensers
are
used
the
cargo
hold
is
equipped
with
a
water
circulating
system.
Pipelines
running
along
the
sides
of
the
cargo
hold
can
be
connected
to
the
individual
reefer
containers
through
a
pair
of
flexible
pipes,
one
each
for
the
inlet
and
the
outlet.
Although
reefer
containers
are
usually
equipped
by
default
with
air-‐cooled
condensers,
some
are
designed
to
run
as
water-‐cooled
units.
To
improve
the
heat
transfer
across
the
condenser
coil,
all
reefer
units
have
a
condenser
fan.
When
fitted
with
an
optional
water
cooled
condenser
and
running
as
a
water
cooled
unit
a
pressure
switch
turns
off
the
condenser
fan
once
the
water
pressure
is
high
enough,
and
turns
it
on
again
if
the
pressure
drops.
Care
should
be
taken
that
reefer
containers
are
not
positioned
with
their
machinery
facing
each
other,
otherwise
the
hot
air
discharged
from
the
condensers
will
simply
be
cycled
back
through,
adversely
affecting
each
condenser's
performance.
In
addition,
enough
space
should
be
always
be
left
around
condensers
to
allow
air
to
flow
freely
to
and
from
them,
ensuring
optimum
performance.
83
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
ship's
power
supply
is
usually
designed
to
handle
the
power
needed
by
the
maximum
number
of
reefer
containers
the
ship
can
carry.
Each
reefer
container
is
estimated
to
consume
about
5KW
of
power
and
a
4,600
TEU
Panamax
container
ship
will
typically
have
capacity
for
700
reefer
plugs.
With
a
full
load,
18
tonnes
of
HFO
per
day
will
be
consumed
in
powering
them.
• Lights
in
all
common
places
such
as
recreation
room
for
officers
and
crew,
gymnasium,
cargo
control
room,
ship’s
office,
pantry,
galley,
dining
halls
may
be
switched
off
after
use
during
night
and
day
and
specially
between
2200
and
0600.
• Cabin
lighting
including
toilet
lights
to
be
switched
off
when
not
required.
• All
personnel
on
board
to
be
briefed
in
initial
familiarisation
and
during
onboard
training
conducted
by
shipboard
management
team.
• Where
practicable,
bulbs
are
to
be
changed
to
power
saving
bulbs
such
as
compact
fluorescent
lamps
or
halogen
or
sodium
vapour
lamps
to
improve
luminosity/watt.
Incandescent
bulbs
consume
more
energy
and
have
shorter
life
span
than
compact
fluorescent
bulbs.
However,
more
recently,
tube
fluorescent
lamp
(TFL)
technology
has
also
improved.
Ordering
the
newer
(T8
or
T5)
TFL
lamps
over
the
standard
TFL
(T10)
options
will
reduce
energy
consumption
levels.
• The
use
of
halogen
or
sodium
vapour
lamp
in
engine
room
is
to
be
regulated
and
put
off
when
not
required.
• The
use
high
power
lights
only
when
it
is
necessary.
• Painting
scheme
should
take
into
consideration
shades
that
would
give
better
light
effect.
Energy
Audit
An
Energy
Audit
is
an
independent
survey
and
assessment
of
the
overall
energy
consumption
and
efficiency
of
on
board
equipment
that
use
electricity.
These
surveys
and
assessments
involve
the
regular
survey
of
the
vessel’s
engine
room
and
other
locations
for
sources
of
energy
loss.
This
can
be
done
with
infrared
detectors
that
can
look
for
heat
sinks,
steam
leaks
and
inefficient
electrical
motors.
The
crew
can
conduct
the
energy
audit
but
it
may
be
necessary
to
contract
independent
experts
in
energy
to
initially
train
them.
Energy Audit has the potential to reduce GHG emissions by;
• Locating
and
minimising
heat
sinks
and
steam
leaks
by
using
infrared
detectors
and
reducing
the
effects.
• Identifying
inefficient
electrical
motors
and
installing
variable
frequency
drives
on
high
84
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
energy
consuming
circulating
pumps
and
forced
draft
fans.
To
allow
soft
stating
of
large
motors
like
fire
and
bilge
pumps
• As
electrical
motors
need
to
be
replaced,
install
new
motors
with
higher
energy
efficiency
ratings.
• If
may
e
necessary
to
contract
independent
expert
in
energy
to
train
the
crew
to
undertake
onboard
audits.
Electrical
services
The
Energy
Audit
should
include
a
review
of
the
electrical
services
on-‐board
which
can
produce
several
efficiency
gains
and
area
that
should
be
looked
at
are;
•
Fridge
•
Lighting
•
Sewerage
systems
• Washing
machines
•
Galley
stove
Air Conditioning
The
air
conditioning
plant
should
shut
off
when
ambient
temperature
permits
and
the
accommodation
heating
used
only
when
the
outside
temperature
warrant
it.
It
is
important
that
the
air
conditioning
plant
is
maintained
properly
so
that
it
will
not
waste
energy.
Refrigeration
System
Cold
rooms
and
refrigeration
plant
should
be
maintained
properly
to
avoid
running
refrigeration
plant
for
longer
than
necessary.
As
the
refrigerant
gases
can
leak
and
cause
a
significant
impact
on
GHG
emissions
regular
inspections
of
the
entire
refrigerant
systems
should
be
undertaken
to
reduce
and
leaks
and
improve
the
systems
efficiency.
85
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
risk
of
low
temperature
corrosion
on
the
gas
side
of
the
tubes.
The
sulphuric
acid
dew
point
temperature
is
assumed
to
be
at
130-‐140°C.
A
temperature
difference
of
40°C
must
be
considered
in
order
to
obtain
a
margin
when
the
gas
temperature
decreases
due
to
low
load
on
the
main
engine.
This
means
that
Exhaust
Gas
Boilers
are
not
designed
to
reduce
the
gas
temperature
at
the
EGB
outlet
below
170-‐180°C
at
the
continuous
service
rating
(CSR)
of
the
engine.
At
a
gas
temperatures
below
170-‐180°C,
the
vaporised
unburned
oil
particles
in
the
gas
condense
to
an
adhesive
mixture
of
soot
and
oil
resulting
in
deposits
on
the
tubes
and
the
heating
surface
of
the
exhaust
gas
boiler.
86
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
87
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Retrospective
fitting
of
waste
heat
recover
systems
and
there
uses
It
may
not
be
possible
to
retrospectively
fit
such
systems
into
existing
ships
but
they
may
be
a
beneficial
option
for
new
ships
and
ship
designers
and
builders
should
be
encouraged
to
incorporate
such
new
technology
into
their
designs.
If
auxiliary
boilers
on
diesel
driven
ships
are
used
for
supplying
steam
and
hot
water
for
non-‐propulsion
uses
then
wastes
heat
recovery
systems
may
be
an
option.
On
a
tanker
where
cargo-‐heating
systems
are
used
on
passage
to
keep
the
cargo
at
optimum
temperature
and
in
port
steam
turbines
are
used
to
offload
petroleum
crude
significant
energy
efficiency
gains
can
be
made.
On
passengers
ships
with
high
power
demand
both
at
sea
and
in
port
for
heating,
lighting
and
cooling
the
accommodation
waste
heat
recovery
can
be
effective.
Reefers
and
container
ships
carrying
significant
amounts
of
refrigerated
cargo
could
also
benefit
from
a
waste
heat
recovery
system.
88
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
these
systems
profitable,
the
number
of
installed
systems
is
relatively
small.
For
some
years,
more
advanced
systems
have
been
developed
and
are
commercial
viable
for
some
low-‐speed
engines.
B&W’s
system
TES
(thermo
efficiency
system)
combines
a
turbine
in
the
exhaust
gas
with
a
steam
cycle
that
is
driven
by
exhaust
heat
and
running
a
steam
turbine.
The
two
turbines
are
coupled
to
a
generator
for
production
of
electrical
power.
The
power
can
then
be
used
to
drive
a
shaft
generator/motor
to
assist
the
main
engine,
or
consumed
elsewhere
in
the
ship.
The
corresponding
increase
in
engine
power
is
estimated
to
be
EXAMPLE
in
the
range
of
9
to
11%,
which,
in
terms
of
shaft
efficiency,
increases
to
about
55%
(from
about
49.5%).
The
contributions
from
the
two
systems
are
respectively
5%
and
6%,
from
the
exhaust
turbine
and
the
steam
turbine.
The
efficiency
of
the
steam
cycle
is
somewhat
limited
by
the
minimum
recommended
temperature
of
the
exhaust
stack,
which
must
be
above
180°C
to
control
the
formation
of
deposits
and
the
corrosion
by
sulphur
oxides
that
are
related
to
the
use
of
heavy
fuel
oils.
Figure
12:
Thermo
Efficient
System
A
significant
barrier
to
the
use
of
such
systems
is
the
very
large
size,
weight
and
complexity.
This
causes
issue
of
space
required
in
the
engine
room
and
the
reduction
of
the
cargo
carrier
capacity
due
to
the
increase
in
weight.
These
installations
are
also
optimised
for
a
single
operating
point
with
the
power
production
rapidly
decreasing
at
other
loads
that
do
not
make
them
suitable
for
ships
that
vary
their
engine
speed
a
lot.
89
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
also
be
highlighted.
It
is
important
to
maintain
clean
surfaces
on
all
exhaust
gas
economisers
and
auxiliary
boilers
and
the
differential
pressure
across
the
economiser
and
its
gas
inlets.
The
exhaust
temperatures
should
be
constantly
monitored
and
adjusted
if
they
are
out
of
the
optimum
range.
Any
fouling
of
the
boiler
surface
either
on
the
water
or
gas
side
will
reduce
efficiency
so
auxiliary
boiler
exhaust
side
must
be
cleaned
regularly
to
keep
the
tube
surfaces
clean.
The
O analyser
and
the
piping
system
must
be
checked
prior
to
every
operation
as
if
the
2
sensing
or
sampling
lines
are
not
cleaned
and
either
condensation
or
dirt
in
the
line
which
prevents
a
good
flow
of
sample
gas
to
the
analyser
an
incorrect
O readings
will
be
obtained.
2
Incorrect
readings
can
mean
fuel
wastage,
as
the
load
on
the
boiler
will
be
increased
to
produce
the
correct
O
reading.
2
Composite boiler exhaust side must be cleaned regularly to keep the tube surfaces clean.
• Use
of
hot
water
calorifier
to
be
regulated
between
steam
/
electric
heating
depending
upon
easy
availability
of
steam.
Steam
trap
maintenance
should
be
carried
out
regularly.
Steam
traps
that
are
not
working
correctly
may
lead
to
the
loss
of
an
excessive
amount
of
additional
energy.
• All
steam
leakage
to
be
minimised
and
when
a
steam
leak
is
discovered
this
should
be
recorded
so
that
they
can
be
repairs
at
the
same
time
to
avoid
frequent
change
over
to
diesel
oil.
• Composite
boiler
is
to
be
used
during
anchorages
and
other
relevant
opportunities.
• Starting
of
auxiliary
boilers
too
far
in
advance
of
intended
use
is
to
be
avoided.
• Boiler
controls
setting
such
as
burner
control
and
water
level
setting
for
the
feed
pump
should
be
selected
so
a
to
minimise
energy
consumption.
• Steam
dumping
when
possible
is
to
be
avoided.
• Pipe/
valve
lagging
is
to
be
maintained
in
good
order
to
minimise
heat
loss.
• Steam
tracing
is
to
be
used
judiciously.
• Bunker
tank
heating
is
to
be
optimised.
• Auxiliary
boilers
should
only
be
shut
down
if
they
are
not
needed
for
a
reasonable
amount
of
time.
2.
Recording
the
exhaust
gas
temperature
difference
and
pressure
drop
can
provide
an
indication
of
economiser
cleanliness.
90
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
effect
of
surface
roughness
on
the
resistance
depends
on
the
effective
speed
of
the
water
relative
to
the
hull,
and
this
varies
over
the
hull
surface.
For
example
increased
surface
roughness
in
the
bow
area
will
cause
greater
resistance
than,
in
the
aft
areas
or
under
the
hull
bottom
because
the
effective
speed
of
the
water
will
be
less.
The
smother
the
hull
the
less
resistance
the
ship
will
have
to
the
water
it
is
moving
though
and
the
faster
it
will
go
for
the
same
power
output
saving
fuel
and
reducing
GHG.
Fouling
will
reduce
the
smoothness
of
the
hull
and
may
add
weight
to
the
vessel
reducing
the
cargo
carrying
capacity.
The
main
factors
that
influence
hull
fouling
are;
Biological
fouling
is
a
very
complex
process
that
depends
on
factors
such
as
the
ship’s
loading
condition,
its
operating
zones,
the
effectiveness
of
anti-‐fouling
paint
and
environmental
conditions.
If
a
ship
is
constantly
moving
it
will
not
gather
as
much
marine
growth
as
one
that
spends
long
periods
in
port
or
at
anchor.
If
a
vessel
is
left
static
for
extended
periods
it
will
allow
the
marine
growth,
that
cause
fouling,
to
attach
it
self
to
the
hull
and
propeller
which
will
reduce
the
speed
of
the
ship
and
increase
the
fuel
consumption.
Hull
cathodic
protection
also
91
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
In
water
inspections
Regular
in
water
inspections
of
the
hull
or
dry-‐docking
is
the
only
certain
way
of
assessing
what
the
condition
of
the
hull
coating
is.
The
speed
and
power
output
of
the
vessel
should
be
continually
monitored
to
establish
if
fouling
is
reducing
the
vessels
performance.
This
can
help
the
ship
operator
decide
what
the
in-‐
water
cleaning
or
dry
docking
interval
should
be.
The
condition
on
the
hull
should
be
assessed
regularly
in
line
with
the
period
detailed
on
the
SEEMP
and
this
period
my
need
may
need
to
be
reduced
if
substantial
fouling
is
evident.
If
a
ship
is
laid
up
for
any
period
of
time
an
in-‐water
survey
of
the
hull
is
advisable
and
if
the
fouling
is
significant
the
ships
hull
should
be
cleaned
and
the
anti-‐foul
reapplied.
Lay-‐up
If
a
ship
has
been
in
lay
up
in
a
high
fouling
area
for
a
long
time
it
may
need
to
be
taken
to
dry
dock
to
be
cleaned
before
it
can
be
put
into
service.
When
laying
up
a
ship
for
any
period
of
time
it
is
worth
considering
where
the
ship
is
going
to
be
moored
and
if
possible
avoid
an
area
that
is
subject
to
high
fouling.
The factors that govern the type of under water hull coating that may be applied to a ship are;
1. Cost
(the
more
effective
anti
fouls
tend
to
be
more
expensive)
2. Speed
of
vessel
(fast
vessels
such
as
HSC
tend
to
have
harder
coatings)
3. Fresh-‐water
or
salt-‐water.
92
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
4. Compatibility
(some
coatings
cannot
be
used
on
top
of
others
5. National
regulations
(some
types
of
anti
fouls
are
banned
in
certain
countries)
6. Severity
of
fouling
in
area
vessel
is
trading
(some
sea
areas
are
much
worse
than
others)
Since
the
banning
of
TBT
(The
International
Convention
on
the
Control
of
Harmful
Anti-‐fouling
Substances
on
Ships,
2001)
most
anti-‐fouls
are
self
polishing
copper
and
tin
based
paints
but
it
should
be
borne
in
mind
that
some
countries
are
either
banning
or
considering
banning
the
use
of
copper
based
paints
in
certain
areas
particularly
in
inland
waters.
Manufacturers
tend
to
keep
a
closed
lid
on
the
make
up
of
their
product
so
it
is
often
difficult
to
establish
exactly
what
is
in
them.
These
coatings
work
by
degrade
over
time
to
release
substances
that
inhibit
to
organic
growth.
Biocide-‐free
silicon-‐based
coatings
are
also
available
but
their
market
share
is
very
small
due
to
their
high
cost.
These
coatings
are
commonly
referred
to
as
“foul-‐release
coatings”
as
they
have
a
soft
surface
onto
which
it
is
difficult
for
most
organic
growth
to
hold.
Research
has
show
that
these
new
coatings
are
equally
as
effective
as
TBT-‐based
systems
but
there
is
still
some
debate
and
not
everyone
is
totally
convinced.
In
general
the
more
advanced
products
do
yield
better
results
however
if
a
particular
ship
operating
in
a
particular
area
is
fouling
up
significant
with
one
product
is
it
worth
considering
changing
to
a
different
one.
It
is
also
worth
talking
to
other
operators
operating
ships
in
the
same
area
and
asking
which
produce
they
find
works
best
as
they
can
give
unbiased
advice
which
you
may
not
get
from
a
paint
manufacturer.
During
the
operation
of
the
ship,
surface
roughness
can
increase
due
to
cracking
and
damage
to
the
coating
as
well
corrosion
which
can
also
attract
marine
growth.
The
growth
of
organic
species
will
include
slime,
weed
fouling,
and
barnacles.
Current
antifouling
paints
tend
to
last
for
a
maximum
period
of
3–5
years
when
the
self-‐polishing
coating
must
be
renewed
however
its
performance
is
reduced
gradually
over
time
but
generally
the
first
6
months
will
give
the
best
performance.
The
hull
will
also
require
brushing
that
can
either
be
performed
by
divers
or
automatically
with
either
the
whole
hull
or
just
critical
parts
being
targeted.
Having
a
shorter
interval
between
the
applications
of
coatings
may
therefore
reduce
energy
consumption
but
there
are
some
problems
as
the
ship
will
require
an
additional
dry-‐docking
that
is
very
costly
and
the
number
of
dry
docks
is
limited.
Another
problem
is
that
invasive
species
which
may
be
removed
into
the
surrounding
waters
when
cleaning
which
have
made
many
ports
reluctant
in
allowing
this
in
their
port
and
have
introduced
restrictions
on
brushing.
For
the
ship
operator
to
assess
the
performance
of
the
hull,
which
is
the
speed
obtained
in
relation
to
the
consumption
of
power
or
of
fuel
then
they
must
know
the
ships
speed
though
the
water
without
the
effects
of
weather,
tides
or
currents.
This
is
very
difficult
to
calculate
accurately,
particularly
on
a
voyage,
as
these
outside
factors
may
vary
quit
a
bit
over
the
duration
of
the
voyage.
The
best
option
would
be
to
conduct
performance
monitoring
in
the
form
of
periodic
speed
trials
over
a
set
distance,
in
both
direction
and
in
calm
water
but
this
is
not
always
possible.
Future
coatings
and
the
application
of
polymers
and
air
lubrication
Modifying
the
wetted
surface
of
the
hull,
such
as
by
introducing
riblets
that
mimic
shark
scales
can
reduce
frictional
resistance.
It
can
also
be
reduced
by
applying
artificial
enhancement
such
93
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
as
air
bubbles
and/or
air
cavities
and
polymers.
Such
improvements
to
the
wetted
surfaces
of
the
hull
may
also
inhibit
organic
growth.
Research
is
taking
place
regarding
air
lubrication
on
hull
forms
but
it
has
not
provided
significant
improvements
to
date
and
none
of
the
above
technologies
have
been
proven
in
service.
Additionally,
an
air-‐bubble
system
(e.g.
ACS)
requires
energy
to
produce
the
bubbles
that
would
have
a
negative
impact
on
GHG
reduction.
Hull
coatings
based
on
nanotechnology
are
being
developed
and
it
is
claimed
that
these
coatings
have
the
potential
of
reducing
the
basic
viscous
frictional
resistance
of
the
underwater
hull
to
a
considerably
and
to
delay
the
onset
of
marine
growth
for
a
long
time
and
if
the
claims
are
correct
then
power
reductions
of
15%
may
be
expected.
These
new
types
of
coating
of
the
underwater
hull
could
be
the
most
important
contributions
toward
reducing
fuel
consumption
and
CO2
emissions
for
both
new
and
existing
ships.
94
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• While
draining
fuel
tanks,
ensure
that
only
water
is
drained
and
not
the
fuel.
This
will
avoid
wastage
of
fuel
and
avoid
unnecessary
accumulation
of
fuel
in
waste
oil
tanks
which
will
require
burning
in
incinerator
thereby
causing
more
fuel
wastage;
• Fuel
combustion
equipment
is
maintained
in
optimum
working
condition
(especially
the
injectors)
to
ensure
good
combustion
of
fuel;
• Reduce
leakage
of
fuel
and
compressed
air
so
that
machinery
runs
more
efficiently
and
for
less
time;
• In
ports/anchorages/storage
periods,
M.E
jacket
water
temperatures/
bunker
tanks
temperatures/fuel
oil
temperatures
of
M.E
to
be
regulated/monitored
to
keep
load
sufficiently
low
on
composite
boiler.;
• Number
of
Engine
room
ventilation
fans
running
should
be
regulated
in
engine
room
especially
during
colder
climates
and
in
ports
related
to
running
machinery/equipment
requirements.
• Optimal
maintenance
of
main
engines
to
ensure
that
they
are
operating
at
the
most
effective
pressures.
Savings
of
1–2%
of
the
fuel
consumption
of
the
main
engine
through
“tuning”
have
been
achieved
with
more
in
some
cases
with
an
the
average
potential
of
around
1%.
95
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
considered.
Engine Upgrades
96
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
increase
power
output
and
upgrade
packages
are
becoming
more
common
as
fuel
prices
are
rise.
The
revised
MARPOL
Annex
VI
and
its
provisions
for
existing
engines
may
make
engine
upgrading
more
attractive
and
create
an
incentive
for
engine
upgrades.
It
could
offer
an
extended
service
life
to
older
engines
and
business
opportunities
to
engine
manufacturers.
A
typical
engine
upgrade,
targeted
at
reducing
NOx
emissions,
must
also
include
components
to
restore
and
even
reduce
the
fuel
consumption
caused
by
the
retarded
fuel
timing.
These
components
of
the
upgrade
are
usually
included
in
an
upgrade
package
for
example:
• Turbocharger
or
parts
for
re-‐matching,
in
order
to
increase
charge
air
pressure
• Pistons
or
piston
crowns,
with
design
modifications
to
increase
compression
ratio
• Fuel
pumps
or
fuel
cams
to
increase
injection
rate
• Fuel
nozzles,
with
increased
flow
capacity,
to
match
the
increase
in
injection
rate.
• More
efficient
charge
air
cooler.
• Piston
rings.
• Bearing
shells
for
connecting
rods
and
main
bearings.
The
results
on
engine
parameters
of
a
well-‐balanced
upgrade
package
could
reduced
NOx
emissions
by
20–30%,
reduced
smoke
emissions,
reduced
CO
emissions,
reduced
SFOC
by
up
to
3%
with
even
higher
figures
possible
for
older
engines.
In
Port
All
non-‐essential
machinery
and
equipment
not
affecting
safety
should
be
stopped
whilst
in
port
to
reduce
the
load
on
generators.
In
mooring
operations
in
port
and
anchoring
hydraulic
power
pumps,
pump
room
blowers
should
be
stopped
immediately
after
completion
of
work.
Pumps
such
as
ballast
pumps,
fire
pumps
should
not
be
run
unnecessarily
sea
to
sea.
Mooring
winches
and
windlass
power
should
be
switched
off
when
not
in
use
and
hydraulic
motors
should
not
be
run
unnecessarily.
Hydraulic
leakage
should
be
eliminated
to
ensure
efficient
functioning
of
the
equipment.
After
finishing
with
main
engines
systems
such
as
lubricating
oil
camshaft
pumps
should
be
switched
off
as
soon
as
possible
inline
with
the
engine
manufactures
recommendations.
To
reduce
load
on
the
generator
a
check
should
be
kept
on
compressed
air
97
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
leakage
in
engine
room
and
on
deck.
Any
leakage
should
be
repaired
to
avoid
frequent
cutting
in
and
out
or
continuous
running
of
air
compressors.
This
will
also
reduce
maintenance
costs
on
air
compressors.
1. Windlass;
2. Steering
motors;
3. Fire-‐pumps;
4. Winch
power
5. Deck
crane
power;
6. Cargo
pumps;
7. Cargo
hold
fans;
8. Ballast
pump;
9. Hold
bilge
pumps;
10. Deck
air;
11. Hydro
blaster-‐grit
blaster;
and
any
other
equipment
used
on
deck
to
ensure
that
the
generator
is
not
kept
running
idle
for
long
periods.
If
possible
work
should
be
programmed
so
that
two
generators
are
run
for
a
set
period
instead
of
completing
work
that
require
additional
deck
or
engine
room
power
independently.
The
aim
should
be
to
promote
better
communication
between
the
deck
and
engine
department
on
cargo
and
ballast
pump
usage
to
avoid
running
pumps
unnecessarily
for
long
periods.
