A class note of:

Survey Research Methodology

Prepared by Praveen Sapkota

Social research

Meaning of social research

A social research is a systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing

social life in order to extend, correct or verify social theories.

Aim of social research

a) Discover new facts and or verify and test old facts.
b) Analyze their sequences, interrelation ships and causal explanations
c) Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which facilitate reliable and
valid study of human behavior.

Problems of social research

It is known that social sciences have not been able to establish generalization equivalent
to the theories of natural sciences in
a. scope of explanatory power
b. precise prediction

The problems faced by social researchers are:

i. Complexity of subject matter- in natural sciences, variables are precise

measured and therefore it is possible to establish universal laws, but social
science deals with many variables that are acting independently and in
interaction. Therefore, social science is complex due to its complex types of
variable.
ii. Difficulty in observation: observation is more subjective in social science.
Motives values and attitudes are not open to inspection. Sometimes bias raised
from the social scientists himself, who is guided by his own values and
attitudes.
iii. Difficulty in replication: a social scientists experimental method in one
condition cannot be replicated with same precision by other scientists in other
conditions.
iv. Interaction of observer and subjects: investigators presence as observer in a
situation may change the behavior of the human subjects.
v. Difficulties in control: rigid control of experimental conditions and variables
is not possible in social science. Social scientists must deal with many
variables simultaneously and must work in the conditions that are two precise.
vi. Problems in measurement: tools for measurement in social sciences are
much less perfect and precise than the tools of the natural science.

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 1
 Characteristics of social research
1) Social research studies human behavior
2) SR is logical or theoretical and aims at explaining causal relationship in the subject
matter.
3) SR is empirical: it is based on observer and reasoning.
4) SR is cumulative: findings explanations theories built upon one another.
5) SR is deterministic (predictive): not only help to determine the cause and effect
relationship but also enables to predict the future events.
6) SR is general- aims to study the generalized or propositions about human behavior.
The conclusions or inferences are generalized.
7) SR is specific- conceptualization and measurement of variables is specific.
8) SR is objective and replaceable.
9) Good SR is systematic- it is studied with specific steps.

Define Research Problem

Review of Literature

Review Concept and Theories Review Previous Research

F
Formulate Hypothesis

FF
Define Research (Including Sampling Design)

Collect Data
FF

Analyze Data and Test Hypothesis

Interpret and Report

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 2
* F – Feedback
* FF- Feed Forward (Serves the vital function of providing criteria for evaluation)

Brief introduction to research design

Research design:
A research design is a plan that specifies how data should be collected and analyzed. It is
concerned with what, where, when, how and by what means
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.
It is the blue print for collection, measurement and analysis of data.
SR designs are the guidelines and not necessarily the strict rules and are thus
should be flexible in nature
These are the effective guidelines for collecting maximal information with
minimal expenditure effort, time, and money.

Generally research design consists of:

a. Study site and its selection
b. Target population
c. Type of data to be collected
d. Sources of data
e. Sampling design
f. Data collection techniques
g. Data analysis technique

Major functions of research design

a. Providing a blueprint for studying social questions to minimize difficulties in
conducting SR through description
b. Economizing the necessary inputs
c. Enabling the investigation to anticipate potential problems in conducting a
particular SR.

Objectives of research design

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to gain
To describe things insight
To determine association or relation between or among variables
To test hypothesis
Types of research design
One may find many different types of research design different books. However
important types of research design are enlisted and discussed below:
1. Survey design
2. Case study design
3. Experimental design
4. Quasi experimental design

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 3
 5. Expost factor design
6. library and historical design
7. pilot study

Survey design
Survey design is one of the most common designs in social research and serves many
functions such as exploration, description and experimentation. Survey research specifies
procedures for gathering information about a large no of people by collecting information
from a few of them. ie. In a typical survey the research selects a sample of respondents
and administers a standardized questionnaire to them. The standard of a survey design
depends upon the –
a. The number of people one is able to obtain for the study (sample size).
b. Their receptiveness in relation to the population from which they are selected and
c. The accuracy of the data collected from them.

Advantage of survey design:

a. Accumulation of information from individuals or groups who otherwise could not
express their need, desires, experiences, values and attitudes.
b. Representativeness of large no of people or individuals given accuracy in research
procedures
c. Flexibility in variety of data collection techniques
d. Exploratory function
e. Exposure of investigators to the segment of reality under study.
f. Testing of particular theoretical findings or models.

Disadvantage of survey design:

a. If questionnaire are used in depth information cant be collected
b. Fluctuation of opinions of respondents under the influence of changing
circumstances due to expectations under varying impacts
c. Bias due to artificial segregation of samples and interviewed respondents and
target population.

Case study design

The case study design refers to an intensive examination of a specific social settings or
particular aspects of social settings. The unit of study in case study design could be and
individual or a group of people or enterprise. Defining other way, a case study is a
documentation of a phase of segment or of the totality of relevant experience of a certain
subject. Since case study design explores the problems, issues and relationships in a
particular situation, the inferences can’t be generalized for all situations.

Advantages:
a. Flexibility with respect to data collection techniques.
b. Comparatively lower costs to be incurred
c. Flexibility with regard to accessibility of the social setting under study and to
budget time personnel requirement.