The
ship
should
have
regular
meeting
to
discuss
the
impacts
of
running
deck
machinery
listed
above
and
look
at
ways
of
reducing
wastage
of
power.
At
sea
the
fresh
water
hydrophore
should
be
properly
charged
in
order
to
prevent
frequent
running
of
hydrophore
pump.
The
importance
of
determining
the
correct
fuel
type
for
the
engine
and
the
potential
GHG
reduction
Bunkers
come
in
a
wide
variety
of
quality
levels
and
are
blended
in
various
ways
to
meet
the
ISO
specification
8217.
The
optimum
usage
of
heavy
fuel
oil
and
lubrication
oil
purifiers
can
reduce
wear
on
the
diesel
engines.
Using
better
quality
fuel
or
a
higher
grade
of
fuel
can
lead
to
an
improvement
in
engine
efficiency
and
prevent
degradation.
The
requirements
contained
in
Annex
VI
of
MARPOL
to
reduce
the
levels
of
sulphur
in
bunker
fuel
is
increasing
the
danger
of
higher
levels
of
catalytic
fines
(small
highly
abrasive
particles)
getting
into
the
fuel
from
the
dilutant
used
to
make
the
fuel
workable.
Every
precaution
should
be
taken
to
try
to
avoid
mixing
98
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
incompatible
parcels
of
fuel
which
is
the
most
common
problem
with
the
bunker
fuel
mixing
leading
to
clogged
of
filters
and
the
possibility
of
engine
shut
down.
Fuel
should
be
consumed
in
a
first
in
-‐
first
out
basis
and
the
ship
should,
if
possible,
avoid
carrying
fuel
that
is
over
a
few
months
old.
The
longer
fuel
is
kept
onboard,
the
longer
the
solids
in
the
fuel
are
likely
to
drop
out,
with
a
higher
potential
for
reliability
problems
such
as
filter
clogging.
Fuel
that
cannot
be
used
for
any
reason
should
be
de-‐bunkered
as
soon
as
possible
in
consultation
with
vessel’s
technical
superintendent.
The
vessels
should
only
carry
the
most
economical
amount
of
bunkers
that
is
permissible
for
the
current
trading
pattern
taking
into
account
the
need
to
have
an
adequate
reserve
and
any
requirements
of
the
charter-‐party.
99
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
operational modes do perform better but many older engines will use this system.
100
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
3 Conclusion
Module
2
This
relatively
short
introduction
to
the
issues
facing
the
ship-‐manager
in
formulating
an
effective
fleet
energy
efficient
plan
is
intended
to
highlight
the
importance
of
multi-‐
stakeholders’
involvement
and
commitment.
This
paper
also
stressed
the
link
between
fuel
saving
and
GHG
reduction
creating
incentive
for
the
owner
to
reduce
GHG
emission.
The
importance
of
taking
full
account
of
the
contact
of
carriage
is
also
emphasised
particularly
with
relationship
between
bill
of
lading
and
charter
parties.
Fleet
optimisation
and
slow
speed
steaming
were
also
discussed
including
the
importance
of
taking
account
of
the
loading
and
discharging
of
the
cargo
at
the
ship
shore
interface.
The
paper
also
covered
the
technical
management
of
the
ship
and
the
importance
of
the
role
of
the
technical
management
to
support
GHG
savings
including
any
limitations
that
may
be
imposed
on
the
grounds
of
safety,
cost
and
regulatory
conflict.
The
importance
of
the
overall
energy
management
of
the
fleet
as
a
whole
is
vital
if
the
company
is
to
produce
an
effective
energy
management
policy.
The
company
should
undertake
continues
performance
monitoring
of
all
equipment
that
uses
energy
on
board
and
have
a
coherent
policy
on
heat
management.
Essential
areas
for
GHG
emission
savings
will
include
the
hull
and
propeller
and
the
main
and
auxiliary
engines.
Operations
should
be
planned
and
monitored
and
there
should
be
an
effective
planned
maintenance
and
repair
regime
that
is
included
in
the
ships
safety
management
system.
101
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
1. The
link
between
fuel
savings
and
GHG
reduction
and
the
incentives
for
operators
to
improve
fuel
consumption.
2. The impact of shipping contract of carriage and conflicts of interest.
3. The
Energy
efficiency
policy
and
commitments
and
the
need
to
adjust
the
policy
for
specific
ships
on
specific
trades.
The
importance
of
awareness
and
training.
4. Fleet
optimisation
and
adjusted
steaming
speed
including
slow
speed
steaming
and
its
limitations
and
the
determination
of
the
optimum
speed.
The
role
of
the
technical
management
to
support
GHG
savings
and
the
considerations,
including
any
limitations,
in
terms
of
safety,
cost
and
regulatory
conflict
for
the
following;
Note
all
times
are
approximate
and
exercises
could
be
completed
at
the
end
of
each
part
rather
than
each
section.
102
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
103
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
MODULE
3
Port
stay
and
its
impacts
104
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Contents
List
of
Figures
.......................................................................................................................................
107
List
of
Tables
........................................................................................................................................
107
Module
Aims
and
Learning
Objectives
....................................................................................................
108
1
Port
operations
and
the
importance
of
time
in
port
........................................................................
109
1.1
Introduction
...............................................................................................................................
109
1.2
Activities
in
port
operations
.......................................................................................................
110
1.3
Impact
of
port
time
on
efficient
ship
operation
.........................................................................
111
1.3.1
Ship’s
(voyage)
time:
time
at
sea
and
time
in
port
.............................................................
111
1.3.2
Time
in
port
.........................................................................................................................
112
1.3.3
The
importance
of
“time-‐in-‐port”
for
efficient
ship
operations
.........................................
113
1.4
Just-‐in-‐time
arrival/departure
and
improved
cargo
handling
....................................................
119
1.4.1
Just-‐in-‐time
arrival
and
departure
......................................................................................
120
105
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
2.8.4
Differentiated
ship
registration
fees
based
on
EEDI
...........................................................
147
2.8.5
Environmental
Ship
Index
(ESI)
...........................................................................................
148
2.9
References
.................................................................................................................................
149
106
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
3:
Breakdown
of
ship's
time
in
port
..............................................................................................
113
Figure
4:
Relationships
among
ship
operating
profit,
berthing
time
and
waiting
time
...........................
117
Figure
5:
Ship
operating
profit
in
relation
to
ship
speed
with
port
time
as
a
parameter
........................
118
Figure
6:
Schematic
diagram
of
container
terminal
operations
with
activities
.......................................
120
Figure
7:
Application
of
berthing
request
................................................................................................
121
Figure
8:
MPOS
and
port
services
............................................................................................................
122
Figure
9:
Overview
of
the
Virtual
Arrival
process
....................................................................................
126
Figure
10:
Fuel
consumption
(8,000
TEU)
................................................................................................
129
Figure
11:
Annual
fuel
cost
(8,000
TEU)
..................................................................................................
129
Figure
12:
Annual
fixed
costs
and
port
cost
(8,000
TEU)
.........................................................................
130
Figure
13:
Annual
operating
cost
(8,000
TEU)
.........................................................................................
130
Figure
14:
Annual
amount
of
GHG
emissions
(8,000
TEU)
......................................................................
131
Figure
15:
Annual
external
cost
(8,000
TEU)
...........................................................................................
131
Figure
16:
The
changes
of
operating
cost
in
each
type
of
vessel
............................................................
132
Figure
17:
Annual
amount
of
GHG
emissions
in
each
type
of
vessel
.......................................................
132
Figure
18:
Selected
service
loop
on
Asia-‐Europe
route
...........................................................................
135
Table
4:
Basic
service
pattern
of
service
loop
..........................................................................................
136
Table
5:
The
fixed
costs
of
each
type
of
vessel
........................................................................................
136
Table
6:
Characteristics
of
each
type
of
vessel
........................................................................................
137
107
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
aim
of
Part
1
is
to
investigate
the
operational
issues
on
how
time
in
port
affects
the
efficient
ship
operation
in
terms
of
fuel
consumption,
operating
costs,
and
in
particular
GHG
emissions.
The
aim
of
Part
2
is
to
introduce
the
concept
of
onshore
power
supply
as
the
main
way
of
reducing
air
emissions
in
ports
while
also
considering
other
port-‐related
green
initiatives.
By
the
completion
of
this
Module,
participants
will
be
able
to:
• Recognise the importance of port time in the efficient ship operation context;
• Identify factors in port operations that affect efficient ship operations;
• Describe
the
close
relationships
between
port
authorities
and
ship
operators
in
terms
of
just-‐
in-‐time
arrival/departure
and
reliability;
• Calculate how much fuel can be saved by reducing port time in a case study;
• Explain
why
onshore
power
combined
with
just-‐in-‐time
operations
can
significantly
reduce
port-‐related
pollutions;
• Discuss
the
requirements
at
port-‐side
and
ship-‐side
to
enable
an
effective
and
universal
OPS
system;
• Be able to analyse the impact of OPS on ship-‐at-‐berth air emissions and energy efficiency;
108
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
main
goal
of
Part
1
is
to
investigate
the
operational
issues
on
how
time
in
port
affects
the
efficient
ship
operation
in
terms
of
operating
costs,
GHG
emissions
and
externalities.
For
this,
a
case
study
is
introduced
to
analyse
the
relationship
between
ship
speed,
operating
costs
and
external
effects.
1
Growth
Berth
Time
(GBT)
is
defined
as
number
of
container
moves
or
tons
of
cargo
(for
break-‐bulk
and
bulk
cargoes)
divided
by
the
vessel’s
total
time
at
berth
measured
from
first
line
to
pier
to
last
line
let
go.
109
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
1:
Schematic
diagram
on
container
terminal
operations
When
berthed,
the
CIQ
(custom,
immigration
and
quarantine)
authorities
may
board
the
ship.
Usually
cargo
handling
is
not
made
until
the
authorities
have
completed
their
inspections,
with
the
exception
of
the
container
shipping
business.
In
dedicated
container
terminals,
container
boxes3
are
unloaded
and
loaded
usually
using
a
gantry
crane4
at
the
apron
where
containers
are
moved
to
or
from
storage
by
in-‐terminal
movement
vehicles
(IMV).
Once
the
container
cargoes
are
unloaded,
they
are
transferred
to
an
assigned
slot;
this
is
a
space
in
the
yard
where
storage
operations
occur.
2
Line
handling
boat(s)
could
be
employed,
if
necessary.
3
Container
size
is
measured
in
terms
of
20-‐foot
equivalent
unit
(TEU).
A
typical
container
is
one
TEU
(20
footer)
or
1
FEU
(40
footer)
that
is
two
TEUs.
4
Some
ships,
referred
to
as
“geared”
vessels,
have
their
own
cranes,
but
these
are
not
as
productive
as
gantry
cranes.
110
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
containers
are
stored
until
they
are
inspected
and
claimed
by
the
consignee
(importers).
The
containers,
then,
are
moved
from
the
yard
onto
trucks
(or
railcars)
for
their
final
destinations
through
the
gate
operation.
Gate
processing
includes
weighing
the
container,
reviewing
paperwork,
and
conducting
a
security
check.
1.3.1 Ship’s (voyage) time: time at sea and time in port
Tough
competition
in
the
last
couple
of
decades
has
caused
container
shipping,
in
particular,
to
be
able
to
achieve
profit
only
through
economies
of
scale.
This
has
led
to
larger
ships,
and
ever
shorter
cargo
handling
times
and
demurrage5.
Today,
new
potential
for
economisation
can
only
be
achieved
by
reducing
operating
costs.
The
result
is
that
any
shift
in
energy
prices
directly
impacts
the
profitability
of
operations.
Two
ways
out
of
this
predicament
are
either
to
use
"slow
steaming",
meaning
a
ship's
speed
is
reduced
to
save
fuel,
or
to
deploy
even
bigger
ships,
allowing
the
higher
fuel
costs
to
be
spread
over
the
additional
tonnage.
However,
increasingly
strict
environmental
requirements
in
harbors
and
on
routes
limit
the
engine
size
and
thus
the
size
of
the
ships.
Concurrently
the
expected
return
on
investment
(ROI)
for
new
ships
will
fall
well
below
expectations
in
the
coming
years
due
to
a
prevailing
overcapacity
at
present.6
When
it
comes
to
the
operation
of
container
shipping
lines,
the
timetables
of
the
routes
are
normally
fixed.
If
the
ships
are
delayed
in
port
at
some
points,
they
are
forced
to
make
up
for
the
lost
time
by
increasing
their
speeds
at
sea.
As
illustrated
in
Figure
2,
ship’s
(voyage)
time
is
composed
of
‘time
at
sea’
and
‘time
in
port’.
5
Demurrage,
by
definition,
refers
to
1.
the
delay
of
a
ship
at
mooring
beyond
the
time
stipulated
for
unloading
or
other
purposes
and
2.
the
charge
levied
for
such
delay.
The
charge
levied
by
the
shipping
line
on
the
consignee
if
the
container
is
not
cleared
and
returned
to
the
nominated
empty
depot
within
the
specified
free
days
offered
by
the
line.
For
example,
it
can
be
calculated
from
the
day
the
container
unloaded
from
the
vessel
or
other
conveyance,
until
the
day
the
consignee
picks
up
the
container.
6
Industry
Sector
-‐
Drive
Technologies
Division
(2012).
Press:
Siemens
delivers
transparency
for
sustainable
ship
operations.
SIEMENS.
Nuremberg,
Hamburg
(Germany),
September
5,
2012.
111
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
2:
Composition
of
ship's
voyage
time
in
container
shipping
line
Ports
are
essentially
providers
of
service
activities,
in
particular
for
vessels,
cargo
and
inland
transport.
The
degree
of
satisfaction
that
is
obtained
on
the
basis
of
pre-‐set
standards
will
indicate
the
level
of
port
performance
achieved.
It
is
obvious
that
port
performance
levels
will
be
different
depending
on
the
ships,
cargoes
or
inland
transport
vehicles
that
are
served.
Port
performance
cannot
be
assessed
on
the
basis
of
a
single
value
or
measure.
In
fact,
a
meaningful
evaluation
of
a
port’s
performance
will
require
sets
of
measures
that
include
a
ship’s
time
in
port.8
Figure
3
shows
the
times
at
which
each
step
starts
and
stops
as
documented
in
the
port,
allowing
for
the
calculation
of
a
variety
of
parameters
(or
indicators)
that
the
shipping
industry
uses
to
calculate
performance.
7
Otherwise
called
as
‘port
time’
or
‘ship
turnaround
time
(in
port)’
8
G.
De
Monie
(1987).
Measuring
and
evaluating
port
performance
and
productivity.
UNCTAD
Monographs
on
Port
Management.
A
series
of
monographs
prepared
for
UNCTAD
in
collaboration
with
the
International
Association
of
Ports
and
Harbours
(IAPH).
112
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
3:
Breakdown
of
ship's
time
in
port
The
ship’s
time
in
port
of
a
given
vessel
on
a
given
call
is
an
important
concern
in
an
efficient
ship
operation
for
shipping
lines.
The
shorter
the
better!9
Port
time
(or
Ship’s
time
in
port
or
Ship
turnaround
time)
is
the
time
duration
between
a
ship’s
arrival
at
the
entrance
buoy
and
ship’s
departure
from
the
same
buoy.
It
consists
of
waiting
time,
manoeuvring
time,
berthing
time,
productive
time
and
idle
time.
A
reduction
of
any
of
these
will
improve
the
overall
productivity
of
the
ship
in
port.
Among
these
times,
in
particular
‘waiting
time’
and
‘berthing
time’
must
be
emphasised
since
they
are
crucial
criteria
in
ports
facing
latent
or
acute
port
congestion.
In
a
nutshell,
measures
of
the
duration
of
a
‘ship’s
stay
in
port’
are
key
indicators
of
the
service
quality
that
is
offered
to
shipping
lines.
A
simple
model
is
introduced
here
as
a
means
of
coming
to
grips
with
the
essentials
of
time
in
port.
A
hypothetical
ship
is
carrying
cargo
from
its
port
of
origin
to
the
port
of
destination,
then
making
the
return
trip
in
ballast.10
9
From
the
viewpoint
of
transport
economics,
this
is
true.
Whatever
the
transport
mode,
e.g.
ship,
airplane,
train,
taxi,
etc,
it
must
move
to
make
operating
profits;
when
standing
still
no
income
is
generated!
113
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
For
analysis,
some
definitions
are
made
with
denotations
as
shown
in
Table
1.
If
we
define
Td
as
‘the
number
of
days
spent
per
return
trip
at
sea’,
Annual
ship
operating
cost
(Sp)
is
as
follows:
($/year)
(5)
Total
crew
cost
=
aw·∙
Ncw
($/year)
10
Junichi
Imakita
(1979).
A
Techno-‐Economic
Analysis
of
the
Port
Transport
System.
Saxon
House.
114
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
(6)
Total
ship
operating
cost
(Csp)
($/year)
(7)
Total
income
(Rsp)
($/year)
(8)
From
equations
(7)
and
(8),
the
annual
operating
profit
(Psp)
can
be
calculated
as
follows:
(9)
Annual
operating
profit
per
ton
(Psp’)
can
also
be
calculated
as
follows:
(10)
From
the
equation
(10),
if
the
ship’s
speed
is
not
greatly
changed
to
compensate
for
the
delay
in
port,
the
profit
per
freight
ton
for
operating
the
ship,
in
terms
of
the
length
of
port
time,
is
the
function
of
the
coefficients
including
the
annual
ship
operating
cost
and
annual
crew
cost.
Practical
example
Taking
a
practical
example,
as
shown
in
Table
2,
suppose
that
a
ship
with
a
capacity
of
27,000dwt
is
operated
at
about
15
knots;
a
normal
cruising
speed
(namely,
360
nautical
miles
per
day).
It
consumes
50
tons
of
bunker
oil
per
day
at
USD150
per
ton,
for
a
return
voyage
distance
of
5,000
nm.
115
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Table
2:
Practical
example
of
ship
journey
cost
model
From
equation
(5),
Sp
=
USD4,140,808.92
From
equation
(9),
the
ship
operating
profit
that
is
the
function
of
a
ship’s
time
in
port
can
be
shown
as
in
Equation
(11):
(11)
Here,
the
crew
cost
is
not
affected
by
the
change
of
ship
journey
frequency
and
the
ship
speed
is
not
to
be
greatly
changed
to
make
up
for
the
excess
delays.
As
far
as
ship
operating
profit
on
a
yearly
basis
is
concerned,
what
would
happen
if
port
time
increases
from
20
to
25
days?
From
Equation
(11),
11
20
/
{(20
+
5,000/360)}
116
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
4:
Relationships
among
ship
operating
profit,
berthing
time
and
waiting
time
This
implies
that,
if
either
or
both
of
the
operations
of
the
two
ports
are
disrupted
for
any
reason,
and
the
aggregate
port
time
exceeds
about
22
days,
then
an
operating
loss
will
be
incurred.
Sensitivity
to
ship
speed
with
port
time
as
a
parameter
With
the
practical
model
mentioned
above,
it
is
also
possible
to
check
the
effects
of
varying
ship
speeds.
As
expected
from
Equation
(9),
there
is
a
trade-‐off
between
the
freight
revenue
and
the
fuel
cost.
The
former
increases
as
the
ship
speed
increases,
through
quicker
and
more
ship
voyage
turnover,
while
the
latter
also
increases
with
the
increase
of
ship
speed
that
leads
to
reduction
of
the
profit
margin.
The
sensitivity
of
ship
operating
profit
depends
definitely
on
ship
speed
as
well
as
on
port
time.
By
using
all
the
constraints
given
in
the
practical
example,
but
leaving
only
Vsp
and
Tp
as
variables,
we
get
the
following
Equation
(12)
from
Equation
(9).
(12)
With
Equation
(12),
we
can
construct
Figure
5
that
shows
the
ship
operating
profit
in
relation
to
the
ship
speed,
with
port
time
as
a
parameter.
Ship
speed
zero
means
the
lay-‐up
of
the
ship,
thus
incurring
only
the
fixed
cost
(capital
plus
labour)
with
no
freight
revenues.
For
the
three
cases
given
in
Figure
5
where
port
time
is
15,
20
and
25
days,
the
ship
operating
profit
(SOP)
increases
as
ship
speed
becomes
greater,
but
only
up
until
a
certain
point,
where
the
SOP
reaches
its
maximum,
and
beyond
which
it
gradually
decreases.
117
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
5:
Ship
operating
profit
in
relation
to
ship
speed
with
port
time
as
a
parameter
No
profit
can
be
realised
from
a
port
time
of
25
days
in
this
case,
no
matter
what
speed
is
selected,
as
the
curve
never
reaches
the
break-‐even
point.
In
such
an
event,
the
ship
operator
could
try
only
to
minimise
the
loss,
by
setting
the
ship
speed,
which
is
precisely
determined
from
Equation
(9),
so
that
it
corresponds
to
the
apex
of
the
curve.
Coming
back
to
the
original
example,
where
ship
speed
was
initially
assumed
to
be
fixed,
we
can
see
from
Figure
5
that
the
ship
happens
to
be
operating
near
the
apex
of
the
profit
curve.
It
is
important
to
note
that
Equation
(9)
gives
a
theoretically
exact
value
of
ship
speed
for
the
maximum
SOP.
But
since
the
various
constants
are
assumed
to
be
only
rough
estimates
anyway,
one
need
not
insist
upon
finding
the
exact
apex
of
the
curve.
It
should
suffice
merely
to
understand
the
qualitative
reasoning
behind
the
model,
and
the
desirability
of
choosing
some
point
or
other
suitably
near
to
the
apex
of
the
curve.
Container
ships
have
been
operated
according
to
a
fixed
schedule.
Therefore,
it
is
important
to
know
if
these
vessels
are
able
to
keep
their
schedule.
In
particular,
in
the
case
of
the
liner
shipping
industry,
the
ship
schedule
reliability
in
all
trade
lanes
is
the
foremost
target
in
achieving
customer
satisfaction,
among
others.
Most
shipping
lines
have
tried
to
improve
their
overall
vessel
schedule
reliability,
e.g.
Maersk
Line
has
achieved
schedule
reliability
of
97
percent
for
its
Daily
Maersk
service
from
Asia
to
Europe
since
its
launch
in
October
2011
and
at
best
has
even
hit
99
percent
in
recent
months
in
2012.
12
In
container
shipping
operation,
voyage
time
per
loop
is
normally
fixed.
If
unexpected
delay
occurs
at
one
place,
e.g.
a
port,
then
the
ship
must
increase
its
speed
to
compensate
for
the
time
loss
at
that
port.
12
According
to
Drewry,
there
are
7
KPIs
that
are
the
criteria
for
monitoring
container
carrier
service
quality:
(1)
Vessel
schedule
reliability;
(2)
Elapsed
time
between
shipping
instruction
and
bill
of
lading
issue;
(3)
On-‐time
shipment
of
cargo;
(4)
Port-‐to-‐port
transit
time
against
schedule;
(5)
Cargo
availability
at
destination
port;
(6)
Average
US
inland
transit
times;
and
(7)
Port
dwell
times.
[Peter
T.
Leach.
Container
Ship
Schedule
Reliability
Improves.
The
Journal
of
Commerce.
May
16,
2012.]
118
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
If
the
ship
involved
gets
on-‐arrival
service
at
berth,
there
will
be
no
waiting
time.
In
this
regard,
just-‐in-‐
time
arrival
and
departure
is
very
important
for
shipping
lines
to
operate
their
fleet
efficiently.
According
to
2012
“Guidelines
for
the
development
of
a
Ship
Energy
Efficiency
Management
Plan
(SEEMP)”13,
good
early
communication
with
the
next
port
of
call
should
be
an
aim
in
order
to
give
maximum
notice
of
berth
availability
and
facilitate
the
use
of
optimum
speed
where
port
operational
procedures
support
this
approach.
Optimised
port
operation
could
involve
a
change
in
procedures
that
are
engaged
in
different
handling
arrangements
in
ports.
Port
authorities
should
be
encouraged
to
maximise
efficiency
and
minimise
delay.
Regarding
the
just-‐in-‐time
arrival/departure
of
ships,
from
the
viewpoint
of
ship
operators,
the
reliability
of
the
berthing
window
is
another
issue
to
be
looked
at.
In
another
words,
on-‐arrival
services
for
ships
have
to
be
guaranteed
between
port
authorities
and
shipping
lines.
Otherwise,
even
though
ships
are
already
in
port,
they
might
have
to
wait
until
the
berths
are
available.
This
will
definitely
make
the
shortened
time
at
sea
useless
in
terms
of
efficiency
of
total
voyage
time.
In
this
sense,
the
relationships
between
ship
operators
and
ports
must
be
kept
closely
to
enhance
reliability
for
securing
on-‐arrival
services
in
port.
Having
a
contract
for
a
dedicated
(exclusive)
terminal
with
shipping
companies
on
a
long-‐term
basis
is
an
exemplary
case
of
showing
this
kind
of
reliability
issue.
Berthing
time
normally
consists
of
two
parts:
productive
time
and
idle
times
(preparation
time
and
arrangement
time).
The
preparation
time
is
the
time
before
starting
cargo
handling
after
the
ship
is
berthed,
while
the
arrangement
time
is
the
time
after
finishing
cargo
handling
until
the
ship
is
unberthed.
To
increase
the
productivity
at
the
berth14,
these
non-‐production
times
must
be
minimised.
Further,
to
make
productive
time
more
efficient,
there
should
be
no
stoppage
time
that
is
related
to
breakdown,
maintenance,
etc.
13
IMO
MEPC
63/23,
ANNEX
9,
RESOLUTION
MEPC.213(63),
Adopted
on
2
March
2012.
14
Shipping
lines
calculate
the
so-‐called
gross
berth
productivity
(GBP)
that
is
“the
number
of
container
moves
or
tons
of
cargo
(for
break-‐bulk
and
bulk
cargoes)
divided
by
the
vessel’s
total
time
at
berth
measured
from
first
line
to
last
line”.
119
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
As
shown
in
Figure
6,
the
main
activities
of
the
whole
container
terminal
operation
can
be
divided
into
three
operations:
berth
operation,
yard
operation
and
gate
operation.
The
berth
operation
mainly
concerns
the
schedules
of
arriving
vessels
and
the
allocation
of
berth
space
and
quay
crane
resources
to
serve
the
vessels.
The
key
concern
of
the
berthing
operation
is
the
turn-‐
around
time
of
vessels.
It
also
involves
the
unloading
and
loading
of
containers
on-‐board
the
vessel
that
is
handled
by
gantry
cranes.
To
achieve
high
crane
rates
(number
of
containers
moved
per
hour),
the
planner
has
to
optimise
the
crane
working
sequence
(a
detailed
list
of
crane
moves).
The
yard
operation
is
perhaps
the
busiest
of
all
the
activities
in
the
terminal.
The
operation
involves
the
unloading
of
containers
from
the
ships,
the
loading
of
containers
onto
vessels,
the
shuffling
of
containers
that
are
out
of
sequence
in
the
yard
block,
the
redistribution
of
containers
to
other
blocks
(yard
shifting)
for
more
efficient
loading
onto
the
second
vessels
and
the
inter-‐terminal
haulage
where
containers
are
moved
to
other
yards
in
another
terminal.15
The
gate
operation
deals
with
external
freight
forwarders.
Two
activities
are
involved,
namely
export
delivery
where
the
freight
forwarders
bring
in
export
containers
to
the
yard
or
wharf
to
be
loaded
onto
the
vessels,
and
import
receiving,
where
the
freight
forwarders
receive
containers
from
the
yard
or
wharf
to
bring
into
the
country.
Figure
6:
Schematic
diagram
of
container
terminal
operations
with
activities
15
Iris
F.A.
Vis
and
Ren_E
De
Koster
(2003).
Invited
Review.
Transshipment
of
Containers
at
a
Container
Terminal:
An
Overview.
European
Journal
of
Operational
Research.
147.
1–16.
120
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
7:
Application
of
berthing
request
All
the
parties
concerned,
including
the
ships,
must
participate
in
the
MPOS
from
prior
to
the
ship’s
arrival
in
the
port
to
the
ship’s
departure
from
the
port.
Whenever
the
ship
wishes
to
enter
a
port,
‘the
Request
for
Berth’
is
made
through
(Web)
Communication
Services
well
before
arrival
and
is
confirmed
by
the
MPOS,
against
the
ISPS
and
Dangerous
Goods
Codes,
before
issuing
the
Preliminary
Authorisation
to
Berthing.
(See
Figure
7)
After
issuing
the
Preliminary
Berthing
Authorisation,
the
MPOS
compares
it
with
information
from
the
anchoring
area
and
with
activities
of
any
anchored
or
berthed
ships,
nautical
activities
inside
the
harbour,
status
of
maritime
signals,
maintenance
status
of
berths,
and
informs
the
berthing
operation
to
the
ship
and
to
the
pilot
service.
It
supervises
at
all
times
compliance
with
the
Operating
Procedures.
The
MPOS
informs
and
coordinates
all
Port
Services
regarding
berthing
manoeuvres,
informing
also
the
other
agents.
Furthermore,
throughout
this
phase,
the
MPOS
is
capable
of
performing
the
control
actions
and
coordination
tasks
with
other
agents
as
shown
in
Figure
8.
121
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
8:
MPOS
and
port
services
Generally,
the
MPOS
controls
port
activities
relating
to
maritime
safety
and
the
protection
of
the
marine
environment.
Typically,
the
MPOS
is
part
of
the
port
authority
organisation
and
is
responsible
for
ensuring
the
efficient
flow
of
traffic
through
port
and
coastal
waters
(including
allocation
of
vessels
to
berths)
and—on
behalf
of
the
government
or
port
authority—for
coordinating
all
marine
services.
Major
port
services
that
are
related
to
MPOS
can
be
as
follows:
• Pilotage
services:
These
are
services
given
by
maritime
pilots
that
provide
an
essential
and
unique
service
to
the
shipping
industry.Their
principal
role
is
to
provide
critical
independent
local
knowledge
and
navigational
information
to
vessels
and
to
bring
the
highest
level
of
ship-‐
handling
skills
to
manoeuvre
vessels
within
their
port.
The
prime
obligation
of
pilots
is
to
provide
a
critical
public
safety
service
by
ensuring
the
careful
management
and
free
flow
of
all
traffic
within
their
pilotage
area,
thus
protecting
the
environment.16
• Towage
services:
These
are
services
provided
by
a
small,
strongly
built
powerful
tugboat
that
is
used
to
guide
large
ships
into
and
out
of
port
and
to
tow
barges,
dredging
and
salvage
equipment,
and
disabled
vessels.
Tugboat
operations
are
typically
carried
out
by
private
firms.
If
the
volume
of
vessel
traffic
is
not
sufficient
to
support
a
tugboat
service
on
a
commercial
basis,
a
port
authority
may
be
obliged
to
provide
such
a
service
itself.
• Line
handling
services
by
line
boats:
These
are
the
services
given
by
line
boats
that
help
the
ship
to
be
berthed.
When
berthing,
once
the
lines
from
the
ship
are
given
to
line
boats,
they
approach
a
berth
and
try
to
throw
a
line
to
someone
on
land
who
ties
off
the
lines
at
the
dock.
• Mooring
services:
These
are
the
services
that
secure
a
ship
to
the
designated
place,
i.e.
a
berth
or
a
dock
or
a
buoy,
or
anchoring
with
two
anchors.
Mooring
services
in
smaller
ports
can
be
provided
by
the
local
stevedore.
In
larger
ports,
a
mooring
service
is
usually
performed
by
a
specialised
private
firm.
Especially
in
a
complicated
nautical
situation
(for
example,
single
point
16
http://www.impahq.org
122
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
mooring
buoys,
specialised
piers
for
chemicals
or
gases,
or
ports
with
large
tidal
differences),
mooring
activities
require
expert
skills
and
equipment.
A
port
authority
may
choose
to
regulate
this
activity
when
only
one
specialised
firm
exists.17
• Vessel
traffic
services
(VTS)
and
aids
to
navigation:
This
is
a
marine
traffic
monitoring
system
established
by
port
authorities.
VTS
is
a
service
designed
to
improve
vessel
traffic
safety
and
efficiency
and
to
protect
the
environment;
it
offers
the
potential
to
respond
appropriately
to
traffic
situations
emerging
in
an
area.
VTS
is
usually
part
of
a
port
or
a
maritime
authority.
Such
services
are
provided
in
port
areas
and
in
densely
used
maritime
straits
or
along
a
national
coastline.
VTS
should
be
regulated
by
the
competent
authority.
Responsibility
for
aids
to
navigation
usually
rests
with
the
national
maritime
authority
in
port
approaches
and
in
coastal
areas,
and
with
the
port
authority
in
port
areas.
Often,
provision
and
maintenance
of
buoys
and
beacons
are
contracted
out.
Because
aids
to
navigation
are
generally
part
of
an
integrated
maritime
infrastructure,
the
costs
of
providing
these
services
are
included
in
the
general
port
dues.
• The
control
of
dangerous
goods:
This
is
usually
performed
by
a
specialised
branch
of
the
port
authority.
The
same
goes
for
the
handling
of
dangerous
goods
in
port
terminals.
The
oversight
and
regulation
of
the
land
transport
of
dangerous
goods
is
normally
the
responsibility
of
government.18
• Waste
management
services:
These
are
privatised
under
the
strict
control
of
a
port
authority
or
another
competent
body.
Privatisation
carries
risks,
however,
especially
with
respect
to
the
disposal
of
dangerous
chemicals.
Proper
waste
management
can
be
expensive
for
shipping
lines.
With
high
costs,
ship
captains
might
be
tempted
to
dump
waste
into
the
sea
or
into
port
waters.
The
control
of
such
dumping
practices
is
extremely
difficult,
especially
for
chemical
cargoes.
To
spread
waste
management
costs,
ports
can
include
all
or
part
of
the
waste
management
costs
in
the
general
port
dues.
The
transport
of
waste
from
the
ship
to
a
reception
facility
also
poses
a
challenge,
especially
in
larger
port
areas.
Port
authorities
should
directly
provide
or
organize
the
provision
of
transport
barges
or
trucks
for
this
purpose.
The
entire
waste
management
system,
including
personnel
and
facilities,
should
be
closely
controlled
by
the
competent
authority.
When
private
firms
are
engaged
in
waste
handling,
the
authority
should
employ
experts
from
its
organisation
to
ensure
compliance
with
all
relevant
laws,
rules,
and
regulations.19
• Emergency
response
services:
These
are
carried
out
by
a
variety
of
public
organisations
such
as
the
port
authority,
fire
brigade,
health
services,
and
police.
Some
ports
have
sophisticated
tools
available
to
aid
in
crisis
management,
such
as
prediction
models
for
gas
clouds.
Such
tools
are
often
integrated
in
a
traffic
centre
of
the
local
vessel
traffic
management
system
(VTMS).
Private
firms
(for
example,
tugboat
companies)
may
play
a
subsidiary
role
in
crisis
management
in
the
event
that
they
are
equipped
with
fire-‐fighting
equipment.
Larger
ports
use
patrol
vessels
and
vehicles
for
a
variety
of
public
control
functions.
In
some
ports,
such
patrol
vessels
also
have
17
World
Bank
(2008).
Port
Reform
Tool
Kit,
2nd
Edition,
Washington
D.C.,
United
States,
p.127.
18
World
Bank
(2008).
Port
Reform
Tool
Kit,
2nd
Edition,
Washington
D.C.,
United
States,
p.128.
19
World
Bank
(2008).
Port
Reform
Tool
Kit,
2nd
Edition,
Washington
D.C.,
United
States,
p.128.
123
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
fire-‐fighting
equipment
on
board.
When
a
port
does
not
have
patrol
vessels
available,
a
contract
with
a
tugboat
company
should
be
arranged
to
guarantee
the
availability
of
floating
fire-‐fighting
capability.20
• Control
of
dredging
operations:
These
are
normally
given
by
a
port
authority.
Often,
the
port
authority
or
the
competent
maritime
administration
does
not
have
enough
expertise
to
exercise
sufficient
control
over
both
maintenance
and
capital
dredging.
Port
authorities
with
large
water
areas
under
their
control
should
employ
sufficient
competent
personnel
to
prepare
dredging
contracts
and
oversee
dredging
operations.
Sounding
is
an
activity
that
should
preferably
be
carried
out
(or
contracted
out)
by
the
port
authority
itself.
Dredging
is
usually
carried
out
by
private
firms.
It
might
be
cost
effective
for
some
ports
to
use
their
own
dredgers,
especially
when
continuous
and
important
maintenance
dredging
is
required.21
Tool
for
avoiding
ship’s
waiting
time
in
port:
Virtual
Arrival22
When
it
comes
to
port
operations,
among
others,
the
berth
operation
is
closely
related
to
the
schedules
of
ship’s
arrivals
and
its
major
concern
is
the
turnaround
time
of
ships
in
port.
The
best
berth
operation
is
definitely
to
provide
on-‐arrival
berthing
services
to
shipping
lines
with
minimising
ship’s
waiting
times.
It
is
inherently
wasteful
for
a
vessel
to
steam
at
full
speed
to
a
port
where
known
delays
to
cargo
handling
have
already
been
identified.
By
mutually
agreeing
to
reduce
speed
to
make
an
agreed
arrival
time,
the
vessel
can
avoid
spending
time
at
anchor
awaiting
a
berth,
tank
space
or
cargo
availability.
Emissions
can
thus
be
reduced,
congestion
avoided
and
safety
improved
in
port
areas.
INTERTANKO
together
with
OCIMF
(Oil
Companies
International
Marine
Forum)
published
a
manual
entitled
Virtual
Arrival
in
2010.
This
is
a
process
that
involves
an
agreement
to
reduce
a
vessel’s
speed
on
voyage
to
meet
a
revised
arrival
time
when
there
is
a
known
delay
at
the
destination
port.
The
reduction
in
speed
could
result
in
reduced
fuel
consumption,
thereby
reducing
GHG
and
other
exhaust
gas
emissions.
The
following
summarises
the
steps
that
are
typically
involved
when
implementing
the
Virtual
Arrival
process:
1. Before
a
vessel’s
departure
from
the
load
port,
or
while
en
route
to
the
destination
port,
a
delay
is
identified
at
the
destination
port,
for
example,
due
to
congestion
at
the
berth
or
lack
of
receiving
space.
2. In
view
of
the
known
delay,
the
vessel
owner/operator
and
the
vessel
charterer
may
agree
to
consider
entering
into
a
Virtual
Arrival
agreement
for
the
voyage.
3. The
ship
owner/operator
is
requested
to
provide
ship
performance
information
to
enable
an
initial
assessment
of
the
voyage
to
be
made
based
on
the
service
speed
of
the
ship.
4. The
charterer
and
owner/operator
agree
a
Required
Time
of
Arrival23
at
the
destination
20
World
Bank
(2008).
Port
Reform
Tool
Kit,
2nd
Edition,
Washington
D.C.,
United
States,
p.128.
21
World
Bank
(2008).
Port
Reform
Tool
Kit,
2nd
Edition,
Washington
D.C.,
United
States,
p.129.
22
INTERTANKO
and
OCIMF
(2010).
Virtual
Arrival:
Optimising
Voyage
Management
and
Reducing
Vessel
Emissions
–
an
Emissions
Management
Framework.
Oil
Companies
International
Marine
Forum.
Bermuda.
124
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
port
and
agree
on
the
methodology
for
calculating
voyage
data
and
the
associated
reporting
requirements,
or
alternatively
agree
on
a
WASP24
to
be
used
for
calculating
voyage
data
and
to
provide
supporting
reports.
5. An
agreement
to
undertake
Virtual
Arrival
is
implemented
using
an
agreed
Charter
Party
Clause.
6. The
initial
report
should
include:
a. the
methodology
to
be
used
to
determine
speed
and
consumption
calculation
b. the
calculated
ETA25,
based
on
normal
service
speed
c. the
calculated
ETA,
based
on
normal
service
speed
and
anticipated
weather,
the
“Virtual
Arrival”
ETA
d. the
Required
Time
of
Arrival
(RTA)
e. the
speed
or
RPM
to
achieve
RTA
f. the
bunkers
on
board
at
the
Virtual
Arrival
decision
point
7. The
vessel
reduces
speed
in
order
to
make
the
Required
Time
of
Arrival.
8. On
completion
of
the
voyage,
if
agreed,
a
WASP
or
an
entity
that
specialises
in
weather
and
or
vessel
performance
analysis
produces
a
final
report
providing
the
post-‐voyage
analysis
and
data
to
support
confirmation
of
the
vessel’s
Virtual
Arrival
time
and
the
calculations
of
the
fuel
saved
and
emission
reductions.
9. In
finalising
the
Virtual
Arrival
time26,
an
assessment
is
to
be
made
of
the
impact
of
the
weather,
sea
and
current
conditions
on
the
voyage
by
comparing
the
actual
weather
encountered
with
that
anticipated
when
establishing
the
provisional
Virtual
Arrival
ETA.
10. The
agreed
time
of
Virtual
Arrival,
the
“Deemed
Arrival”
time27,
is
used
as
the
time
when
considering
demurrage
exposure.
23
A
mutually-‐agreed
time
for
a
vessel
to
arrive
at
a
named
destination.
24
Weather
Analysis
Service
Provider.
25
Estimated
Time
of
Arrival.
The
date
and
time
a
vessel
is
expected
to
arrive
at
a
named
destination
based
on
a
stated
speed.
26
An
estimation
of
a
vessel’s
time
of
arrival
at
a
named
destination
at
normal
service
speed,
taking
into
account
the
anticipated
weather.
27
An
adjusted
‘Virtual
Arrival
Time’
that
takes
into
account
the
actual
weather
experienced
on
a
passage.
The
DAT
may
be
used
as
the
time
laytime
starts
when
considering
demurrage
exposures.
125
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
28
Figure
9:
Overview
of
the
Virtual
Arrival
process
28
INTERTANKO
and
OCIMF
(2010).
Virtual
Arrival:
Optimising
Voyage
Management
and
Reducing
Vessel
Emissions
–
an
Emissions
Management
Framework.
Oil
Companies
International
Marine
Forum,
Bermuda.
126
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Cargo
handling
is,
in
most
cases,
under
the
control
of
the
port
and
the
optimum
solutions
matched
to
the
ship
and
port
requirements
should
be
explored.
Whatever
solutions
that
might
be
thought
of,
they
should
contribute
to
increasing
the
gross
berth
productivity
(GBP)
that
can
lead
to
reduce
the
berthing
time.
When
it
comes
to
container
terminal
optimisation,
for
example,
the
integrated
planning
and
scheduling
of
all
the
activities
of
a
terminal
could
be
suggested
to
increase
moves
per
hour
and
reduce
costs.29
• Berth
planning
• Quay
crane
scheduling
• Prime
mover
scheduling
• RTG/RMG
scheduling
• Operational
planning,
typically
day(s)
ahead
These
activities
are
closely
connected
to
cargo
handling
in
port
where
efficient
operations
can
bring
about
the
reduction
of
ship’s
time
in
port
as
well
as
giving
environmental
benefits.
Efficient
cargo
handling
in
port
can
definitely
be
helpful
for
the
environment.30
The
liner
shipping
industry
has
been
developed
and
upgraded
to
tackle
the
problem
of
environmental
pollution
by
ships.
Many
references,
including
IMO’s
resolutions
along
with
modern
technology,
are
being
used
to
counteract
this
problem.31
A
well-‐planned
cargo
operation,
both
in
port
and
on
board
can
reduce
the
level
of
emissions
from
the
ship’s
machinery
that
leads
to
reduced
energy
consumption
per
transported
unit.
29
QUINTIQ
(2012).
Advanced
Planning,
Scheduling
and
Supply
Chain
Optimisation
Solutions
for
the
Container
Shipping
Industry.
Solution
paper.
30
http://www.marineinsight.com/marine/environment/how-‐efficient-‐cargo-‐handling-‐can-‐be-‐helpful-‐for-‐the-‐
marine-‐environment/
31
1.IMO,
2012
GUIDELINES
ON
THE
METHOD
OF
CALCULATION
OF
THE
ATTAINED
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
DESIGN
INDEX
(EEDI)
FOR
NEW
SHIPS,
RESOLUTION
MEPC.212(63),
Adopted
on
2
March
2012.
2.IMO,
2012
GUIDELINES
FOR
THE
DEVELOPMENT
OF
A
SHIP
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
MANAGEMENT
PLAN
(SEEMP),
RESOLUTION
MEPC.213(63),
Adopted
on
2
March
2012.
3.IMO,
2012
GUIDELINES
ON
SURVEY
AND
CERTIFICATION
OF
THE
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
DESIGN
INDEX
(EEDI),
RESOLUTION
MEPC.214(63),
Adopted
on
2
March
2012.
4.IMO,
GUIDELINES
FOR
CALCULATION
OF
REFERENCE
LINES
FOR
USE
WITH
THE
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
DESIGN
INDEX
(EEDI),
RESOLUTION
MEPC.215(63),
Adopted
on
2
March
2012.
5.
IMO,
GUIDELINES
FOR
VOLUNTARY
USE
OF
THE
SHIP
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
OPERATIONAL
INDICATOR
(EEOI),
MEPC.1/Circ.684,
17
August
2009.
6.
IMO,
AMENDMENTS
TO
THE
ANNEX
OF
THE
PROTOCOL
OF
1997
TO
AMEND
THE
INTERNATIONAL
CONVENTION
FOR
THE
PREVENTION
OF
POLLUTION
FROM
SHIPS,
1973,
AS
MODIFIED
BY
THE
PROTOCOL
OF
1978
RELATING
THERETO
(Inclusion
of
regulations
on
energy
efficiency
for
ships
in
MARPOL
Annex
VI),
RESOLUTION
MEPC.203(62),
Adopted
on
15
July
2011.
127
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Ways to improve cargo handling resulting in environmental benefits include:
• The
use
of
an
internal
movement
vehicle
that
has
less
fuel
consumption
per
cargo
unit
• The
introduction
of
high
capacity
loading
and
unloading
operations
with
lower
emissions
to
reduce
the
ship’s
time
in
port
• Safer
and
easier
cargo
operations
and
monitoring
• The
application
of
new
technology
with
advanced
software
tools
• The
use
of
eco-‐friendly
and
user-‐
friendly
cargo
handling
products
• Well
trained
shore-‐staff
and
ship-‐
staff
who
are
keen
on
safety
and
environment
matters
Quick
ship
turnaround
time
in
port
will
ensure
slow
steaming
at
sea
and
this
will
again
contribute
to
reducing
emissions.
In
brief,
reduction
in
port
time
allows
shipping
lines
to
improve
the
operational
efficiency
of
a
ship
and
the
quality
of
port
operations
by
reducing
the
fuel
consumption
of
a
ship
at
sea
and
the
resulting
GHG
emissions.
In
order
to
know
the
relationships
between
ship’s
speed,
fuel
consumption,
ship
operating
cost
and
CO2
emission,
a
case
study
with
a
vessel
class
of
8,000
TEU
is
presented.
1.5.1 Results
The
impacts
of
changes
of
port
time
on
the
operating
costs
According
to
the
result
of
analysis,
the
annual
operating
cost
of
the
basic
service
loop
that
consists
of
nine
vessels
of
8,000
TEU
class
is
estimated
at
1,173.68
million
US$.
It
is
found
that
the
annual
operating
cost
on
this
service
loop
is
very
sensitive
to
the
changes
of
port
time
and
is
directly
influenced
by
the
changes
in
fuel
cost
and
port
cost.
Figure
10
shows
how
annual
fuel
consumption
changes
in
each
port
time.
In
this
diagram,
the
annual
fuel
consumption
has
changed
in
proportion
to
the
changes
of
port
time.
For
example,
when
port
time
is
reduced
by
30%,
the
annual
fuel
consumption
is
reduced
by
a
maximum
of
36.8%
(from
0.82
million
tons
to
0.6
million
tons).
On
the
contrary,
when
port
time
is
increased
by
30%,
it
is
increased
by
a
maximum
of
30.69%
(from
0.82
million
tons
to
1.18
million
tons).
128
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
10:
Fuel
consumption
(8,000
TEU)
Consequently,
the
changes
of
annual
fuel
consumption
affect
the
annual
fuel
cost
accordingly.
When
port
time
is
reduced
by
30%,
shipping
lines
can
reduce
their
annual
fuel
cost
from
530.26
million
US$
to
387.5
million
US$
(36.8%)
as
shown
in
Figure
11.
However,
if
port
time
is
increased
by
30%,
the
annual
fuel
cost
can
also
be
increased
to
765
million
US$
(30.7%).
Figure
11:
Annual
fuel
cost
(8,000
TEU)
The
annual
port
cost
is
again
influenced
by
the
changes
of
port
time.
The
annual
port
cost
is
reduced
by
a
maximum
of
28%
(from
250.7
million
US$
to
195.9
million
US$)
when
the
port
time
is
decreased
by
30%,
whereas
it
increases
by
17.9%
(from
250.7
million
US$
to
305.6
million
US$)
in
the
opposite
situation
as
shown
in
Figure
12.
However,
the
annual
fixed
costs
are
not
changed,
because
the
fleet
mix
and
its
size
are
already
fixed
on
this
service
loop.
129
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
12:
Annual
fixed
costs
and
port
cost
(8,000
TEU)
On
the
other
hand,
Figure
13
shows
the
substantial
changes
of
the
annual
operating
cost
on
a
loop
by
the
changes
of
port
time.
In
this
diagram,
the
annual
operating
cost
is
directly
influenced
by
the
changes
of
fuel
cost
and
port
cost.
When
port
time
is
reduced
by
30%,
the
annual
operating
cost
can
be
decreased
by
a
maximum
of
20.2%
(from
1,173.7
million
US$
to
976.1
million
US$).
However,
when
port
time
is
increased
by
30%,
the
annual
operating
cost
can
be
increased
by
a
maximum
of
19.8%
(from
1,173.7
million
US$
to
1,463.3
million
US$).
Figure
13:
Annual
operating
cost
(8,000
TEU)
130
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
contrary,
when
port
time
increases
by
30%,
the
amount
of
CO2
emissions
increases
by
30.7%
(from
2.55
million
tons
to
3.68
million
tons).
Figure
14:
Annual
amount
of
GHG
emissions
(8,000
TEU)
These
changes
influence
the
annual
external
cost
immediately
as
shown
in
Figure
15.
This
cost
is
changed
in
proportion
to
the
changes
of
the
annual
amount
of
CO2
emissions.
Thus,
if
port
time
is
decreased
by
30%,
the
annual
external
cost
can
be
reduced
by
a
maximum
of
36.8%
(37.3
million
US$).
However,
in
the
opposite
condition,
the
annual
external
cost
increases
by
a
maximum
of
30.7%
(73.7
million
US$).
Figure
15:
Annual
external
cost
(8,000
TEU)
A
sensitive
analysis
was
conducted
to
investigate
how
much
the
changes
of
port
time
can
influence
the
operating
cost
and
the
amount
of
GHG
emissions
by
changes
in
the
type
of
vessel
within
the
range
of
131
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
8,000
TEU
to
14,000
TEU.
Nowadays,
shipping
lines
have
increased
their
employed
vessel
size
competitively
to
reduce
the
average
cost
per
TEU.
An
average
vessel
size
on
the
Asia-‐Europe
route
was
around
8,300
TEU
in
2012,
and
it
is
expected
to
be
more
than
10,000
TEU
in
2014
(Alphaliner,
2012).
Figure
16:
The
changes
of
operating
cost
in
each
type
of
vessel
According
to
the
result
of
the
analysis,
the
more
the
employed
vessel
size
on
a
loop,
the
higher
the
operating
cost.
As
shown
in
the
left-‐side
diagram
in
Figure
16,
when
the
employed
vessel
size
on
a
loop
increases,
the
operating
cost
curve
shifts
upward.
However,
the
change
rate
of
the
operating
cost
of
each
type
of
vessel
is
different
in
each
case.
As
shown
in
the
right-‐side
diagram
in
Figure
16,
as
the
employed
vessel
size
on
a
loop
increases,
the
operating
cost
becomes
more
sensitive
to
the
changes
in
port
time.
Therefore,
if
port
time
is
decreased,
as
the
employed
vessel
size
on
a
loop
increases,
the
operating
cost
can
also
be
reduced.
However,
in
the
opposite
situation,
a
shipping
line
can
suffer
more
losses.
In
this
sense,
according
to
the
result
of
the
analysis
it
can
be
defined
that
the
bigger
the
employed
vessel
size
on
a
loop,
the
more
the
sensitivity
of
operating
cost
against
the
changes
of
port
time.
Figure
17:
Annual
amount
of
GHG
emissions
in
each
type
of
vessel
132
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Regarding
the
amount
of
GHG
emissions,
the
larger
the
employed
vessel
size
on
a
loop,
the
more
the
amount
of
GHG
emissions,
as
shown
in
Figure
17.
Therefore,
the
increase
in
employed
vessel
size
is
not
helpful
in
reducing
the
amount
of
GHG
emissions
when
the
voyage
speed
is
fixed.
However,
in
this
situation
the
reduction
of
port
time
influences
the
reduction
of
GHG
emissions
positively.
On
the
other
hand,
the
change
rate
of
GHG
emissions
is
the
same
in
each
service
loop
as
shown
in
the
right-‐side
diagram
in
Figure
17.
This
means
that
the
change
rate
of
the
amount
of
GHG
emissions
with
the
changes
in
port
time
is
equal
in
each
service
loop
that
employs
different
types
of
vessel.
In
this
case
study,
the
impacts
of
the
changes
of
port
time
on
the
operating
costs
and
the
amount
of
CO2
emissions
considering
the
vessel
size
were
analysed,
and
some
implications
are
derived
from
these
analyses.
Firstly,
the
operating
cost
and
the
amount
of
CO2
emissions
are
sensitive
to
the
changes
of
port
time.
As
port
time
decreases,
the
operating
cost
and
the
amount
of
CO2
emissions
are
sharply
reduced.
This
result
means
that
port
time
has
a
big
impact
on
efficient
ship
operations.
The
reduction
of
port
time,
or
minimisation
of
waiting
time
through
just-‐in-‐time
arrival
and
departure,
improvement
of
berth
productivity
and
simplification
of
the
administration
process,
lead
not
only
to
the
reduction
of
the
operating
cost
but
also
to
the
improvement
of
the
environmental
performance
of
the
shipping
industry.
In
particular,
this
result
tells
us
why
port
selection
(or
choice)
is
important
to
shipping
lines.
In
other
words,
when
a
shipping
line
establishes
and/or
improves
their
service
loop
based
on
the
calling
ports
that
have
high
productivity
and
efficiency,
they
can
improve
their
ship
operational
efficiency
by
minimising
their
operating
cost
and
the
amount
of
CO2
emissions.
Secondly,
as
vessel
size
increases,
the
impacts
of
the
changes
of
port
time
on
the
operating
cost
and
the
amount
of
CO2
emissions
also
increase.
This
result
implies
why
port
time
is
more
important
to
a
shipping
line
that
operates
larger
vessels.
Moreover,
this
result
tells
us
why
shipping
lines
have
been
focusing
on
the
development
of
their
own
container
terminals
on
the
major
routes.
Namely,
the
larger
vessel
is
more
sensitive
to
unstable
port
operations
and
non-‐production
times
in
port,
and
this
leads
to
an
increase
in
operating
costs
and
an
acceleration
in
the
amount
of
CO2
emissions.
In
summary,
terminal
operators
have
to
improve
their
operational
efficiency.
This
is
because
the
improvement
of
operational
efficiency
leads
not
only
to
strengthen
their
own
competitiveness
but
also
to
contribute
to
the
reduction
of
costs
and
the
amount
of
CO2
emissions
in
the
liner
shipping
industry.
133
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
De
Monie,
G.
(1987).
Measuring
and
evaluating
port
performance
and
productivity.
UNCTAD
Monographs
on
Port
Management.
A
series
of
monographs
prepared
for
UNCTAD
in
collaboration
with
the
International
Association
of
Ports
and
Harbours
(IAPH).
Drewry.
(2000-‐2010).
Container
Market:
Annual
Review
and
Forecasting
2000-‐2010,
Drewry
Shipping
Consultant.
INTERTANKO
and
OCIMF
(2010).
Virtual
Arrival:
Optimising
Voyage
Management
and
Reducing
Vessel
Emissions
–
an
Emissions
Management
Framework.
Oil
Companies
International
Marine
Forum,
Bermuda.
IMO
(2012).
Guidelines
on
the
method
of
calculation
of
the
attained
energy
efficiency
design
index
(EEDI)
for
new
ships,
RESOLUTION
MEPC.212(63),
Adopted
on
2
March
2012.
IMO
(2012).
Guidelines
for
the
development
of
a
ship
energy
efficiency
management
plan
(SEEMP),
RESOLUTION
MEPC.213(63),
Adopted
on
2
March
2012.
IMO
(2012).
Guidelines
on
survey
and
certification
of
the
energy
efficiency
design
index
(EEDI),
RESOLUTION
MEPC.214(63),
Adopted
on
2
March
2012.
IMO
(2012).
Guidelines
for
calculation
of
reference
lines
for
use
with
the
energy
efficiency
design
index
(EEDI),
RESOLUTION
MEPC.215(63),
Adopted
on
2
March
2012.
IMO
(2009).
Guidelines
for
voluntary
use
of
the
ship
energy
efficiency
operational
indicator
(EEOI),
MEPC.1/Circ.684,
17
August
2009.
IMO
(2011).
Amendments
to
the
annex
of
the
protocol
of
1997
to
amend
the
international
convention
for
the
prevention
of
pollution
from
ships,
1973,
as
modified
by
the
protocol
of
1978
relating
thereto
(Inclusion
of
regulations
on
energy
efficiency
for
ships
in
MARPOL
Annex
VI),
RESOLUTION
MEPC.203(62),
Adopted
on
15
July
2011.
Imakita,
J.
(1979).
A
Techno-‐Economic
Analysis
of
the
Port
Transport
System.
Saxon
House.
Kågeson,
P.
(2007).
Linking
CO2
emissions
from
International
Shipping
to
the
EU
ETS.
Federal
Environment
Agency
of
Germany.
Leach,
P.T.
(2012).
Container
Ship
Schedule
Reliability
Improves.
The
Journal
of
Commerce.
May
16,
2012.
MAN
Diesel
&
TURBO.
(2012).
Propulsion
Trends
in
Container
Vessels.
MAN
Diesel
&
Turbo.
QUINTIQ
(2012).
Advanced
Planning,
Scheduling
and
Supply
Chain
Optimization
Solutions
for
the
Container
Shipping
Industry.
Solution
paper.
Samsung
Heavy
Industry.
(2011).
The
comparison
of
the
operating
costs
at
different
types
of
container
vessel.
Sam-‐Sung
Heavy
Industry
(internal
data).
134
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
1.7 Annex
Assumptions
The
aim
of
a
case
study
is
to
analyse
the
impacts
of
the
changes
of
port
time
on
fuel
consumption,
operating
costs
and
the
amount
of
GHG
emissions
on
a
loop.
To
achieve
the
aim,
an
integrated
cost
model
was
established
with
some
assumptions.
Firstly,
as
shown
in
Figure
18,
there
are
ten
ports
on
this
loop
that
are
regularly
called
by
scheduled
ships.
The
routeing
plan
is
designed
as
‘Shanghai-‐Ningbo-‐Yantian-‐Tanjung
Pelepas-‐Rotterdam-‐
Bremerhaven-‐Felixstowe-‐Tanjung
Pelepas-‐Yantian-‐Ningbo-‐Shanghai’,
being
a
total
voyage
distance
of
21,897
miles.
Figure
18:
Selected
service
loop
on
Asia-‐Europe
route
Secondly,
the
berth
productivity
and
the
average
port
time
in
each
calling
port
were
estimated
by
considering
actual
port
data
(Drewry,
2010)32
as
indicated
in
Table
3.
The
berth
productivity
is
240
moves/hours,
and
the
in-‐out
time33
is
two
hours
in
each
calling
port,
so
an
average
port
time
in
each
calling
port
is
54.4
hours.
32
Drewry
(2000-‐2010).
Container
Market:
Annual
Review
and
Forecasting
2000-‐2010,
Drewry
Shipping
Consultant.
33
waiting
time
plus
manoeuvring
time
in
port.
135
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Thirdly,
we
assume
a
basic
service
loop
by
considering
the
basic
conditions
of
this
loop
such
as
the
voyage
distance,
voyage
speed,
average
port
time
and
etc.
(see
Table
4).
It
is
organised
by
using
nine
vessels
of
8,000
TEU
class,
with
a
total
voyage
time
of
62.9
days
made
up
of
a
total
voyage
time
at
sea
(40.2
days)
and
a
total
voyage
time
in
ports
(22.7
days).
Fourthly,
we
consider
the
annual
operating
cost
is
the
sum
of
three
costs
of
the
fixed
costs,
port
cost
and
fuel
cost.
The
fixed
costs
consist
of
five
costs
(see
Table
5),
and
the
characteristics
of
each
type
of
container
vessel
are
described
in
Table
6.
We
also
assume
that
the
port
cost
consists
of
three
costs
that
are
the
dockage
cost,
handling
cost
and
canal
transit
charges
(dockage
cost=20US$
per
metre
hours/
canal
transit
charges=54US$
per
registered
TEU/
handling
cost=50US$/TEU).
Moreover,
the
fuel
price
is
650
US$/ton
(average
prices
in
2011)
and
the
value
of
CO2
emissions/ton
is
20
US$
(Per
Kågeson,
2007)34.
Table 5: The fixed costs of each type of vessel
34
Kågeson,
P.
(2007).
Linking
CO2
emissions
from
International
Shipping
to
the
EU
ETS.
Federal
Environment
Agency
of
Germany.
136
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Table
6:
Characteristics
of
each
type
of
vessel
Source: MAN Diesel & Turbo. (2012). Propulsion Trends in Container Vessels. MAN Diesel & Turbo.
Scenario
This
study
sets
up
a
scenario
focusing
on
the
changes
of
port
time
to
investigate
the
potential
impacts
of
the
changes
of
port
time
on
the
operating
costs
and
the
amount
of
GHG
emissions
on
a
loop
as
shown
in
Table
7.
In
this
scenario,
for
example,
port
time
changes
within
the
range
between
38.1
hours
(-‐30%
in
comparison
with
the
basic
port
time)
and
70.7
hours
(+30%).
The
changes
of
port
time
lead
to
the
changes
of
the
voyage
time
at
sea,
thus,
in
this
situation
a
shipping
line
has
to
control
voyage
speed
to
keep
the
berth
window
at
the
next
port
calling
and
the
announced
service
schedule
(weekly
service
pattern).
Moreover,
the
changes
of
voyage
speed
have
a
direct
influence
on
the
fuel
consumption,
fuel
cost,
the
amount
of
GHG
emissions
and
external
cost.
137
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
1.7.2 Exercise
Shipping
line
A
operates
a
service
loop
that
is
organised
by
using
eight
vessels
of
8,000
TEU
class
on
a/the
Asia-‐Europe
route.
Shipping
line
A
has
a
plan
to
reduce
the
average
port
time
from
47
hours
to
42
hours
by
changingthe
calling
ports
in
this
service
loop.
The
Table
below
shows
the
relevant
data
for
the
service
pattern,
container
vessel
and
fuel
prices
on
both
service
loops,
i.e.
original
service
loop
and
improved
service
loop.
Using
these
data,
calculate
how
much
fuel
cost
can
be
reduced
by
the
reduction
of
port
time?
138
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Onshore
Power
Supply
(OPS),
as
defined
above,
has
been
known
for
a
long
time
in
particular
for
naval
ships,
where
the
ship
normally
stays
at
berth
for
a
long
period
of
time.
Under
such
conditions,
it
is
cost
effective
to
run
the
vessel
via
a
supply
of
electricity
from
shore.
This
was
used
by
the
US
Navy
originally
and
the
term
“cold
ironing”
originates
from
this
naval
application.
Over
years,
other
terms
have
also
been
used
for
OPS;
some
of
which
are
listed
below:
In
this
section,
the
term
Onshore
Power
Supply
(OPS)
will
be
used
throughout.
Figure
2.1
shows
a
typical
OPS
system.
139
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
140
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Power
supply
in
ports
is
typically
equivalent
to
that
of
a
small
factory,
with
electricity
needed
for
shore
side
loading
and
unloading
infrastructure
such
as
cranes,
belts
and
gantries,
cooling,
heating
as
well
as
incidentals.
Most
ports
have
access
to
enough
power
to
run
these
consumers,
with
an
additional
2
to
3
MW
for
secondary
needs.
Given
that
a
vessel’s
at-‐berth
power
needs
may
be
as
much
as
10
MW,
depending
on
the
type
of
vessel,
(this
high
value
is
for
cruise
ships;
for
cargo
ships
it
will
be
up
to
a
maximum
of
3
MW),
the
electrical
infrastructure
at
many
ports
will
be
insufficient
to
handle
significant
shore-‐to-‐ship
power
connections
without
a
major
improvement
to
their
grid.
This
may
involve
investing
in
a
new
substation
or
installing
a
new
incoming
power
line
with
the
associated
costs
for
the
port
and
power
supplier.
OPS
solutions
often
comprise
the
entire
chain
from
the
incoming
substation
and
include
transformers
and
frequency
converters
to
match
the
grid
power
voltage
and
frequency
to
the
ship’s
connection
between
the
onshore
power
supply
grid
and
the
ship’s
internal
system.
A
typical
port-‐based
system
is
shown
in
Figure
2.2:
141
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Accordingly,
the
shore
side
system
requires
the
following:
Transformer
for
voltage
reduction:
The
transformer
steps
down
the
power
supply
from
a
voltage
level
optimized
for
distribution
(eg,
20
kV)
to
one
of
the
two
voltage
levels
standardized
for
shore-‐ship
power
connections
for
11
or
6.6
kV
as
required
by
the
ship.
Switchgear
for
electrical
safety:
Each
shore-‐based
power
connection
point
requires
some
sort
of
medium-‐voltage
switchgear
with
an
automated
earthing
switch.
In
essence,
the
switchgear
interrupts
the
power
supply
and
ensures
that
there
is
absolutely
no
power
in
the
cables
between
the
ship
and
shore
while
they
are
being
handled
and
connected.
Frequency
converter:
The
majority
of
ships
operate
with
a
60
Hz
supply,
whereas
local
power
grids
in
many
parts
of
the
world
use
50
Hz.
As
a
result,
most
shore-‐based
power
connections
will
require
a
frequency
conversion.
Static
frequency
converters
provide
an
economical
solution
to
connect
any
ship
to
any
grid
independent
of
the
required
frequency.
Automation
system:
The
shore
side
infrastructure
for
a
shore-‐to-‐ship
power
connection
must
include
an
automation
and
communications
system
that
allows
personnel
to
coordinate
the
connection
of
cables
and
synchronize
the
ship’s
electrical
load
to
the
shore
side
supply.
To
use
power
from
the
shore-‐side
electricity
grid,
ships
must
be
either
built
or
retrofitted
with
equipment
that
enables
the
connection
to
shore
to
synchronise
the
power
changeover
from
shore
to
ship
and
connects
the
incoming
power
supply
to
the
ship’s
auxiliary
power
system.
Ships
can
be
safely
retrofitted
in
a
relatively
short
time
while
in
operation
or
dry
docking,
without
major
interruption
to
normal
operations.
Currently,
the
majority
of
ships
equipped
with
the
infrastructure
to
receive
shore-‐side
power
are
container
vessels
and
to
some
extent
cruise
ships
that
are
mainly
the
retrofitted
equipment.
2.4 Standardisation
In
order
for
OPS
to
become
widespread
among
various
ports
and
ship-‐owners,
the
nature
and
arrangement
of
power
connections
must
be
standardized.
Neither
a
port
owner
nor
a
ship-‐owner
can
justify
investment
in
expensive
equipment
to
enable
a
shore
connection
system
without
assurance
that
such
a
system
will
be
functional
across
many
jurisdictions
and
for
a
defined
period
of
time.
Work
on
a
common
standard
for
OPS
for
ships
at
berth
began
early
in
2005.
Major
players
in
this
effort
have
included
technology
suppliers,
governments,
port
authorities,
ship-‐owners
(particularly
cruise
line,
tanker
and
container
ship
companies),
classification
societies
and
others.
The
IEC,
ISO
and
IEEE
have
joined
forces
with
the
international
standard
"ISO/IEC/IEEE
80005-‐1
Cold
ironing
-‐-‐
Part
1:
High
Voltage
Shore
Connection
(HVSC)
Systems
-‐-‐
General
requirements"
is
in
final
preparation.
This
standard
revises
"IEC/PAS
60092-‐510:2009
Electrical
installations
in
ships
-‐-‐
Special
features
–
High
Voltage
Shore
142
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Connection
Systems
(HVSC-‐Systems)"
and
addresses
the
connection
between
ship
and
shore
and
the
procedures
for
safe
operation.
Table
2.1
–
Ports
with
OPS
at
6
June
2012
Source:
http://wpci.iaphworldports.org/onshore-‐power-‐supply
35
MEPC
61/INF.12
36
http://www.ops.wpci.nl/
143
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
taken
into
account
how
the
supplied
electrical
power
is
generated,
and
if
similar
environmental
benefits
could
be
achieved
by
other
more
cost-‐effective
means.
The
energy
efficiency
of
OPS
relative
to
ship-‐board
generation
needs
to
take
into
account
all
the
various
forms
of
energy
transfer
and
transformation
losses
along
the
transfer
route.
In
addition,
the
thermal
efficiency
of
a
land-‐based
power
plant
versus
ship-‐board
systems
needs
to
identified.
In
general,
it
is
estimated
that
transmission
losses
from
a
land-‐based
power
plant
to
the
ship
will
be
around
10
to
25%
depending
on
the
supply
transmission
network.
This
means
that
from
the
energy
efficiency
and
CO2
reduction
points
of
view,
the
land-‐based
power
plant
needs
to
be
more
CO2
efficient
by
at
least
10
to
25%.
As
indicated
above,
this
will
vary
from
case
to
case
and
needs
specific
studies
for
various
ports.
On
the
other
hand,
the
case
in
favour
of
OPS
is
the
operating
condition
of
auxiliary
diesel
engines
while
at
berth.
This
should
be
borne
in
mind
while
at
berth,
since
the
auxiliary
engines
normally
work
at
a
part
load
of
about
40
to
50%.
Under
this
loading
condition,
the
engine
efficiency
is
lower
than
the
optimum
value
and
the
emissions
are
higher.
144
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
There
is
occasionally
discussion
on
how
low
carbon
electricity
can
be
supplied
by
ports
to
ships.
There
are
a
number
of
solutions,
such
as
the
use
of
greener
energy
in
port.
As
an
example,
there
have
been
cases
where
LNG-‐based
power
plants
are
advocated
for
port-‐side
power
generation.
Such
cases
yield
a
significant
reduction
in
both
CO2
and
pollutants,
even
if
the
power
generation
is
in
the
port
itself.
For
ports
deciding
on
self-‐generation,
there
is
a
case
to
help
the
grid
when
they
have
excess
electricity
and
thereby
impose
less
overall
load
on
the
grid.
The
issue
of
energy
cost
is
important
for
ship-‐owners.
There
is
evidence
that
the
overall
cost
of
OPS
electricity
may
be
higher
than
the
on-‐board
generation
for
the
following
reasons:
• A
tax
on
electricity
will
normally
be
applied
if
it
comes
from
OPS.
The
tax
level
may
change
from
case
to
case.
• The
base
cost
of
electricity
as
supplied
to
ports.
• The
port
charges
which
are
intended
to
cover
the
investment
and
running
costs.
All
the
above
require
detailed
studies
for
each
port.
To
reduce
the
cost
of
pollutants
on
society,
there
may
be
a
need
to
transfer
the
burden
of
cost
to
ships
as
they
represent
the
main
source
of
pollutant.
However,
since
this
may
vary
from
port
to
port,
it
will
have
an
impact
on
port
business
as
well.
2.8.1 Introduction
Apart
from
Onshore
Power
Supply
(OPS)
that
could
lead
to
energy
efficiency
and
improved
air
quality
in
port
areas,
various
ports
are
promoting
green
initiatives
that
aim
to
reduce
air
emissions
from
ships.
Green
port
initiatives
are
in
place
in
particular
in
USA,
Europe
and
to
some
extent
Asia.
In
the
majority
of
cases,
air
pollution
is
at
the
core
of
the
green
port
initiatives.
As
a
result
of
IMO
regulations
on
reception
facilities
and
port-‐level
initiatives,
the
port
services
go
much
beyond
the
traditional
ship
cargo
loading
and
discharging.
In
this
section,
a
number
of
port
related
green
activities
that
relate
to
air
emissions
are
presented
and
discussed.
Volatile
Organic
Compounds
(VOCs)
are
the
lighter
parts
of
crude
oil,
or
their
products,
that
vaporise
during
the
ship
loading
process
in
the
loading
tanks.
This
then
normally
vents
to
the
atmosphere
causing
air
pollution
in
port
areas.
145
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
IMO
MARPOL
Annex
VI
regulations
allow
the
Flag
State
to
designate
ports
that
intend
to
control
and
reduce
VOC
from
tankers.
This
is
embodied
in
Annex
VI
Regulation
15
on
VOC.
The
regulation
enables
ports
and
terminals
to
implement
VOC
controls.
For
compliance
purposes,
these
ports
should
have
reception
facility
for
such
gases
(e.g.
the
collection
and
safe
disposal
or
use
of
gases).
Tankers
that
visit
such
ports
should
also
have
a
Vapour
Emissions
Control
System
(VECS)
to
be
compliant
with
IMO
MSC/Circ.
585
on
Standards
for
VECS
system.
Figure
2.3
shows
a
schematic
of
such
a
ship-‐board
VECS.
Figure
2.3
–
Schematic
of
an
oil
tanker’s
VOC
emissions
control
system
Additionally,
crude
oil
tankers
are
required
to
have
an
approved
VOC
manual.
This
should
contain
procedures
for
minimizing
VOC
emissions
during
loading,
sea
passage
and
discharge
and
additional
VOC
during
washing.
Currently,
a
number
of
ports
have
been
assigned
as
VOC
control
ports;
see
the
list
below
(Table2.2).
146
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Table
2.2
–
Designated
ports
with
VOC
emissions
control37
Some
of
the
ports
provide
incentives
for
efficient
and
clean
shipping
via
reduced
port
dues
based
on
their
regulated
emissions
levels.
Examples
are
the
Swedish
ports
that
currently
provide
differentiated
port
dues
based
on
environmental
criteria.
About
20-‐25
of
the
bigger
ports
in
Sweden
have
differentiated
the
port
dues
on
the
basis
of
the
sulphur
content
of
the
fuel
used
and
the
NOx
emissions
from
the
engines
on-‐board.
For
example,
in
Gothenburg,
Sweden
the
port
dues
are
increased
if
the
sulphur
content
of
the
fuel
exceeds
0.2%.
For
ships
with
a
NOx
emission
level
lower
than
12
g/kWh,
a
discount
is
applied
that
increases
progressively38.
The
EEDI
(Energy
Efficiency
Design
Index)
is
part
of
the
new
regulation
under
MARPOL
Annex
VI
that
aims
to
improve
shipping
CO2
emissions
via
enforcing
future
targets
for
ship
designs
that
will
provide
major
reductions
to
EEDI.
Some
administrations
have
taken,
or
are
evaluating,
to
use
this
index
for
a
differentiated
registration
fee
or
tonnage
taxation.
An
example
of
such
an
initiative
is
the
one
by
37
IMO
MEPC.1/Circ.774,
21
December
2011
on
regulated
VOC
emissions
control
ports
38
http://cleantech.cnss.no/policies-‐and-‐instruments/voluntary-‐instruments/clean-‐shipping-‐index/
147
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Singapore
MPA
(Maritime
Port
Authority)
in
2011
that
was
undertaken
under
the
Singapore
Green
Ship
Programme39.
The
Green
Ship
Programme
targets
Singapore-‐flagged
ships.
The
MPA
will
provide
incentives
to
ship
owners
who
adopt
energy
efficient
ship
designs
that
will
reduce
fuel
consumption
and
carbon
dioxide
emissions.
Accordingly,
Singapore-‐flagged
ships
registered
on
or
after
1
July
2011,
which
go
beyond
the
requirements
of
the
International
Maritime
Organization’s
EEDI,
will
enjoy
a
50%
reduction
on
the
Initial
Registration
Fees
under
both
the
normal
registration
and
the
Block
Transfer
Scheme
during
the
registration
of
the
ship.
They
will
also
enjoy
a
20%
rebate
on
Annual
Tonnage
Tax
payable
every
year
for
a
number
of
years
based
on
a
scheme
that
uses
EEDI.
Existing
ships
which
utilise
energy
efficient
ship
designs
that
meet
the
requirements
for
the
Green
Ship
Programme
can
also
take
part
in
this
programme,
but
will
only
enjoy
the
20%
rebate
on
Annual
Tonnage
Tax
payable
every
year
until
the
ship
ceases
to
exceed
the
requirements
of
IMO
EEDI
reference
lines.
A
large
number
of
the
world’s
key
ports
have
committed
themselves
to
reducing
the
port-‐related
GHG.
This
commitment
is
called
the
World
Port
Climate
Initiative
(WPCI)40.
One
aspect
of
this
initiative
is
giving
incentives
to
ships
that
visit
such
ports
as
a
way
of
reducing
port-‐related
emissions.
One
of
the
projects
within
WPCI
is
the
development
of
an
Environmental
Ship
Index
(ESI).
The
ESI
identifies
seagoing
ships
that
perform
better
in
reducing
air
emissions
than
the
levels
required
by
the
IMO.
The
ESI
evaluates
the
amount
of
nitrogen
oxide
(NOx),
sulphur
oxide
(SOx)
that
is
released
by
a
ship
and
includes
a
reporting
scheme
on
the
greenhouse
gas
emission
of
the
ship.
The
ESI
aims
to
identify
cleaner
ships
in
a
general
way.
The
index
is
intended
to
be
used
by
ports
to
reward
ships
when
they
participate
in
the
scheme
for
promoting
clean
shipping.
Also,
WPCI
encourages
the
shippers
and
ship
owners
to
use
the
index
as
their
own
promotional
instrument.
ESI
is
a
voluntary
scheme
designed
to
improve
the
environmental
performance
of
sea
going
vessels.
It
can
be
applied
to
all
types
of
seagoing
ships.
It
is
easy
to
calculate
and
simple
in
its
approach.
ESI
relies
on
various
formulas
for
the
calculation
of
various
parts
for
NOx,
SOx
and
CO2.
It
additionally
awards
a
bonus
for
the
presence
of
OPS.
The
ESI
Score
ranges
from
0
for
a
ship
that
meets
the
IMO
environmental
regulations
that
is
already
in
force
and
100
for
a
ship
that
emits
no
SOx
and
no
NOx
and
reports
or
monitors
its
energy
efficiency.
In
other
words,
a
ship
with
a
score
of
0
points
is
actually
in
full
compliance
with
the
applicable
requirements
and
thus
OK
and
the
ship
with
100
points
has
zero
air
emissions.
In
reality,
the
best
performing
ships
currently
score
at
around
40
points.
39
http://www.mpa.gov.sg/sites/maritime_singapore/msgi/green-‐shipping-‐programme.page
40
www.wpci.nl
148
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
2.9 References
The
following
list
provides
useful
references
on
onshore
power
supply
for
ships:
• MEPC
61/INF.12
• http://www.ops.wpci.nl/
• http://www.mpa.gov.sg/sites/maritime_singapore/msgi/green-‐shipping-‐programme.page
• http://cleantech.cnss.no/policies-‐and-‐instruments/voluntary-‐instruments/clean-‐shipping-‐index/
• http://wpci.iaphworldports.org/onshore-‐power-‐supply/environment-‐and-‐health/air-‐
quality.html
• IMO
MEPC.1/Circ.774,
21
December
2011
on
regulated
VOC
emissions
control
ports.
149
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
MODULE
4
En
Route
150
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Contents
Module
Aims
and
Objectives
.............................................................................................................
154
1.
Voyage
Management:
Just
in
Time
(JIT)
and
Virtual
Arrival
(VA)
...............................................
155
1.1
Definitions
............................................................................................................................
155
1.5
Tools
to
support
energy
efficient
ship
operations
...............................................................
160
1.5.1
Weather
routing
................................................................................................................
160
1.5.2
Tools
to
support
energy
efficient
ship
operations
at
sea
..................................................
161
1.5.3
Tools
to
support
energy
efficient
ship
operations
in
coastal
areas
and
harbours
............
161
1.6
Outlook
–
potential
impact
of
e-‐navigation
developments
.................................................
163
1.7
Appendix
I
-‐
Exercise
............................................................................................................
165
151
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
1:
Virtual
Arrival
processes
[1]
................................................................................................
158
Figure
2:
Particle
concentration
(left),
NOx
and
COx
emissions
during
different
manoeuvring
phases
of
a
ferry
(source:
Winnes&Fridell
[source2]
.........................................................................................
162
Figure
3:
Principle
outline
and
basic
elements
of
the
e-‐Navigation
concept
(taken
from
IMO/IALA
documents)
........................................................................................................................................
164
Figure
4:
Engine
SFC
as
a
function
of
load
factor
..............................................................................
166
Figure
5:
Periods
for
1-‐DG
and
2-‐DG
operation
.................................................................................
168
Figure
6:
Examples
of
a
cargo
heating
process
..................................................................................
172
Figure
7:
Transfer
of
bio-‐species
due
to
ballast
operations
..............................................................
173
Figure
8:
Typical
ballast
and
bilge
pump
arrangement
......................................................................
175
152
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
153
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• Appreciate
the
current
practices
of
en-‐route
ship
operation
with
particular
regard
to
voyage
and
itinerary
management.
• Be
able
to
describe
the
main
methods
of
ship
energy
efficiency
in
passage
(en-‐route)
and
carry
out
simple
calculations
of
fuel
saving
levels
for
each
method.
• Appreciate
the
importance
of
just
in
time
operations
and
the
barriers
facing
its
implementation.
• Fully
appreciate
what
virtual
arrival
is
and
be
able
to
explain
how
it
could
be
achieved
including
its
likely
contractual
requirements.
• Appreciate
the
importance
of
diesel
generator
load
management
from
the
energy
efficiency
and
maintenance
points
of
views;
also
to
be
able
to
make
simple
calculations
on
the
impact
of
diesel
generator
load
management
on
ship’s
fuel
consumption.
• Be
able
to
name
and
explain
various
elements
of
“system
planning”
to
ensure
en-‐route
energy
efficient
operations.
• Demonstrate
a
full
understanding
of
the
weather
routing
topic.
• Demonstrate
knowledge
of
routing
utilisation
currents
and
tidal
streams.
• Demonstrate
knowledge
of
routing
for
bad
weather
(wind
and
waves).
• Demonstrate
knowledge
of
how
to
select
optimum
energy
efficient
operations
in
coastal
areas
and
harbours.
• Demonstrate
knowledge
of
how
systems
can
be
managed
efficiently
during
maneouvring
to
increase
fuel
efficiency
• Demonstrate
knowledge
of
how
ballast
loading
can
be
optimised
to
achieve
the
most
efficient
trim
angle.
• Demonstrate
knowledge
of
how
to
select
the
optimum
propeller
pitch
(for
controllable
pitch
propellers)
to
achieve
fuel
efficiency.
154
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
1. Voyage Management: Just in Time (JIT) and Virtual Arrival (VA)
1.1 Definitions
Just
In
Time
(JIT):
The
Just
in
Time
(JIT)
concept
and
practices
originate
from
the
manufacturing
industry
where
it
is
used
to
improve
business
performance
via
reducing
the
inventory
levels
and
associated
costs.
This
concept
then
moved
to
other
industries
and
today
normally
refers
to
process
improvements
for
the
reduction
of
the
unnecessary
and
idle
periods
of
capital
assets.
In
the
case
of
shipping,
JIT
normally
refers
to
process
improvement
to
reduce
the
unnecessary
waiting
and
idle
periods
of
ship
operations.
Itinerary
optimisation:
A
ship
itinerary
optimisation
refers
to
deciding
on
the
best
ship
operation
schedule/profile
for
a
certain
purpose.
Itinerary
optimisation
for
energy
efficiency
normally
means
the
choice
of
ship
schedules
that
would
yield
overall
lower
fuel
consumption.
Itinerary
optimisation
for
energy
saving
could
generally
conflict
with
the
commercial
aspects
of
shipping
as
dictated
by
the
wishes
of
shipping
clients
(cargo
owners
or
passengers).
Voyage
management:
Voyage
management
refers
to
all
ship
management
activities
that
lead
to
the
optimal
planning
and
execution
of
a
voyage.
To
ensure
best-‐practice
voyage
management,
all
aspects
of
planning,
execution,
monitoring
and
review
of
a
voyage
are
included
in
this
concept.
A commercial ship's movement is influenced by many factors, some of which are listed below:
• The
requirements
of
the
“cargo
owner”
(mainly
charterers)
on
when
and
where
the
cargo
should
be
loaded
and
discharged.
This
is
normally
mentioned
as
the
most
likely
reason
for
changes
to
the
ship
operation
plan
and
time
table.
• The
slotting
issue
in
ports
in
terms
of
berth
availability.
Early
arrival
and
competing
for
early
loading/discharge
is
common
industry
practice.
• Regulatory
issues
that
may
lead
to
prevention
of
entry
to
certain
ports
or
detention
for
some
period
of
time.
The
lost
time
normally
recovered
later
via
over-‐speeding.
• Technical
failures
that
lead
to
loss
of
ship
availability.
• Lack
of
business
(cargo),
resulting
in
short
or
long
idle
times.
Itinerary
optimisation,
proper
voyage
planning
and
voyage
execution
are
areas
of
interlink
between
shore
managers
and
ship’s
masters.
As
such,
the
link
between
the
shore
managers
(charterer
and
ship
manager)
and
the
master
is
critical
for
optimal
operation
management.
In
practice,
the
simplest
models
of
working
relationship
are
normally
established.
For
example,
the
shore-‐based
managers
specify
the
ports
of
call
and
timings.
In
some
cases,
they
change
their
orders
and
ship
itinerary
while
the
ship
is
underway.
The
master
then
decides
how
to
move
and
at
what
speed
in
order
to
meet
the
above
timings.
Normally,
the
master
tries
to
reach
the
port
of
destination
as
soon
as
possible
within
the
contractual
limits.
• Ship voyage speed is normally maximised (usually at design speed).
155
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• Total
ship
stay
in
ports
and
waiting
in
anchor
is
normally
maximised.
This
practice
is
not
energy
efficient.
To
make
it
efficient,
the
shore-‐based
manager
and
the
vessel’s
master
should
be
given
the
responsibility
to
maximise
the
sailing
periods
and
minimise
the
waiting
periods.
Unfortunately,
itinerary
optimisation
and
voyage
management
could
easily
be
sacrificed
by
either
poor
planning
or
poor
execution
due
to
commercial
pressures.
The
improvement
to
ship
itineraries
requires
efforts
to
be
made
by
all
the
parties
involved.
For
this
purpose,
the
collaboration
and
coordination
of
the
following
bodies
are
essential:
• Charterer
operation
department:
The
charterer
is
ultimately
responsible
for
decision
making
on
the
ship
itinerary
and
overall
steaming
speed.
Orders
issued
by
the
charterer
to
the
ship
are
normally
the
basis
for
ship
movement.
• Ship
master:
The
master,
based
on
the
orders
received,
operates
the
ship
and
ensures
that
the
designated
dates
and
times
are
achieved,
within
the
terms
of
the
charter
party.
The
master
can
play
a
major
role
in
improving
the
ship
itinerary
via
more
interaction
with
the
charterers/owners
decision
makers.
• Port
authorities:
The
Port
authorities
influence
the
plans
drawn
up
by
both
the
commercial
department
and
master
through
the
planning
of
the
port
operation.
It
is
the
interaction
between
the
above
parties
that
leads
to
the
actual
(achieved)
ship
itinerary.
Better
coordination
and
awareness
of
the
impact
of
their
decisions
on
ship
fuel
consumption
could
improve
operations.
The
main
purpose
of
the
JIT
operation
is
to
ensure
that
the
ship’s
operations
are
performed
according
to
a
“planned
and
optimised
itinerary”
with
minimal
deviations.
This
means
that
vessels
should
never
leave
ports
late
or
arrive
in
port
of
destination
earlier
than
the
planned
itinerary.
This
will
lead
to
the
overall
efficiency
of
the
ship
and
port
operations
and
to
significant
ship
energy
efficiency.
The
JIT
operation
benefit
arises
from
the
ship’s
less
waiting
times
and
more
passage
time;
thereby
scope
for
speed
reduction
and
thereby
fuel
efficiency.
• Avoid
waiting
periods
in
all
phases
of
a
voyage
or
modes
of
operation.
• Aim
for
early
communications
with
the
next
port
in
order
to
give
maximum
notice
of
berth
availability
and
facilitate
the
use
of
optimum
speed.
• Encourage
good
communications
between
fleet
department,
master
and
charterer
in
support
of
JIT
operation.
156
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• Improve
cargo
handling
operation
and
avoid
delays
at
berth
to
the
extent
possible.
Cargo
handling
in
most
cases
is
under
the
control
of
the
port
and
optimum
solutions
matched
to
ship
and
port
requirements
should
be
explored.
• Operate
at
constant
shaft
RPM
while
en-‐route.
• When
leaving
ports
or
estuaries,
increase
the
shaft
rpm
gradually
in
harmony
with
increases
in
ship
speed.
• Avoid
going
fast
in
shallow
waters.
Reduce
speed
in
shallow
water
if
possible.
• Measure,
monitor
and
report
the
“ship
duty
cycle”
in
terms
of
time
duration
in
various
phases
of
operation,
including
period
of
times
in
passage,
port,
waiting,
bunkering,
etc.
• Perform
benchmarking
of
the
“ship
duty
cycle”
against
the
fleet
and
similar
ships
• Charter
party
constraints:
These
include
clauses
on
various
aspects
of
ship
operation
that
practically
restrict
some
aspects
of
voyage
management
for
energy
efficiency.
Charter
part
contracts
normally
put
most
of
the
power
for
ship
speed
management
in
the
hands
of
the
charters.
• Weather
constraints:
The
weather
along
the
route
has
impacts
on
the
voyage
management
and
vessel
itinerary.
To
limit
this
impact,
weather
information
and
weather
routing
can
be
used.
• Route
constraint:
The
route
of
the
vessel
may
involve
channel
crossings,
passing
through
pirate
areas
and
the
need
for
operations
such
as
bunkering.
• Port
constraints:
Various
ports
impose
various
constraints
on
vessels.
One
major
aspect
is
the
competition
between
ships
to
arrive
at
port
of
destination
in
order
to
beat
the
queue.
The
system
that
dominates
now
is
that
most
ships
try
to
arrive
early
to
the
port
in
order
to
give
their
notice
of
readiness
and
stay
in
the
berth
queue.
• Other
ship/owner/charterer
specific
constraints:
These
are
specific
constraints
that
may
apply
to
various
parties
involved
in
ship
operations.
All
the
above
basically
work
against
the
JIT
operation.
They
need
to
be
avoided
via
improvement
to
the
ship
operation
charter
party,
culture,
use
of
modern
information
technologies
and
systems
such
as
weather
routing
and
voyage
monitoring
systems.
1.4.1 Introduction
One
major
initiative
for
the
removal
of
some
of
the
Just-‐In-‐Time
barriers,
as
explained
in
the
previous
section,
is
the
adoption
of
the
“Virtual
Arrival”
concept
that
has
been
introduced
in
recent
years,
mainly
in
the
tanker
segment.
Virtual
arrival
aims
to
reduce
waiting
times
and
achieve
longer
passage
times
and
thereby
reducing
the
ship’s
voyage
average
speed.
A
significant
level
of
energy
saving
is
expected
with
virtual
arrival.
Appendix
I
(section
1.7)
shows
an
example
of
changes
in
ship
itinerary
that
is
expected
to
be
achieved
via
initiatives
such
as
virtual
arrival.
This
example
indicates
an
estimated
level
of
savings
that
is
significant
if
the
virtual
arrival
case
can
be
successfully
implemented.
This
example
also
shows
that
port-‐related
air
emissions
could
be
reduced
significantly
via
this
initiative.
157
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
It
is
well-‐known
in
the
industry
that
it
is
not
efficient
for
a
vessel
to
steam
at
full
speed
to
a
port
where
known
delays
to
cargo
handling
/
transfer
have
already
been
identified.
By
mutually
agreeing
to
reduce
speed
to
make
an
agreed
arrival
time,
the
vessel
can
avoid
spending
time
at
anchor,
awaiting
a
berth,
tank
spaces
or
cargo
availability.
Emissions
can
thus
be
reduced,
congestion
avoided
and
the
safety
improved
in
port
areas.
For
Virtual
Arrival
(VA)
to
succeed
there
is
a
need
to
establish
an
“agreement
or
contract”
between
the
parties
involved
in
ship
operations
(e.g.
ship
operator,
ship
owner,
charterer,
port,
etc.).
The
contract
aims
to
remove
the
barriers
that
are
currently
put
in
place
by
existing
charter
party
contracts
and
also
facilitates
the
sharing
of
any
revenues
that
result
from
VA
implementation.
The
agreement
will
allow
all
the
parties
to
agree
to
reduce
a
vessel’s
speed
on
voyage
to
meet
a
revised
arrival
time
when
there
is
a
known
delay
at
the
destination
port,
cargo
delivery
date,
etc.
The
reduction
in
speed
will
result
in
reduced
fuel
consumption,
thereby
reducing
GHG
and
other
exhaust
emissions.
The
VA
agreement,
by
virtue
of
reducing
emissions
and
costs,
is
of
mutual
benefit
to
vessel
owners
and
charterers.
Furthermore,
by
minimising
vessel
waiting
times,
a
reduction
in
emissions
and
improved
safety
within
the
port
areas
are
also
realised.
Figure
1:
Virtual
Arrival
processes
[1]
Source: http://www.intertanko.com/upload/virtualarrival/virtualarrivalinformationpaper.pdf
• Identification
of
change
in
itinerary:
The
main
part
of
the
process
is
to
identify
a
delay
at
the
next
port
of
destination,
for
example,
due
to
congestion
at
the
berth
or
lack
of
receiving
space.
• Agreement
to
new
itinerary:
The
next
step
is
for
parties
involved
including
the
vessel
owner/operator
and
the
charterer
and
possibly
port
to
agree
on
the
change
of
itinerary.
In
158
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
particular
the
port,
charterer
and
owner/operator
agree
to
a
new
“Required
Time
of
Arrival”
at
the
destination
port.
• Speed
adjustment:
As
a
result
of
the
newly
agreed
Required
Time
of
Arrival
(or
itinerary),
the
ship’s
speed
or
the
engine
RPM
is
reduced.
VA
is
intended
to
be
a
dynamic
and
flexible
process
and,
if
conditions
change
during
a
voyage,
the
orders
can
be
revised
to
enable
the
ship
to
achieve,
for
example,
a
new
arrival
time.
Therefore,
the
above
processes
are
best
supported
by
ship
scheduling
software
systems
accessible
to
all
parties
to
VA
agreement
parties
to
facilitate
better
control
and
monitoring.
The
fuel
consumption
for
a
ship
not
only
depends
on
speed,
but
also
on
water
depth
and
weather
conditions.
The
optimal
speed
distribution
along
the
route
can
be
calculated
in
advance,
if
a
weather
forecast
is
available.
The
following
table
shows
the
fuel
consumption
increase
(%)
for
different
water
depths
d
and
speeds
x
[3].
Table
1
Increase
in
fuel
consumption
(%)
due
to
limited
water
depth
at
different
speeds
X D Increase (%)
10 8 5
10 10 3
10 100 0
17 8 20
17 15 10
17 100 0
20 8 30
20 15 20
20 100 0
The
following
table
describes
a
typical
and
approximate
relation
between
increased
wind
strength,
direction,
and
increased
fuel
consumption
for
each
unit
of
Beaufort
[3].
Table 2 Increase in fuel consumption (%) due to wind from different directions
160
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Example:
This
specific
example
is
to
calculate
fuel
consumption
increase
based
on
the
figures
given
in
the
above
tables.
The
ship’s
speed
is
18
knots.
The
current
is
1
knot
along
the
direction
of
the
ship.
The
wind
blows
4
Beaufort
points
straight
against
the
starboard
side
of
the
ship
(wd=90).
The
water
depth
d
is
15
meters
below
the
keel.
The
speed
through
water
in
then
18
–
1
=
17
knots.
The
fuel
consumption
at
17
knots
before
the
wind
and
limited
depth
effects
is
1,300.00
liters/hours.
According
to
Table
1,
fuel
consumption
increases
by
10%
caused
by
the
water
depth.
According
to
Table
2,
fuel
consumption
increases
by
8%
(4*2)
due
to
the
side
wind.
The
total
estimated
fuel
consumption
is
therefore
1,300.00
*
1.10
*
1.08
=
1,544.00
liters/hour.
Weather
routing
develops
an
optimum
track
for
ocean
voyages
based
on
weather
forecasts,
sea
conditions,
and
a
ship’s
individual
features
for
a
particular
transit.
Within
specified
weather
limits
and
sea
conditions,
the
term
means
minimum
fuel
consumption
while
maximising
safety
and
crew
comfort
and
minimising
time
underway.
1.5.2 Tools
to
support
energy
efficient
ship
operations
at
sea
• Voyage
performance
analyser:
There
are
systems
that
can
routinely
measure
ship
speed,
shaft
propulsion
power
and
environmental
conditions.
These
systems
could
be
used
for
monitoring
voyage
performance.
They
could
also
help
to
identify
reasons
for
poor
performance,
deviations
in
speed
and
so
on.
• ECDIS
(Electronic
Chart
Display
and
Information
System):
The
electronic
chart
and
information
system
could
be
used
by
means
of
integrated
information
for
voyage
management
purposes
and
especially
may
support
energy
efficient
ship
operations
in
several
ways.
• Autopilot:
The
new
generation
of
Autopilots
are
under
development
or
already
available
on
the
market
and
are
provided
by
several
manufacturers.
Sophisticated
autopilot
systems
provide
technical
facilities
to
also
adapt
the
steering
actions
to
prevailing
weather
conditions
and
especially
the
sea
states,
even
automatically.
Those
systems
are
providing
dedicated
functions
such
as
'precision'
and
'economy'
modes.
An
Autopilot
operating
in
Economy
mode
reduces
rudder
movements
and
consequently
contributes
to
fuel
savings.
On
the
other
hand,
using
Autopilot
in
the
Precision
mode
allows
for
the
best
accuracy
and
ensures
safe
navigation.
1.5.3 Tools
to
support
energy
efficient
ship
operations
in
coastal
areas
and
harbours
Generally,
ship
manoeuvres
can
be
divided
into
routine
manoeuvring
and
manoeuvring
in
safety-‐
critical
and
emergency
situations.
This
division
can
be
developed
further
by
considering
different
sea
areas
where
manoeuvres
have
to
be
performed:
e.g.
in
open
seas,
in
coastal
waters
and
fairways
as
well
as
in
harbour
approaches
and
basins.
Routine
manoeuvring
in
open
seas
covers
ship-‐handling
under
normal
conditions,
e.g.
in
order
to
follow
a
planned
route
from
the
port
of
departure
to
the
161
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
port
of
destination;
this
includes
simple
course
change
manoeuvres,
speed
adaptations
etc.
according
to
the
voyage
plan.
Manoeuvring
in
coastal
areas,
at
entrances
to
ports
and
in
harbour
basins
include
manoeuvres,
e.g.
to
embark
and
disembark
a
pilot,
to
pass
fairways
and
channels
and
even
berthing
manoeuvres
with
or
without
tug
assistance.
However,
manoeuvring
is
always
connected
to
fuel
saving
and
emission
reductions
and
therefore
is
crucial
for
energy-‐efficient
and
environmentally
friendly
ship
operations.
Ships,
during
their
normal
operation,
generate
different
kinds
of
pollutants
emitted
into
the
atmosphere.
For
example,
the
refrigeration
plants
of
ships
can
contain
ozone
depleting
substances;
these
are
hydro-‐
and
chlorofluorocarbons.
On
the
other
hand,
greenhouse
gases
(CO2)
are
emitted
during
the
normal
combustion
processes
with
fossil
fuels.
These
are
mainly
generated
in
the
main
and
auxiliary
engines,
the
boilers
and
the
incinerators.
It
is
assumed
that
during
combustion
all
of
the
carbon
in
the
fuel
is
converted
into
CO2
and
that
therefore
the
emission
factor
is
dependent
on
the
carbon
content
of
the
fuel
[source].
It
is
known
that
shipping
is
a
main
contributor
to
air
pollution,
especially
in
coastal
zones
and
harbour
areas
where
many
people
are
concerned.
Measurements
in
the
south
Sweden
region
[2]
have
shown
that
almost
70%
of
S
O2,
approximately
half
of
N
Ox
and
20%
of
particles
in
the
air
are
caused
by
shipping
activities.
The
manoeuvring
activities
in
coastal
zones,
port
approaches
and
harbour
areas
are
usually
higher
than
when
sailing
in
open
seas
(see
figure
below).
Figure
2:
Particle
concentration
(left),
NOx
and
COx
emissions
during
different
manoeuvring
phases
of
a
ferry
(source:
Winnes&Fridell
[source2]
Optimized
manoeuvring
regimes
have
great
potential
to
decrease
the
negative
effects
and
also
may
reduce
fuel
consumption.
This
can
be
realized
by
using
manoeuvring
assistance
tools.
adapt
the
manoeuvring
strategies
and
regimes
into
an
energy-‐efficient
range
with
the
efficient
use
of
energy
and
resources
and
consequently
minimize
the
emissions
of
GHG.
One
of
the
main
aims
of
pre-‐planning
manoeuvres
regarding
energy-‐efficient
ship
operations
is
the
adaptation
of
the
number
of
elementary
manoeuvres.
Elementary
manoeuvres
are
defined
as
each
single
manoeuvre
or
command
of
rudder,
engine
and
thrusters
and
any
further
steering
equipment.
Once
the
planning
process
is
completed
and
approved
the
bridge
team
can
follow
the
steering
sequence
using
any
dedicated
display
to
check
the
plan
is
being
kept.
The
use
of
sophisticated
planning
and
monitoring
tools
optimizes
the
number
of
elementary
manoeuvres
in
order
to
meet
the
requirements
for
the
safety
of
navigation
while
also
meeting
the
requirements
for
the
minimum
use
of
the
steering
equipment
and
saving
fuel
and
time
and
simultaneously
reduce
GHG
emissions
when
operating
in
coastal
and
harbour
areas.
163
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
3:
Principle
outline
and
basic
elements
of
the
e-‐Navigation
concept
(taken
from
IMO/IALA
documents)
Those
developments
related
to
e-‐Navigation
have
to
be
taken
into
consideration
for
application
onboard
and
ashore
as
well
to
guarantee
the
highest
standard
in
environmental
protection
under
all
circumstances
(environmental
and
ship's
status)
and
in
all
areas
at
sea.
164
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
allow
for
a
later
introduction
of
such
regimes
that
will
have
substantial
impact
on
energy-‐efficient
ship
operations.
Using
VA,
it
is
estimated
that
the
total
duration
at
anchorage,
port
and
berth
can
be
reduced
from
36%
to
26%.
Assuming
that
this
reduction
in
waiting
time
can
be
used
to
increase
passage
time
(assume
total
voyage
time
is
constant
for
two
cases)
and
thereby
reduce
speed:
Calculate
the
%
reduction
in
ship
speed
in
passage.
The
resultant
%
reduction
in
fuel
consumption
in
passage.
Also,
calculate
the
%
reduction
in
port-‐area
emissions
due
to
this
change.
In
doing
this
exercise,
assume
the
speed-‐power
curve
of
the
vessel
follows
the
propeller
law,
i.e.
P
=
Cons1
*
V3
(1)
P Shaft power
V Ship speed
t Time duration
FC Fuel consumption
In
the
calculations,
assume
that
emissions
due
to
port
stays
(waiting/anchorage/berth/etc.)
are
proportional
to
the
corresponding
time
durations.
165
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
1.14
1.12
1.10
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Load [% of MCR]
Figure
4:
Engine
SFC
as
a
function
of
load
factor
In
Figure
4,
the
curve
for
constant
rated
speed
represents
power
generation
engines
(auxiliary
engines)
and
the
curve
for
propeller
law
shows
the
main
engine.
As
can
be
seen
there
is
no
significant
difference
and
for
both
types
of
application,
the
engine’s
SFC
varies
with
the
engine
load.
SFC
is
a
minimum
(i.e.
efficiency
is
a
maximum)
for
a
certain
load
level;
typically
for
main
engines
it
is
in
the
range
of
70
to
90%
of
an
engine’s
Maximum
Continuous
Rating
(MCR).
The
above
diagram
shows
that
under
low
load
conditions,
the
SFC
of
the
engine
will
increase.
Although
the
load
on
the
main
engine
is
mainly
dictated
by
ship
speed,
the
load
on
the
auxiliary
engines
depends
on
the
ship-‐board
electrical
loads
that
are
a
function
of
the
number
of
machines
being
used
at
each
point
in
time.
1
Load
factor:
The
engine
load
factor
is
defined
as
the
actual
power
output
of
the
engine
relative
to
its
Maximum
Continuous
Rating
(MCR).
The
Load
factor
is
normally
specified
in
percent.
166
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• Normally
ships
have
one
main
engine
and
load
management
applies
to
cases
with
more
than
one
engine.
• It
is
easy
to
show
that
slow
steaming
leads
to
the
main
engine’s
operation
being
at
a
low
load
is
energy
efficient
despite
the
fact
that
the
engine
operates
in
a
less
efficient
load
factor.
This
is
due
to
the
fact
that
the
impact
of
chance
in
ship
resistances
is
much
more
effective
than
changes
in
engine
SFC
for
slow
steaming
cases.
Despite
the
above
fact,
it
is
mostly
recommended
that
the
main
engine
load
should
be
kept
at
a
reasonably
steady
level
under
normal
operation.
This
is
achieved
by
keeping
the
engine
speed
(RPM)
constant.
Frequent
changes
to
the
engine
load
(i.e.
shaft
RPM)
are
not
efficient
and
must
be
avoided.
• The
load
factor
of
various
DGs
needs
to
be
established
via
collection
and
analysis
of
data.
• Normally,
DGs
are
equipped
with
automatic
“Power
Management
System
(PMS)”.
This
system
is
adjustable
and
could
be
set
from
the
engine
control
room.
It
is
important
to
establish
the
effectiveness
and
level
of
use
of
PMS
and
utilise
its
capabilities
for
improved
engine
load
management.
• The
proper
management
of
a
ship’s
electrical
demand
including
load
reduction
and
load
scheduling,
could
be
used
for
reducing
the
number
of
DGs
in
use
and
also
for
optimising
the
DGs’
performance
via
a
better
load
level.
As
an
example,
Figure
5
shows
the
periods
for
running
1-‐DG
and
2-‐DG
for
a
tanker.
For
the
tanker,
an
analysis
of
the
operational
profile
indicated
that
the
period
for
2-‐DG
operation
is
excessive
and
it
may
be
reduced
from
48%
of
the
total
time
to
a
lower
number.
This
will
result
in
improved
energy
efficiency
and
maintenance
(see
case
study
for
an
estimation
of
the
benefits
at
the
end
of
this
section).
167
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
5:
Periods
for
1-‐DG
and
2-‐DG
operation
As
discussed
under
system
planning
(see
next
Section),
it
is
important
that
the
demand
side
is
also
managed
via
better
system
planning
for
load
reduction.
Reduction
of
loads
in
this
way
helps
to
provide
a
better
load
management
on
DGs
and
avoids
the
running
of
two
engines
at
low
loads.
168
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Total electric power generation [kW] 550
Current practice
Period of operation with 1-DG, [%] 52
Best practice
Period of operation with 1-DG, [%] 70
169
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• Loading
• Unloading
• Ballasting
and
de-‐ballasting
• Inner
gas
generation
and
top
ups
for
crude
oil
and
product
tankers
• Bunkering
• Manoeuvring
• Stand-‐by
• Normal
passage
operation
• Waiting
and
anchorage
• Fresh
water
generation
• Potable
water
generation
The
nature
of
the
above
operations
vary
from
one
ship
type
to
another.
Also,
they
may
vary
with
the
area
of
operations
and
ports
of
call.
To
improve
fuel
consumption,
the
requirements
of
various
operations
need
to
be
carefully
examined
and
ship
resources
are
then
used
accordingly.
Planning
of
the
above
requires
good
coordination
between
the
deck
and
engine
departments.
In
this
section
examples
of
planning
activities
are
examined.
• Avoidance
of
unnecessary
energy
use
via
switching
off
the
machinery
when
not
needed.
All
non-‐essential
and
not-‐required
machinery
and
equipment
that
does
not
affect
the
ship
and
the
safety
of
the
personnel
should
be
stopped
whilst
in
port
and
at
sea
to
reduce
the
load
on
the
diesel
generators.
Such
items
should
be
identified
first
and
then
procedures
followed/undertaken/prepared/established/developed
for
the
execution
of
tasks
to
be
developed
and
implemented.
• Avoidance
of
the
parallel
operation
of
electrical
generators,
when
one
is
sufficient
for
the
purpose.
This
aspect
is
covered
and
fully
discussed
under
“engine
load
management”
in
the
previous
Section.
• Optimized
HVAC
operation
on
board.
The
HVAC
system
operation
should
be
aligned
to
outside
weather
conditions
either
via
automatic
settings
or
manual
operations.
• Proper
coordination
should
be
maintained
on
board
between
the
deck
and
engine
departments
especially
in
the
use
of
machinery/equipment
items
such
as
steering
gear
motors
/
bilge
and
fire
pumps
/
winches
and
mooring
equipment
/
deck
cranes
/
service
and
deck
air
/
etc.
in
order
to
reduce
loads
on
generators.
This
is
part
of
the
engine
load
management
process
of
the
diesel
generators.
170
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
above
activities
will
lead
to
reduced
electrical
power
demand.
Moreover,
jobs
could
be
co-‐
ordinated
and
bundled
together
so
that
two
generators
could
be
run
more
effectively
and
for
a
shorter
period
of
time.
This
could
be
achieved
via
system
planning
and
more
coordinated
actions.
171
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
6:
Examples
of
a
cargo
heating
process
For best practice cargo heating planning, the following should be noted:
• The
vessel's
master
and
chief
engineer
should
have
a
greater
understanding
of
the
voyage
manager/charterer's
heating
instructions.
• They
should
seek
the
receiver/charterer's
permission
for
the
allowable
range
of
cargo
temperatures
and:
o Prepare
a
cargo
heating
plan
for
the
voyage.
o Execute
the
cargo
heating
plan
and
monitor
it
to
verify
the
effectiveness
of
the
actual
heating
progress.
o Closely
monitor
and
analyse
the
daily
cargo
heating
reports
for
deviations
from
the
heating
plan.
• They
should
not
heat
for
short
frequent
periods
and
run
the
boiler
at
low
loads.
• They
should
follow
the
recommended
condensate
temperature
and
optimum
boiler
settings
for
efficient
cargo
heating.
Heating
instructions,
accompanying
the
heating
plan,
should
further
highlight
these
points.
• And,
maintain
efficient
and
good
communication
between
the
vessel
and
the
voyage
manager/charterer
about
the
plan
and
execution.
Cargo
should
be
heated
as
economically
as
possible
and
planned
soon
after
departure.
Heating
at
the
end
of
the
cargo
passage
may
cause
off
gassing
which
in
turn
could
delay
cargo
discharge,
for
example,
due
to
off-‐limit
Hydrogen
Sulphide
(H2S)
usually
above
10
ppm.
172
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
is
normally
used
more
than
necessary.
This
could
include
any
type
of
machinery
but
in
particular
fans
and
pumps.
Any
reduction
in
the
use
of
such
machinery
can
lead
to
energy
efficiency.
Proper
planning
of
the
use
of
machinery
versus
the
operation
mode
is
an
effective
way
of
achieving
this
objective.
For
example,
the
use
of
machinery
could
be
reduced
via
advanced
planning
and
decision
making
on
the
number
of
machines
to
be
used;
taking
into
account
the
actual
operational
requirements.
For
example,
when
a
ship
is
in
port,
the
plan
should
include
switching
off
one
or
two
engine
room
ventilation
fans
as
the
main
engine
is
not
operating
any
more.
Another
example
is
the
mooring
equipment.
When
mooring
equipment
is
not
needed,
the
related
pumps
and
machinery
could
be
switched
off.
To
ensure
safe
operation,
all
these
items
need
to
be
proactively
planned
and
executed.
Without
daily
planning
and
the
establishment
of
relevant
processes,
the
task
of
reduction
in
energy
use
cannot
be
accomplished.
As
emphasized
before,
coordination
between
the
deck
and
engine
departments
are
of
paramount
importance
for
an
effective
and
at
the
same
time
safe
action
to
avoid
misunderstanding
or
unexpected
consequences.
Figure
7:
Transfer
of
bio-‐species
due
to
ballast
operations
(source: http://www.thelivingocean.net/2012/08/ballast-‐water-‐blues.html)
Today,
an
IMO
convention
is
devoted
to
ballast
water
management.
In
the
Convention,
two
main
methods
are
highlighted:
ballast
water
exchange
(Regulation
D-‐1)
and
achievement
of
ballast
water
standards
(Regulation
D-‐2).
The
impact
of
Ballast
Water
Management
(BWM)
on
air
emission
is
barely
described
despite
the
evidence
that,
regardless
of
the
management
method
established,
the
overall
energy
efficiency
of
ships
is
affected
at
least
because:
173
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
- the
exchange
requires
the
additional
use
of
the
Ballast
Water
equipment
and
in
particular
pumps;
and
- treatment
systems
developed
to
reach
D-‐2
standards
require
the
installation
of
additional
energy
consuming
equipment
on
board
ships.
In
addition
to
the
increasing
use
of
equipment
using
power,
BWM
impacts
the
ship’s
energy
efficiency
in
two
additional
ways:
• The
change
in
ship
displacement,
thus
wetted
surfaces
and
ship
resistance.
Generally,
the
more
ballast
water
or
ballast
sediments
are
carried
around,
the
bigger
the
ship
displacement
will
be
and
the
more
energy
consumption
is
expected.
• The
change
in
ship
trim:
trim
optimisation
via
the
effective
use
of
ballast
water
could
lead
to
gains
in
energy
efficiency
as
has
been
discussed
elsewhere.
In
ballast
water
operations
and
management,
one
should
consider
serious
planning
in
the
present
regulated
context
because
many
variables
apply
including
the
type
and
size
of
ship,
ballast
tank
configurations
and
associated
pumping
systems,
trading
routes
and
associated
weather
conditions,
port
State
requirements
and
manning.
• Carrying
less
ballast
water:
The
displacement
of
a
vessel
is
a
function
of
lightweight,
fuel,
cargo
and
ballast
weights.
As
such,
less
ballast
water
means
lower
displacement
and
lower
resistances.
Therefore,
it
is
generally
desirable
to
have
less
ballast
from
an
energy
efficiency
point
of
view.
Of
course
this
should
not
contravene
any
of
the
regulations
nor
compromise
ship
safety.
• Optimizing
use
of
the
equipment:
This
item
relates
to
the
maintenance
of
the
equipment
and
the
amount
of
BW
to
load,
discharge
and
manage
on
board
the
ship.
o Sequential
ballast
exchange
is
more
energy
efficient
than
the
flow-‐through
method.
Again,
this
is
for
reasons
of
the
amount
of
water
that
needs
to
be
displaced;
thus
the
number
of
hours
for
running
the
ballast
pumps.
o Trim
optimisation:
Ballast
is
used
to
adjust
the
ship
trim
with
consequences
for
energy
savings.
Trim
optimisation
using
ballast
water
leads
to
significant
energy
savings
on
some
ships.
o Steam
driven
ballast
pumps:
In
some
ships,
ballast
pumps
are
steam
driven.
The
use
of
a
boiler
for
this
purpose
is
extremely
inefficient.
Therefore,
minimisation
of
the
use
of
ballast
pumps
by
better
planning
of
the
ballast
water
operations
can
lead
to
energy
savings.
o Sediment
removal:
As
indicated,
sediment
removal
leads
to
better
cargo
capacity
and
energy
efficiency.
174
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Therefore,
the
port/ship
relationship
must
develop
plans
and
procedures
to
optimize
the
ballast
water
intake
through
the
establishment
of
the
cargo
loading/unloading
process
and
the
final
cargo
plan.
In
addition
to
the
anticipated
ballast
plan,
the
dynamics
of
the
voyage
should
be
taken
into
account
especially
when
ballast
water
exchange
has
to
be
carried
out.
Ballast
water
and
trim
optimisation
and
adjustments
while
in
passage
should
be
pre-‐planned
relative
to
the
port
normally
even-‐keel
operation.
Sediment
uptake
and
removal
should
be
controlled
as
part
of
voyage
planning
to
ensure
the
minimal
level
of
sediments.
Figure
8:
Typical
ballast
and
bilge
pump
arrangement
Source:
http://www.machineryspaces.com/bilge-‐and-‐ballast-‐system.html
175
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
use
of
this
system
is
normally
described
in
the
ship’s
Ballast
Water
Management
Plan
(BWMP).
All
failures
and
malfunctions
of
the
system
are
recorded
in
the
Ballast
Water
Record
Book
(BWRB)
according
to
IMO
requirements.
Principle of sediment management: to reduce the sediment levels, the following general advice is provided by the IMO:
• All
practical
steps
should
be
taken
during
ballast
uptake
to
avoid
sediment
accumulation.
• When
sediment
has
accumulated,
consideration
should
be
given
to
flushing
tank
bottoms
and
other
surfaces
when
in
suitable
areas.
• The
volume
of
sediment
in
each
ballast
tank
should
be
monitored
on
a
regular
basis.
• The
frequency
and
timing
of
removal
will
depend
on
factors
such
as
sediment
build
up,
ship’s
trading
pattern,
availability
of
reception
facilities,
work
load
of
the
ship’s
personnel
and
safety
considerations.
• Removal
of
sediment
from
ballast
tanks
should
preferably
be
undertaken
under
controlled
conditions
in
port,
at
a
repair
facility
or
in
dry
dock.
• The
removed
sediment
should
preferably
be
disposed
of
in
a
sediment
reception
facility
if
available,
reasonable
and
practicable.
Disposal
should
take
place
in
areas
outside
200
nm
from
land
and
in
water
depths
of
over
200
m.
• Method
of
the
sediment
removal
or
reduction
at
sea,
and
when
cleaning
of
the
ballast
tanks
takes
place.
Basic tasks and responsibility held by the Officer in charge
• An
officer
should
be
made
responsible
to
ensure
the
maintenance
of
appropriate
records
and
to
ensure
that
ballast
water
management
procedures
are
followed
and
recorded.
• When
carrying
out
any
ballast
water
operation,
the
details
need
to
be
recorded
in
the
Ballast
Water
Record
Book.
The officer in charge of ballast water management should perform the following duties:
• Ensuring
that
the
ballast
water
operations
follow
the
procedures
in
the
BWMP.
• Ensuring
that
the
Ballast
Water
Record
Book
and
any
other
necessary
documentation
are
maintained.
• Being
available
to
assist
the
inspection
officers
authorized
by
a
Party
for
any
sampling
that
may
need
to
be
undertaken.
176
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Since
the
Ballast
Water
Management
Convention
has
not
yet
entered
into
force,
the
management
of
BW
is
not
a
worldwide
obligation.
However,
an
increasing
number
of
countries
require
proper
BWM
before
arriving
in
their
waters.
Currently,
a
small
amount
of
the
world’s
fleet
carries
BW
treatment
systems.
Thus,
the
present
dominant
technique
to
manage
BW
is
the
exchange.
• Sequential
method
–
A
process
by
which
a
ballast
tank
is
first
emptied
and
then
refilled
with
replacement
ballast
water
to
achieve
at
least
a
95
per
cent
volumetric
exchange.
• Flow-‐through
method
–
A
process
by
which
replacement
ballast
water
is
pumped
into
a
ballast
tank,
allowing
water
to
overflow
from
the
tank.
For
effective
ballast
exchange,
the
volume
of
flow
through
water
should
be
at
least
3
times
the
volume
of
the
water
in
the
tank.
• Dilution
method
–
A
process
by
which
replacement
ballast
water
is
supplied
through
the
top
of
the
ballast
tank
with
simultaneous
discharge
from
the
bottom
at
the
same
flow
rate
and
maintaining
a
constant
level
in
the
tank
throughout
the
ballast
exchange
operation.
•
•
Figure
9:
Ballast
overflow
(Source:
http://www.ukpandi.com/)
For ballast water exchange, particular care should be taken of the following:
• Stability,
which
is
to
be
maintained
at
all
times
as
regulated
by
the
IMO
or
flag
or
port
authorities.
• Longitudinal
stress
and
torsional
stress
values,
not
to
exceed
permitted
values
with
regard
to
prevailing
sea
conditions,
where
applicable.
• Sloshing
impact
reduction
due
to
water
movement
should
be
considered
in
order
to
minimise
the
risk
of
structural
damage,
in
particular
at
non-‐favourable
sea
and
swell
conditions.
• Wave-‐induced
hull
vibrations
when
carrying
out
ballast
water
exchange.
• Limitations
of
the
available
methods
of
ballast
water
exchange
in
respect
of
sea
and
weather
conditions.
177
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• Forward
and
aft
draughts
and
trim
adjustment,
with
particular
reference
to
bridge
visibility,
slamming,
propeller
immersion
and
minimum
forward
draft;
and
energy
efficiency
(optimum
draft).
• Additional
workloads
on
the
master
and
crew.
As
explained,
the
Ballast
Water
exchange
process
has
implications
for
both
safety
and
energy
use.
Also,
it
is
shown
that
trim
optimisation
has
a
significant
impact
on
ship
energy
efficiency.
Where
sset
is
the
set
speed
for
a
vessel,
which
is
given
explicitly
by
the
operator.
178
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
4 Trim Optimisation
4.1 Introduction
Most
ships
are
designed
to
carry
a
certain
amount
of
cargo
at
a
designated
speed
consuming
a
certain
amount
of
fuel
under
a
specified
trim
condition.
Loaded
or
ballast,
trim
has
a
significant
influence
on
the
resistance
of
the
ship
through
water.
Therefore,
optimizing
the
trim
can
deliver
significant
savings.
For
any
given
draft
and
speed,
there
is
a
trim
condition
that
gives
minimum
resistance.
Therefore,
the
vessel
optimum
trim
is
a
function
of
draft
and
speed.
The
optimum
trim
needs
to
be
established
as
part
of
routine
operations
or
through
tank
testing
or
use
of
computational
methods.
Nowadays,
computational
methods
are
extensively
used
to
estimate
optimal
trim
settings
for
energy
efficiency.
However,
these
may
require
information
from
ship
model
tests
and
/or
full-‐scale
measurements.
Operationally,
design
or
safety
factors
may
preclude
the
full
use
of
trim
optimization.
In
this
section,
various
aspects
of
trim
optimisation
are
discussed.
The
possibility
of
trimming
the
ship
should
be
seen
in
relation
to
stability,
manoeuvrability
and
other
safety
and
operational
aspects.
It
is
the
master
or
chief
officer
of
the
vessel
that
will
ultimately
ensure
all
situations
are
considered.
To
ensure
best
practice,
the
concern
of
masters
with
regard
to
loading
and
ballasting
aspects
needs
to
be
taken
into
account.
In
any
case,
it
should
be
emphasised
that
even
small
trim
changes
can
have
a
large
impact
on
vessel
performance;
2
to
4%
reduction
in
fuel
consumption
is
generally
talked
about.
Therefore,
all
should
try
to
help
with
ensuring
that
this
potential
is
realised.
Sailing
just
5-‐10
centimetres
off
optimal
trim
might
cause
ships
to
operate
at
higher
fuel
consumption
levels
than
normal.
Ship
resistance
is
altered
due
to
the
trim
of
the
vessel
through
viscous
resistance
which
is
the
function
of
the
wetted
hull
surface
area.
When
trim
changes,
wetted
surface
area
thereby
hull
resistance
slightly
differs.
By
definition,
if
resistance
increases,
fuel
consumption
and
emissions
also
increase.
In
this
respect,
in
order
to
reduce
fuel
consumption
and
emissions,
trim
needs
to
be
optimised
before
and
during
a
ship’s
voyage
through
ballasting
or
loading
the
ship
to
be
able
to
achieve
a
floating
position
that
consumes
the
least
propulsion
power.
Ships
record
their
trim
before
their
voyage
by
directly
reading
the
draft
marks.
So,
considering
that
the
weight
distributions
on
the
ship
allow
trim
adjustment,
finding
the
appropriate
and
optimal
floating
position
before
voyage
becomes
possible.
However,
knowing
the
exact
trim
and
draught
during
a
ship’s
voyage,
also
called
dynamic
trim,
is
not
an
easy
task.
It
requires
real-‐time
readings
through
sensors
and
on-‐board
integrated
technology.
Dynamic
trim
optimization
includes
collecting
and
monitoring
real-‐time
data
of
propeller
thrust
and
manoeuvring
rudder
angles,
weather
conditions,
and
sea-‐state.
These
data
are
then
analysed
constantly
and
the
optimal
trim
value
is
calculated
and
displayed
on
a
real
time
basis
to
give
advice
to
the
crew
on-‐board.
179
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
The
vessel
with
high
trim
and
draught
fluctuations
during
its
voyage
might
benefit
more
than
the
one
with
small
fluctuations.
The
following
are
two
real
examples
of
proven
savings
by
trim
optimisation
[2]:
Example
1:
5,500
TEU
Container
Vessel
over
136
sea
days
crossing.
It
was
found
that
the
average
percentage
of
propulsion
power
loss
due
to
non-‐optimal
trimming
was
5%,
whilst
the
vessel
was
on
long,
trans-‐oceanic
legs,
although
lower
on
shorter
and
more
coastal
routes.
The
trim
related
savings
potential
was
calculated
at
350
tons
of
HFO.
Even
if
operational
constraints
meant
that
the
ship
was
only
able
to
follow
an
optimum
trim
80%
of
the
time,
280
tonnes
of
fuel
would
still
have
been
saved.
Such
a
saving
translates
into
around
a
USD
150,000
reduction
in
bunker
costs
(at
the
prevailing
prices
of
the
study)
for
the
vessel
operator
in
less
than
five
months.
Example
2:
The
results
of
a
study
on
the
impact
of
trimming
on
a
VLCC
showed
that
VLCCs
can
benefit
significantly
from
trim
optimisation
due
to
their
size
and
rate
of
daily
consumption.
The
saving
is
dependent
on
the
rate
of
usage
(ROU)
of
the
suggested
optimum
trim
by
the
crew.
This
can
be
influenced
by
external
conditions,
such
as
extreme
weather,
as
well
as
the
crew’s
commitment
to
apply
the
trim
guidance
of
the
technology
available.
This
study
showed
a
positive
ROU
of
69%,
translating
into
proven
propulsion
energy
savings
of
1.8%,
which
equates
to
USD
330,000
or
505
tonnes
annually.
The
following
figure
shows
two
examples
of
approximate
savings
when
using
a
trim
optimisation
software
(Easeacon’s
FuelSaver)
[4]:
Figure
10:
Fuel
saving
examples
due
to
trim
optimisation
[4]
4.2 Definitions
Trim:
Trim
is
normally
defined
as
the
difference
between
the
aft
draft
and
the
forward
draft:
Trim
=
TA-‐TF
Where:
When
the
trim
is
positive,
it
means
that
the
stern
of
the
vessel
is
more
inside
the
water
than
forward.
Accordingly,
positive
trim
means
trim
to
aft
and
negative
values
of
trim
means
trim
to
forward.
The
concept
of
trim
is
shown
in
Figure
11.
180
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
11:
Concept
of
trim
Optimum
trim:
Optimum
trim
refers
to
a
ship
trim
under
which
the
required
propulsive
power
is
minimal
for
the
specific
speed
and
draft
of
the
vessel.
Load
planning:
The
ship
loading
plan
specifies
the
loading
levels
and
how
the
loads
should
be
distributed
in
different
cargo
spaces.
The
load
planning
considers
corresponding
regulations
but
above
all
the
ship
stability.
Execution
of
the
loading
of
the
ship
is
with
staveroses
and
other
loading
superintendents
but
the
master
or
chief
officer
is
eventually
responsible
for
all
the
loading
and
unloading
operations.
Loading
computer:
A
loading
computer
system
is
a
computer-‐based
system
for
the
calculation
and
control
of
ship
loading
conditions
for
compliance
with
the
applicable
stability
requirements
and
longitudinal
and
local
strength
requirements.
The
ship-‐board
loading
computer
system
consists
of
software
(calculation
program)
and
an
appropriate
computer
(hardware).
Dynamics)
calculations
can
be
comparable
to
resistance
model
tests.
However,
both
resistance
tests
and
CFD
methods
tend
to
ignore
the
impact
of
the
propeller
with
ship
trim.
This
may
have
a
significant
impact
on
light
drafts.
Figure
12:
Typical
prediction
of
flow
field
and
impact
of
trim
by
CFD
182
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
13:
Trim
guidance
at
different
drafts
Source: Force Technology, “Understanding of the physics of trim”, Ship and Offshore Green Tech, 2011.
Figure
14:
Impact
of
waves
relative
to
calm
waters
Source: Force Technology, “Understanding of the physics of trim”, Ship and Offshore Green Tech, 2011.
183
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Figure
15:
Propulsion
power
as
a
function
of
trim
Source:
Nikolaj
Lemb
Larsen,
“Understanding
the
physics
of
trim”,
Green
Ship
Technology
Conference,
March
2012
In
this
case,
at
lower
speeds,
trim
by
forward
gives
the
best
results.
As
the
speed
increases,
the
optimal
trim
gradually
moves
closer
to
even
keel
(no
trim).
184
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
In
addition
to
identifying
and
documenting
the
optimum
trim
as
a
function
of
ship
speed
and
draft,
it
is
proposed
that:
ü The
experience
gained
by
ship
staff
on
the
impact
of
trim
on
a
vessel’s
fuel
consumption
should
be
gathered
in
order
to
improve
the
ship’s
“trim
matrix”.
The
effective
use
of
the
loading
computer's
capabilities
is
important
to
ensure
safe
trimming
of
the
vessel
with
an
optimal
level
of
ballast
water.
• The
weight
distribution
on
board
must
be
determined
in
order
to
allow
trim
optimization.
Therefore,
adequate
communication
between
ship
and
shore
is
paramount.
• Operational
risk
challenges:
This
includes
the
oversight
of
bending
moments
and
shear
forces
when
practicing
trim
optimization.
• On-‐board
stability
assessors:
Not
all
vessels
have
real
time
stability
assessors
or
calculators
on-‐board.
• Real-‐time
bunker
and
water
transfers
on-‐board:
The
officers
on
watch
might
have
incomplete
knowledge
of
the
bunker
and
water
(grey/fresh
water)
transfers
onboard,
and
therefore
are
not
aware
of
the
effects
of
this
activity
on
the
trim.
• Real-‐time
knowledge
on
weather
conditions:
The
most
accurate
real-‐time
weather
and
sea
conditions
need
to
be
known
and
fed
to
a
dynamic
trim
optimization
platform.
• Watch
changeover:
Sometimes
the
information
regarding
ballast
operations
is
not
passed
on
during
the
watch
changeover
between
the
crew.
185
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
4.12 Summary
Based
on
what
has
been
mentioned
in
this
module,
the
following
may
be
stated:
• Trim
could
influence
ship
fuel
consumption
significantly,
with
the
evidence
showing
up
to
4%
of
savings.
• Trim
impact
is
the
result
of
changes
to
ship
hydrodynamics
and
thereby
ship
resistances.
• For
every
ship,
there
is
an
optimal
trim
that
will
give
minimal
ship
resistances
and
maximise
fuel
efficiency.
• The
optimum
trim
is
a
function
of
ship
speed
and
draft.
• For
certain
ship
types,
in
particular
those
with
higher
design
speed,
slimmer
body,
pronounced
bulbous
bow
and
flat
stern
design,
trim
will
provide
more
impact.
• Optimal
trims
are
established
either
through
extensive
model
testing
or
CFD
analytical
methods.
• To
achieve
optimal
trim,
due
consideration
should
be
given
to
ship
loading
and
its
load
planning.
• Ballast
water,
and
to
some
extent
bunker
fuel,
may
be
used
to
trim
the
vessel.
186
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Most
loading
computers
on-‐board
provide
functionalities
and
trim
tables
to
achieve
the
desirable
ship
trim.
4.13 Exercises
Exercise
1
A
ship
has
a
mean
draft
of
8m
and
a
trim
of
-‐1.2m.
Calculate
the
aft
and
forward
draft
for
this
ship.
Exercise
2
Answer
the
following
questions:
187
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
188
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
MODULE
5
Energy
Efficiency
Management
Systems
189
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Part
1:
Principle
and
management
of
the
Ship
Energy
Efficiency
Management
Plan[1]
....
193
1.
The
basic
concept
of
SEEMP
....................................................................................
193
1.1
Planning
(Plan)
...............................................................................................................
194
1.1.1
Ship-‐specific
measures
..................................................................................................
194
1.1.2
Company-‐specific
measures
..........................................................................................
194
1.1.3
Human
resource
development
.....................................................................................
195
1.1.4
Goal
setting
...................................................................................................................
195
1.2
Implementation
(Do)
.....................................................................................................
195
1.2.1
Establishment
of
implementation
system
....................................................................
195
1.2.2
Implementation
and
record-‐keeping
............................................................................
195
1.3
Monitoring
(Check)
........................................................................................................
195
1.3.1
Monitoring
tools
...........................................................................................................
195
1.3.2
Establishment
of
monitoring
system
............................................................................
196
1.3.3
Search
and
Rescue
........................................................................................................
196
1.4
Self-‐evaluation
and
improvement
(Act)
.........................................................................
196
Part
2:
Practice
and
review
of
a
management
system
....................................................
204
1.
Best
practice
of
Energy
Efficient
Operation[1]
..........................................................
204
190
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
191
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Introduction
The
purpose
of
this
module
is
to
provide
practical
knowledge
and
skills
to
establish
a
management
plan
for
improving
efficient
operation
of
ships
and
to
implement
it
effectively.
The
module
consists
of
two
parts
of
which
the
first
part
covers
the
basic
concept
of
the
Ship
Energy
Efficiency
Management
Plan
(SEEMP)
including
the
practical
use
of
the
Energy
Efficiency
Operational
Indicator
(EEOI)
as
a
monitoring
tool
for
the
management
plan,
while
the
second
part
covers
how
to
practice
and
review
a
management
system
including
practical
knowledge
of
the
energy
efficient
operation
of
ships
as
well
as
a
mechanism
to
be
established
for
a
company
and/or
a
ship
to
improve
the
energy
efficiency
of
a
ship’s
operation
with
reference
to
ISO
50001:2011.
Learning
outcomes
After
attending
this
module,
the
participants
will
be
able
to:
192
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Many
companies
will
already
have
an
environmental
management
system
(EMS)
in
place
under
ISO
14001
which
contains
procedures
for
selecting
the
best
measures
for
particular
vessels
and
then
setting
objectives
for
the
measurement
of
relevant
parameters,
along
with
relevant
control
and
feedback
features.
Monitoring
of
operational
environmental
efficiency
should
therefore
be
treated
as
an
integral
element
of
broader
company
management
systems.
In
addition,
many
companies
already
develop,
implement
and
maintain
a
Safety
Management
System.
In
such
case,
the
SEEMP
may
form
part
of
the
ship's
Safety
Management
System2.
The
SEEMP
is
intended
to
be
a
management
tool
to
assist
a
company
in
managing
the
ongoing
environmental
performance
of
its
vessels
and
as
such,
it
is
recommended
that
a
company
develops
procedures
for
implementing
the
plan
in
a
manner
which
limits
any
onboard
administrative
burden
to
the
minimum
necessary.
The
SEEMP
should
be
developed
as
a
ship-‐specific
plan
by
the
shipowner,
operator
or
any
other
party
concerned,
e.g.,
charterer.
The
SEEMP
seeks
to
improve
a
ship’s
energy
efficiency
through
four
steps:
planning,
implementation,
monitoring,
and
self-‐evaluation
and
improvement.
These
components
play
a
critical
role
in
the
continuous
cycle
to
improve
ship
energy
management.
In
this
process,
the
Energy
Efficiency
Operation
Indicator
(hereafter
referred
to
as
the
EEOI)
that
is
introduced
in
the
section
2
in
this
module
is
the
primary
monitoring
tool
to
run
the
cycle.
The
concept
of
the
cycle
is
shown
in
Figure
1.
With
each
iteration
of
the
cycle,
some
elements
of
the
SEEMP
will
necessarily
change
while
others
may
remain
as
before.
At
all
times
safety
considerations
should
be
paramount.
The
trade
a
ship
is
engaged
in
may
determine
the
feasibility
of
the
efficiency
measures
under
consideration.
For
example,
ships
that
perform
services
at
sea
(pipe
laying,
seismic
survey,
OSVs,
dredgers,
etc.)
may
choose
different
1
"Company"
means
the
owner
of
the
ship
or
any
other
organization
or
person
such
as
the
manager,
or
the
bareboat
charterer,
who
has
assumed
the
responsibility
for
operation
of
the
ship
from
the
shipowner.
2
“Safety
Management
System”
means
a
structured
and
documented
system
enabling
company
personnel
to
implement
effectively
the
company
safety
and
environmental
protection
policy,
as
defined
in
paragraph
1.1
of
International
Safety
Management
Code.
193
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
methods
of
improving
energy
efficiency
when
compared
to
conventional
cargo
carriers.
The
length
of
voyage
may
also
be
an
important
parameter
as
may
trade
specific
safety
considerations.
EEOI
Fig. 1 Basic concept of a SEEMP and EEOI as the primary monitoring tool
During
this
process,
therefore,
it
is
important
to
determine
and
understand
the
ship’s
current
status
of
energy
usage.
The
SEEMP
then
identifies
energy-‐saving
measures
that
have
been
undertaken,
and
determines
how
effective
these
measures
are
in
terms
of
improving
energy
efficiency.
The
SEEMP
also
identifies
what
measures
can
be
adopted
to
further
improve
the
energy
efficiency
of
the
ship.
It
should
be
noted,
however,
that
not
all
measures
can
be
applied
to
all
ships,
or
even
to
the
same
ship
under
different
operating
conditions
and
that
some
of
them
are
mutually
exclusive.
Ideally,
initial
measures
could
yield
energy
(and
cost)
saving
results
that
then
can
be
reinvested
into
more
difficult
or
expensive
efficiency
upgrades
identified
by
the
SEEMP.
Guidance
on
Best
Practices
for
Fuel-‐Efficient
Operation
of
Ships
set
out
in
the
part
2
of
this
module
can
be
used
to
facilitate
this
part
of
the
planning
phase.
Also,
in
the
planning
process,
particular
consideration
should
be
given
to
minimize
any
onboard
administrative
burden.
194
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
shipowners,
operators,
charterers,
cargo
owners,
ports
and
traffic
management
services.
For
example,
“Just
in
time”
–
as
explained
in
1.1.3
of
the
part
2
–
requires
good
early
communication
among
operators,
ports
and
traffic
management
service.
The
better
coordination
among
such
stakeholders
is,
the
more
improvement
can
be
expected.
In
most
cases,
such
coordination
or
total
management
is
better
made
by
a
company
rather
than
by
a
ship.
In
this
sense,
it
is
recommended
that
a
company
also
establish
an
energy
management
plan
to
manage
its
fleet
(should
it
not
have
one
in
place
already)
and
make
necessary
coordination
among
stakeholders.
195
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
EEOI
could
be
considered
as
the
primary
monitoring
tool,
although
other
quantitative
measures
also
may
be
appropriate.
If
used,
it
is
recommended
that
the
EEOI
should
be
calculated
in
accordance
with
the
Guidelines
developed
by
the
Organization[2],
adjusted,
as
necessary,
to
a
specific
ship
and
trade.
In
addition
to
the
EEOI,
if
convenient
and/or
beneficial
for
a
ship
or
a
company,
other
measurement
tools
can
be
utilized.
In
the
case
where
other
monitoring
tools
are
used,
the
concept
of
the
tool
and
the
method
of
monitoring
may
be
determined
at
the
planning
stage.
It
should
be
noted
that,
in
order
to
avoid
unnecessary
administrative
burdens
on
ships’
staff,
monitoring
should
be
carried
out
as
far
as
possible
by
shore
staff,
utilizing
data
obtained
from
existing
required
records
such
as
the
official
and
engineering
log-‐books
and
oil
record
books,
etc.
Additional
data
could
be
obtained
as
appropriate.
The
purpose
of
self-‐evaluation
is
to
evaluate
the
effectiveness
of
the
planned
measures
and
of
their
implementation,
to
deepen
the
understanding
on
the
overall
characteristics
of
the
ship’s
operation
such
as
what
types
of
measures
can/cannot
function
effectively,
and
how
and/or
why,
to
comprehend
the
trend
of
the
efficiency
improvement
of
that
ship
and
to
develop
the
improved
SEEMP
for
the
next
cycle.
For
this
process,
procedures
for
self-‐evaluation
of
ship
energy
management
should
be
developed.
Furthermore,
self-‐evaluation
should
be
implemented
periodically
by
using
data
collected
through
monitoring.
In
addition,
it
is
recommended
to
invest
time
in
identifying
the
cause-‐and-‐effect
of
the
performance
during
the
evaluated
period
for
improving
the
next
stage
of
the
management
plan.
196
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
IMO
Assembly
resolution
A.963(23)
on
IMO
policies
and
practices
related
to
the
reduction
of
greenhouse
gas
emissions
from
ships
urged
the
Marine
Environment
Protection
Committee
(MEPC)
to
identify
and
develop
the
mechanism
or
mechanisms
needed
to
achieve
the
limitation
or
reduction
of
Greenhouse
Gas
(GHG)
emissions
from
international
shipping
and,
in
doing
so,
to
give
priority
to
the
establishment
of
a
GHG
baseline;
and
the
development
of
a
methodology
to
describe
the
GHG
efficiency
of
a
ship
in
terms
of
GHG
emission
indicator
for
that
ship.
As
urged
by
the
Assembly,
MEPC
53
approved
Interim
Guidelines
for
Voluntary
Ship
CO2
Emission
Index
for
Use
in
Trials.
These
Guidelines
were
approved
as
circular
MEPC/Circ.471)
in
July
2005.
After
reviewing
of
experiences,
MEPC
at
its
59th
Session
in
July
2009
further
improved
MEPC/Circ.471
and
agreed
to
circulate
'Guidelines
for
Voluntary
Use
of
the
ship
Energy
Efficiency
Operational
Indicator
(EEOI)'
which
were
approved
as
MEPC.1/Circ.684.
These
Guidelines
can
be
used
to
establish
a
consistent
approach
for
voluntary
use
of
an
EEOI,
which
will
assist
shipowners,
ship
operators
and
parties
concerned
in
the
evaluation
of
the
performance
of
their
fleet
with
regard
to
CO2
emissions.
As
the
amount
of
CO2
emitted
from
a
ship
is
directly
related
to
the
consumption
of
bunker
fuel
oil,
the
EEOI
can
also
provide
useful
information
on
a
ship’s
performance
with
regard
to
fuel
efficiency.
These Guidelines may be updated periodically, to take account of:
• Operational
experiences
from
use
of
the
indicator
for
different
ship
types,
as
reported
to
MEPC
by
industry
organizations
and
Administrations;
and
• Any
other
relevant
developments.
Industry
organizations
and
interested
Administrations
are
invited
to
promote
the
use
of
the
attached
Guidelines
or
equivalent
approaches
and
their
incorporation
in
company
and
ship
environmental
management
plans.
In
addition,
they
are
invited
to
report
their
experience
in
applying
the
EEOI
concept
back
to
MEPC.
In
addition
to
these
Guidelines,
due
account
should
be
taken
of
the
pertinent
clauses
within
the
ISM
Code
in
voluntary
basis
along
with
reference
to
relevant
industry
guidance
on
the
management
and
reduction
of
CO2
emissions.
The
objective
of
the
Guidelines
is
to
provide
the
users
with
assistance
in
the
process
of
establishing
a
mechanism
to
achieve
the
limitation
or
reduction
of
greenhouse
gas
emissions
from
ships
in
operation.
197
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
These
Guidelines
present
the
concept
of
an
indicator
for
the
energy
efficiency
of
a
ship
in
operation,
as
an
expression
of
efficiency
in
terms
of
CO2
emitted
per
unit
of
transport
work.
The
Guidelines
are
intended
to
provide
an
example
of
a
calculation
method
which
could
be
used
as
an
objective,
performance-‐based
approach
to
monitor
the
efficiency
of
a
ship’s
operation.
These
Guidelines
are
recommendatory
in
nature
and
present
a
possible
use
of
an
operational
indicator.
However,
shipowners,
ship
operators
and
parties
concerned
are
invited
to
implement
either
these
Guidelines
or
an
equivalent
method
in
their
environmental
management
systems
and
consider
adoption
of
the
principles
herein
when
developing
plans
for
performance
monitoring.
2.2 Definitions
The
basic
concept
of
the
Energy
Efficiency
Operational
Indicator
is
expressed
as
the
ratio
of
mass
of
CO2
emitted
per
unit
of
transport
work:
Definitions
of
technical
terms
frequently
used
in
the
calculation
processes
of
the
EEOI
are
listed
below
and
the
details
of
EEOI’s
calculation
will
be
given
in
the
section
2.7
in
this
module.
.1 Ships:
• dry
cargo
carriers
• tankers
• gas
tankers
• containerships
• ro-‐ro
cargo
ships
• general
cargo
ships
• passenger
ships
including
ro-‐ro
passenger
ships
.2 Cargo:
Cargo
includes
but
not
limited
to:
all
gas,
liquid
and
solid
bulk
cargo,
general
cargo,
containerized
cargo
(including
the
return
of
empty
units),
break
bulk,
heavy
lifts,
frozen
and
chilled
goods,
timber
and
forest
products,
cargo
carried
on
freight
vehicles,
cars
and
freight
vehicles
on
ro-‐ro
ferries
and
passengers
(for
passenger
and
ro-‐ro
passenger
ships)
198
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
.1 for
dry
cargo
carriers,
liquid
tankers,
gas
tankers,
ro-‐ro
cargo
ships
and
general
cargo
ships,
metric
tonnes
(t)
of
the
cargo
carried
should
be
used;
.2 for
containerships
carrying
solely
containers,
number
of
containers
(TEU)
or
metric
tons
(t)
of
the
total
mass
of
cargo
and
containers
should
be
used;
.3 for
ships
carrying
a
combination
of
containers
and
other
cargoes,
a
TEU
mass
of
10
t
could
be
applied
for
loaded
TEUs
and
2
t
for
empty
TEUs;
and
.4 for
passenger
ships,
including
ro-‐ro
passenger
ships,
number
of
passengers
or
gross
tonnes
of
the
ship
should
be
used;
In some particular cases, work done can be expressed as follows:
.5 for
car
ferries
and
car
carriers,
number
of
car
units
or
occupied
lane
metres;
.6 for
containerships,
number
of
TEUs
(empty
or
full);
and
.7 for
railway
and
ro-‐ro
vessels,
number
of
railway
cars
and
freight
vehicles,
or
occupied
lane
metres.
For
vessels
such
as,
for
example,
certain
ro-‐ro
vessels,
which
carry
a
mixture
of
passengers
in
cars,
foot
passengers
and
freight,
operators
may
wish
to
consider
some
form
of
weighted
average
based
on
the
relative
significance
of
these
trades
for
their
particular
service
or
the
use
of
other
parameters
or
indicators
as
appropriate.
2.2.5 Voyage
Voyage
generally
means
the
period
between
a
departure
from
a
port
to
the
departure
from
the
next
port.
Alternative
definitions
of
a
voyage
could
also
be
acceptable.
In order to establish the EEOI, the following main steps will generally be needed:
*
Ballast
voyages,
as
well
as
voyages
which
are
not
used
for
transport
of
cargo,
such
as
voyage
for
docking
service,
should
also
be
included.
Voyages
for
the
purpose
of
securing
the
safety
of
a
ship
or
saving
life
at
sea
should
be
excluded.
199
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
If
the
example
formula
given
in
the
Appendix
is
used,
then
the
unit
used
for
distance
travelled
and
quantity
of
fuel
should
be
expressed
in
nautical
miles
and
metric
tonnes.
The
work
done
can
be
expressed
using
units
appropriate
for
the
ship
type
in
paragraph
3.5.
It
is
important
that
sufficient
information
is
collected
on
the
ship
with
regard
to
fuel
type
and
quantity,
distance
travelled
and
cargo
type
so
that
a
realistic
assessment
can
be
generated.
The
distance
travelled
should
be
calculated
by
actual
distance
travelled,
as
contained
in
the
ship’s
log-‐book.
Amount
and
type
of
fuel
used
(bunker
delivery
notes)
and
distance
travelled
(according
to
the
ship’s
log-‐book)
could
be
documented
by
the
ship
based
either
on
the
example
described
in
the
Appendix
or
on
an
equivalent
company
procedure.
The
results
of
this
type
of
self-‐assessment
could
be
reviewed
and
used
as
indicators
of
the
System’s
success
and
reliability,
as
well
as
identifying
those
areas
in
need
of
corrective
action
or
improvement.
It
is
important
that
the
source
of
figures
established
are
properly
recorded,
the
basis
on
which
figures
have
been
calculated
and
any
decisions
on
difficult
or
grey
areas
of
data.
This
will
provide
assistance
on
areas
for
improvement
and
be
helpful
for
any
later
analysis.
In
order
to
avoid
unnecessary
administrative
burdens
on
ships’
staff,
it
is
recommended
that
monitoring
of
an
EEOI
should
be
carried
out
by
shore
staff,
utilizing
data
obtained
from
existing
required
records
such
as
the
official
and
engineering
log-‐books
and
oil
record
books,
etc.
The
necessary
data
could
be
obtained
during
internal
audits
under
the
ISM
Code,
routine
visits
by
superintendents,
etc.
200
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Implementation
of
the
EEOI
in
an
established
environmental
management
system
should
be
performed
in
line
with
the
implementation
of
any
other
chosen
indicator
and
follow
the
main
elements
of
the
recognized
standards
(planning,
implementation
and
operation,
checking
and
corrective
action,
management
review).
When
using
the
EEOI
as
a
performance
indicator,
the
indicator
could
provide
a
basis
for
consideration
of
both
current
performance
and
trends
over
time.
One approach could be to set internal performance criteria and targets based on the EEOI data.
∑ FC j × CFj
j
EEOI =
(1)
mc argo × D
Where
average
of
the
indicator
for
a
period
or
for
a
number
of
voyages
is
obtained,
the
Indicator
is
calculated
as:
∑∑(FC ij × CFj )
AverageEEOI = i j
(2)
∑(m c arg o,i × D)
i
201
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Where:
The
unit
of
EEOI
depends
on
the
measurement
of
cargo
carried
or
work
done,
e.g.,
tonnes
CO2/(tonnes·∙nautical
miles),
tonnes
CO2/(TEU·∙nautical
miles),
tonnes
CO2/(person·∙nautical
miles),
etc.
It should be noted that Eq.(2) does not give a simple average of EEOI among number of voyage i.
2.7.5 Data
For
a
voyage
or
period,
e.g.,
a
day,
data
on
fuel
consumption/cargo
carried
and
distance
sailed
in
a
continuous
sailing
pattern
could
be
collected
as
shown
in
the
reporting
sheet
below.
CO2
Indicator
reporting
sheet
Name
and
type
of
ship
Voyage
or
Voyage
or
time
Fuel
consumption
at
sea
and
in
port
in
tonnes
day
(i)
period
data
Cargo
(m)
Fuel
type
Fuel
type
Fuel
type
Distance
(D)
…
(tonnes
or
(
)
(
)
(
)
(NM)
units)
1
2
3
Note:
For
voyages
with
mcagro=0,
it
is
still
necessary
to
include
the
fuel
used
during
this
voyage
in
the
summation
above
the
line.
202
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
An example of the EEOI reporting sheet developed by MS Excel
Practical
exercises
linked
with
web-‐based
calculation
system
are
to
be
provided
during
the
course.
The
exercise
materials
are
to
be
given
in
the
classroom.
203
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
IMO
resolution
A.893(21)
(25
November
1999)
on
Guidelines
for
voyage
planning
provides
essential
guidance
for
the
ship’s
crew
and
voyage
planners.
Beside
voyage
planning
on
a
macro
planning
level
also
pre-‐planning
of
manoeuvring
regimes
in
coastal
areas
and
harbour
basins
on
a
micro
planning
level
will
affect
energy
efficiency
of
a
ship's
voyage
and
the
emission
of
Greenhouse
gas
as
well.
This
is
valid
for
all
ships
and
voyages
in
general.
However
the
shorter
the
distance
on
open
sea
areas
in
relation
to
the
distance
and
operation
in
coastal
areas
and
harbour
basins
are
the
more
significant
is
the
influence
of
pre
planning
of
manoeuvring
regimes
that
provides
optimized
steering
sequences.
Optimized
manoeuvring
regimes
may
also
have
impact
on
fuel
consumption,
allow
for
time
savings
that
are
essential
especially
in
short
sea
shipping,
and
consequently
reduces
the
emission
of
GHG.
Optimized
port
operation
could
involve
a
change
in
procedures
involving
different
handling
arrangements
in
ports.
Port
authorities
should
be
encouraged
to
maximize
efficiency
and
minimize
delay.
204
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
problems
with
soot
deposits
in
combustion
chambers
and
exhaust
systems.
These
possible
consequences
should
be
taken
into
account.
As
part
of
the
speed
optimization
process,
due
account
may
need
to
be
taken
of
the
need
to
coordinate
arrival
times
with
the
availability
of
loading/discharge
berths,
etc.
The
number
of
ships
engaged
in
a
particular
trade
route
may
need
to
be
taken
into
account
when
considering
speed
optimization.
A
gradual
increase
in
speed
when
leaving
a
port
or
estuary
whilst
keeping
the
engine
load
within
certain
limits
may
help
to
reduce
fuel
consumption.
It
is
recognized
that
under
many
charter
parties
the
speed
of
the
vessel
is
determined
by
the
charterer
and
not
the
operator.
Efforts
should
be
made
when
agreeing
charter
party
terms
to
encourage
the
ship
to
operate
at
optimum
speed
in
order
to
maximize
energy
efficiency.
When
determining
the
optimum
ballast
conditions,
the
limits,
conditions
and
ballast
management
arrangements
set
out
in
the
ship’s
Ballast
Water
Management
Plan
are
to
be
observed
for
that
ship.
Ballast
conditions
have
a
significant
impact
on
steering
conditions
and
autopilot
settings
and
it
needs
to
be
noted
that
less
ballast
water
does
not
necessarily
mean
the
highest
efficiency.
Improvements
to
the
water
inflow
to
the
propeller
using
arrangements
such
as
fins
and/or
nozzles
could
increase
propulsive
efficiency
power
and
hence
reduce
fuel
consumption.
205
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
1.2.4 Optimum
use
of
rudder
and
heading
control
systems
(autopilots)
There
have
been
large
improvements
in
automated
heading
and
steering
control
systems
technology.
Whilst
originally
developed
to
make
the
bridge
team
more
effective,
modern
autopilots
can
achieve
much
more.
An
integrated
Navigation
and
Command
System
can
achieve
significant
fuel
savings
by
simply
reducing
the
distance
sailed
“off
track”.
The
principle
is
simple;
better
course
control
through
less
frequent
and
smaller
corrections
will
minimize
losses
due
to
rudder
resistance.
Retrofitting
of
a
more
efficient
autopilot
to
existing
ships
could
be
considered.
During
approaches
to
ports
and
pilot
stations
the
autopilot
cannot
always
be
used
efficiently
as
the
rudder
has
to
respond
quickly
to
commands.
Furthermore
at
certain
stage
of
the
voyage
it
may
have
to
be
deactivated
or
very
carefully
adjusted,
i.e.
heavy
weather
and
approaches
to
ports.
Consideration
may
be
given
to
the
retrofitting
of
improved
rudder
blade
design
(e.g.,
‘twist-‐flow’
rudder).
When
a
ship
is
operating
in
coastal
areas
and
harbour
basins
with
increased
manoeuvre
activities
pre-‐planning
of
manoeuvres
and
monitoring
of
keeping
the
steering
sequence
of
the
energy-‐
efficient
manoeuvring
strategy
may
be
considered
accordingly.
Propeller
cleaning
and
polishing
or
even
appropriate
coating
may
significantly
increase
fuel
efficiency.
The
need
for
ships
to
maintain
efficiency
through
in-‐water
hull
cleaning
should
be
recognized
and
facilitated
by
port
States.
Consideration
may
be
given
to
the
possibility
of
timely
full
removal
and
replacement
of
underwater
paint
systems
to
avoid
the
increased
hull
roughness
caused
by
repeated
spot
blasting
and
repairs
over
multiple
dockings.
Generally, the smoother the hull, the better the fuel efficiency.
206
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
It
may
not
be
possible
to
retrofit
such
systems
into
existing
ships.
However,
they
may
be
a
beneficial
option
for
new
ships.
Shipbuilders
should
be
encouraged
to
incorporate
new
technology
into
their
designs.
Efficiency,
reliability
and
maintenance-‐oriented
data
sharing
within
a
company
can
be
used
to
promote
best
practice
among
ships
within
a
company
and
should
be
actively
encouraged.
Optimization
of
reefer
container
stowage
locations
may
be
beneficial
in
reducing
the
effect
of
heat
transfer
from
compressor
units.
This
might
be
combined
as
appropriate
with
cargo
tank
heating,
ventilation,
etc.
The
use
of
water-‐cooled
reefer
plant
with
lower
energy
consumption
might
also
be
considered.
207
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Renewable
energy
sources,
such
as
wind,
solar
(or
Photovoltaic)
cell
technology,
have
improved
enormously
in
the
recent
years
and
should
be
considered
for
onboard
application.
In
some
ports
shore
power
may
be
available
for
some
ships
but
this
is
generally
aimed
at
improving
air
quality
in
the
port
area.
If
the
shore-‐based
power
source
is
carbon
efficient,
there
may
be
a
net
efficiency
benefit.
Ships
may
consider
using
onshore
power
if
available.
Efforts
could
be
made
to
source
fuel
of
improved
quality
in
order
to
minimize
the
amount
of
fuel
required
to
provide
a
given
power
output.
The
trade
a
ship
is
engaged
in
will
also
determine
the
feasibility
of
some
of
the
measures.
Ships
that
perform
services
at
sea
(pipe
laying,
seismic
survey,
OSVs,
dredgers,
etc.)
are
likely
to
choose
different
methods
of
carbon
reductions
when
compared
to
conventional
cargo
carriers.
The
length
of
voyage
will
also
be
an
important
parameter
as
will
safety
considerations
imposed
upon
some
vessels.
As
a
result,
it
is
likely
that
the
pathway
to
the
most
efficient
combination
of
measures
will
be
unique
to
each
vessel
within
each
shipping
company.
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Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
2.1 Review
of
management
policy
through
the
improvement
of
a
SEEMP
The
review
of
a
company's
management
policy
regarding
the
energy
efficient
operation
of
the
company's
ships
is
aiming
at
the
successive
improvement
of
the
initial
SEEMPs.
For
the
purpose
of
improving
the
energy
efficiency
company
integrates
best
practice
chapters
into
SEEMPs.
The
following
practical
samples
are
taken
from
MEPC
62/INF.10
and
kindly
provided
by
Oil
Companies
International
Marine
Forum
(OCIMF)
for
the
GHG-‐train-‐the-‐trainer
package
and
are
quoted
in
the
following
sub
paragraphs
of
this
section.
2.1.2 Sample
for
Best
Practices
regarding
Virtual
Arrival,
Speed
Control
and
Voyage
Planning
• Ships
are
to
communicate
economy
impacts
and
choices
of
voyage
orders
to
Voyage
Managers
and
commercial
planners.
• Voyage
Managers
are
to
provide
the
desired
ETA
at
ports
to
allow
the
ship's
crew
to
better
manage
the
speed
and
fuel
consumption
of
the
vessel.
• Operation
Planners
are
to
advise
each
voyage
if
it
is
possible
to
transfer
engine
slops
to
slop
tanks
to
avoid
diesel
consumption
in
incinerator.
Upon
completion
of
the
voyage,
Operation
Planner
and
VMT,
in
conjunction
with
the
commercial
group,
will
review
the
voyage
plan.
This
review
will
compare
planned
versus
actual
fuel
consumption.
2.1.3 Sample
for
Best
Practices
regarding
Propeller
and
Hull
Cleaning
• Monitor
the
propeller
ship
and
overall
efficiency
of
the
vessel
to
look
for
possible
hull
fouling
signs
and
schedule
cleaning
ahead
of
regularly
scheduled
cleaning.
This
performance
loss
can
also
be
highlighted
during
the
performance
trials.
209
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
• Auxiliary
boilers
should
only
be
shut
down
if
they
are
not
needed
for
a
reasonable
amount
of
time;
and
• Check
the
O2
analyzer
and
the
piping
system
prior
to
every
operation.
Most
ships
do
not
clean
the
sensing/sample
line
and
condensation/dirt
in
the
line
prevents
good
flow
of
sample
to
the
analyzer
and
hence
the
O2
comes
down
very
slowly.
This
causes
a
lot
of
fuel
wastage
as
engineers
increase
load
on
the
boiler
to
produce
better
O2.
2.1.8 Sample
for
Best
Practices
regarding
Cargo
and
Bunker
Heating
• Vessel
should
have
a
greater
understanding
of
the
Voyage
Manager/Charterer's
heating
instructions;
• Seek
the
Receiver/Charterer's
permission
for
allowable
range
of
cargo
temperature;
•
Avoid
heating
during
adverse
weather
period;
• Closely
monitor
and
analyze
cargo
heating
reports;
• Create
and
follow
the
proper
cargo
heating
plan
to
verify
the
effectiveness
of
actual
heating
progress;
• Monitor
heating
daily
to
address
deviations
from
the
heating
plan;
• Do
not
heat
for
short
frequent
periods
and
running
boiler
at
low
loads;
• Follow
the
recommended
condensate
temperature
and
optimum
boiler
settings
for
efficient
cargo
heating.
Heating
instructions,
accompanying
the
heating
plan,
should
further
highlight
these
points;
• Maintain
efficient
and
good
communication
between
the
vessel
and
the
Voyage
Manager
about
the
plan
and
execution;
and
• Develop
a
Heating
Abstract
after
completion
of
discharge
for
gap
identification
and
continuous
improvement.
210
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
Cargo
should
be
heated
as
economically
as
possible
and
planned
soon
after
departure.
Heating
at
the
end
of
the
cargo
passage
may
cause
off
gassing
which
in
turn
could
delay
cargo
discharge
from
high
H2S
usually
above
10
ppm.
See
the
Cargo
Heating
Patterns
graph
below.
211
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
ISO
50001
will
establish
a
framework
for
industrial
plants;
commercial,
institutional,
and
governmental
facilities;
and
entire
organizations
to
manage
energy.
Targeting
broad
applicability
across
national
economic
sectors,
it
is
estimated
that
the
standard
could
influence
up
to
60
%
of
the
world’s
energy
use.
212
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
ISO
50001
will
provide
public
and
private
sector
organizations
with
management
strategies
to
increase
energy
efficiency,
reduce
costs
and
improve
energy
performance.
The
standard
is
intended
to
provide
organizations
with
a
recognized
framework
for
integrating
energy
performance
into
their
management
practices.
Multinational
organizations
will
have
access
to
a
single,
harmonized
standard
for
implementation
across
the
organization
with
a
logical
and
consistent
methodology
for
identifying
and
implementing
improvements.
• Assist
organizations
in
making
better
use
of
their
existing
energy
consuming
assets
• Create
transparency
and
facilitate
communication
on
the
management
of
energy
resources
• Promote
energy
management
best
practices
and
reinforce
good
energy
management
behaviours
• Assist
facilities
in
evaluating
and
prioritizing
the
implementation
of
new
energy-‐efficient
technologies
• Provide
a
framework
for
promoting
energy
efficiency
throughout
the
supply
chain
• Facilitate
energy
management
improvements
for
greenhouse
gas
emission
reduction
projects
• Allow
integration
with
other
organizational
management
systems
such
as
environmental,
and
health
and
safety.
ISO
50001
is
based
on
the
ISO
management
system
model
familiar
to
more
than
a
million
organizations
worldwide
who
implement
standards
such
as
ISO
9001
(quality
management),
ISO
14001
(environmental
management),
ISO
22000
(food
safety),
ISO/IEC
27001
(information
security).
In
particular,
ISO
50001
follows
the
Plan-‐Do-‐Check-‐Act
process
for
continual
improvement
of
the
energy
management
system,
which
is
similar
to
Ship
Energy
Efficiency
Management
Plan.
These
characteristics
enable
organizations
to
integrate
energy
management
now
with
their
overall
efforts
to
improve
quality,
environmental
management
and
other
challenges
addressed
by
their
management
systems.
213
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
References
[1]
2012
Guidelines
for
the
Development
of
a
Ship
Energy
Efficiency
Management
Plan
(SEEMP),
Annex
9
Resolution
MEPC.213(63),
March
2012
[2]
Guidelines
for
Voluntary
Use
of
the
Ship
Energy
Efficiency
Operational
Indicator
(EEOI),
MEPC.1/Circ.684,
August
2009
[3]
Reduction
of
GHG
Emissions
from
ships.
Example
of
a
Ship
Energy
Efficiency
Management
Plan;
MEPC62/INF.10,
April
2011
214
Training course on Energy Efficient Operation of Ships
APPENDIX:
MARPOL
Annex
VI
Chapter
4
215
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 9
Regulation 10
"CHAPTER 4
Regulation 19
Application
1 This chapter shall apply to all ships of 400 gross tonnage and above.
Regulation 20
which falls into one or more of the categories in regulations 2.25 to 2.35. The
attained EEDI shall be specific to each ship and shall indicate the estimated
performance of the ship in terms of energy efficiency, and be accompanied by the
EEDI technical file that contains the information necessary for the calculation of the
attained EEDI and that shows the process of calculation. The attained EEDI shall
be verified, based on the EEDI technical file, either by the Administration or by any
organization3 duly authorized by it.
3
Refer to the Guidelines for the authorization of organizations acting on behalf of the Administration,
adopted by the Organization by resolution A.739(18), as may be amended by the Organization, and the
Specifications on the survey and certification functions of recognized organizations acting on behalf of the
Administration, adopted by the Organization by resolution A.789(19), as may be amended by the
Organization.
4
Guidelines on the method of calculation of the Energy Efficiency Design Index for new ships.
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 11
Regulation 21
Required EEDI
1 For each:
.1 new ship;
which falls into one of the categories defined in regulation 2.25 to 2.31 and to which
this chapter is applicable, the attained EEDI shall be as follows:
where X is the reduction factor specified in Table 1 for the required EEDI compared
to the EEDI Reference line.
2 For each new and existing ship that has undergone a major conversion
which is so extensive that the ship is regarded by the Administration as a newly
constructed ship, the attained EEDI shall be calculated and meet the requirement of
paragraph 21.1 with the reduction factor applicable corresponding to the ship type
and size of the converted ship at the date of the contract of the conversion, or in the
absence of a contract, the commencement date of the conversion.
Table 1. Reduction factors (in percentage) for the EEDI relative to the EEDI
Reference line
4 If the design of a ship allows it to fall into more than one of the above ship
type definitions, the required EEDI for the ship shall be the most stringent (the
lowest) required EEDI.
5 For each ship to which this regulation applies, the installed propulsion
power shall not be less than the propulsion power needed to maintain the
manoeuvrability of the ship under adverse conditions as defined in the guidelines to
be developed by the Organization.
Regulation 22
1 Each ship shall keep on board a ship specific Ship Energy Efficiency
Management Plan (SEEMP). This may form part of the ship's Safety Management
System (SMS).
Regulation 23
"APPENDIX VIII
.................................................................................................................................................
(Full designation of the Party)
by ............................................................................................................................................
(Full designation of the competent person or organization
authorized under the provisions of the Convention)
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 14
Particulars of ship5
THIS IS TO CERTIFY:
1 That the ship has been surveyed in accordance with regulation 5.4 of Annex VI of
the Convention; and
2 That the survey shows that the ship complies with the applicable requirements in
regulation 20, regulation 21 and regulation 22.
Issued at ..................................................................................................................................
(Place of issue of certificate)
5
Alternatively, the particulars of the ship may be placed horizontally in boxes.
6
In accordance with IMO ship identification number scheme, adopted by the Organization by
resolution A.600(15).
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 15
Notes:
1 This Record shall be permanently attached to the IEE Certificate. The IEE
Certificate shall be available on board the ship at all times.
3 Entries in boxes shall be made by inserting either: a cross (x) for the answers "yes"
and "applicable"; or a dash (-) for the answers "no" and "not applicable", as
appropriate.
1 Particulars of ship
2 Propulsion system
*
Insert ship type in accordance with definitions specified in regulation 2. Ships falling into more than one of
the ship types defined in regulation 2 should be considered as being the ship type with the most stringent
(the lowest) required EEDI. If ship does not fall into the ship types defined in regulation 2, insert
"Ship other than any of the ship type defined in regulation 2".
MEPC 62/24/Add.1
Annex 19, page 16
3.1 The Attained EEDI in accordance with regulation 20.1 is calculated based on the
information contained in the EEDI technical file which also shows the process of
calculating the Attained EEDI. …. ...........................................................................
3.2.1 the ship is exempt under regulation 20.1 as it is not a new ship as defined in
regulation 2.23 .......................................................................................................
3.2.2 the type of propulsion system is exempt in accordance with regulation 19.3 …. .....
3.2.4 the type of ship is exempt in accordance with regulation 20.1 ................................
4 Required EEDI
4.2.1 the ship is exempt under regulation 21.1 as it is not a new ship as defined in
regulation 2.23 .......................................................................................................
4.2.2 the type of propulsion system is exempt in accordance with regulation 19.3 …. .....
4.2.4 the type of ship is exempt in accordance with regulation 21.1 …. ...........................
4.2.5 the ship's capacity is below the minimum capacity threshold in Table 1 of
regulation 21.2 …. ..................................................................................................
5.1 The ship is provided with a Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) in
compliance with regulation 22 ................................................................................
6.1 The IEE Certificate is accompanied by the EEDI technical file in compliance with
regulation 20.1 .......................................................................................................
Issued at ..................................................................................................................................
(Place of issue of the Record)
***