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 4
Disadvantages:
a. Limited generalizability due to their limitations in scope.
b. Generally more time consuming than surveys on account of the various types of
flexibility.

Types of research design

Experimental designs
• In experimental designs it is assumed that some variables under study can be
controlled.
• Generally one variable is changed and the rests are kept constant. In such
experimental design, three major pairs of components are discussed.
a. Independent and dependent variables
b. Experimental and control groups
c. Pre testing and post testing

Independent and dependent variables

Effect of an independent variable on dependent variable to be examined

The independent variable takes the form of an experimental stimulus.

Experimental and control groups

A control group refers to a group having no experimental stimulus and should resemble
the experimental group in all the other aspects. Whereas in experimental group
experimental stimulus is exposed. The effect is compared in between them and the effect
of stimulus is observed or analyzed.

Diagram of basic experimental design

Measure dependent variable Compare Measure dependent variable

Administration of stimulus

Compare
Re measure dependent
Re measure dependent variable variable
Experimental group Control group

Pre testing and post testing

Subjects are measured in terms of dependent variables (pretested) exposed to a stimulus
representing an independent variable and then re-measured in terms of the dependent

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 5
variable (post \tested). Differences noted between the first and the last measurements on
the dependent variables are attributed to the influence of the independent variable.

Types of experimental designs

1. After only designs: seeks to compare an experimental group with a control group
after an experimental variable has been introduced to one group and not to the
other eg. Measurement of increase in sales after a sales promotion program.
2. The before after designs: pre testing and post testing. The experimental groups’
reaction is first measured before and after the experimental variation is introduced
to them to check out the differences in behavior.

Quasi experimental design

Lack of random assignment of subjects to an experimental and control groups

Library/historical research
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents remains etc to
study event or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any
remote point of time.
Library research

Analysis of historical records Analysis of documents

techniques used is: recording of notes
content analysis, tape and film listening
and analysis
Techniques used are
statistical complications and
manipulations reference and
abstract guides, content
analysis

Expost factor research:

The main characteristics of this method are that the researcher has no control over
the variables; he cans only report what has happened or what is happening.
eg. Business researchers’ expost factor research is also known as descriptive
research.

Variables and their level of measurement

Meaning of variable
In simple words, a variable is a concept that can take different values.
A variable is defined as “logical groupings of attributes”. By attributes we mean
characteristics or qualities of and object.
In social sciences, the object is a human being and its attributes are its characteristics
such a age, sex, height, weight, attitudes, opinion etc. Specifically, a variable sex is

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 6
composed of male of female attributes. Similarly, variable occupation has its attributes as
farming, business services, etc.

Types of variables
1. Dependent and independent variables: a dependent variable is that variable
whose values depend upon or cause by another variable called independent
variable. For example, if the level of income increases with the increase of size of
holding. In this case the income is dependent. Variable and size of holding is
independent variable. And independent variable is the cause of change in the
dependent variable. Any given variable can be treated an independent in one part
of analysis while dependent in another part of it.
2. Continuous and discrete variables: if any variable or phenomena can be
measured quantitatively even in decimal points is called continuous variable. E.g.
Age, weight, height, income etc. a discrete variable takes value in integer, such as
number of family member, no of males and female, number of cattle.
3. Quantitative and qualitative variable: quantitative variable can be measured
quantitatively such as weights. Whereas qualitative variables are expressed in
qualitative terms such as male or female, tall or short, black or white, high or low.
4. Experimental and control variables: in any experimental research design if any
variable is used as an experimental stimulus it is called as experimental variable.
Whereas the rest of the variables that are kept constant (without changing) during
the experiment are called control variable.
5. Extraneous variables: the dependent variable depends upon the independent
variables. That are not related to the purpose of the purpose of the study are called
extraneous variables. For example, production of a particular crop depends upon
the use of various inputs such as fertilizers, irrigation, soil type, seed quality etc
and so on. If the purpose of the study is to see the relationship between crop yield
and quantity of irrigation, the rest of them are called extraneous variables. i.e. the
relationship is also affected by these variables is not free from the influence of
extraneous variables (yield and quantity of irrigation water) is said to be
confounded by an extraneous variable.
6. Dichotomous and Polytomous variables: any variable seeking either of the two
responses or having tow values is called dichotomous variable. For eg, if the
response is either yes or no, or male or female, success or failure, agreement or
disagreement, in this case the variable is called dichotomous. Whereas if the
variable seeks many responses then it is called as Polytomous variable.

Characteristics of variables:
Exhaustiveness and mutually exclusiveness are the two important characteristics of a
variable in question should fall in different categories used for the study purpose based on
their attributes. For e.g. if there are four different categories of people by occupation
namely, farmers, services, business and study, but our study categories them only into
three categories such as farmer, business and service but didn’t include study. In this
case, we should be able to classify even the student category and no one should be left.

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 7
 Mutually exclusive characteristic explains that the variable in question
should be categorized or classified into one and only one category in terms of its
attributes. In above case, no person should be classified into two categories. For e.g. it a
person’s major occupation is farming and is also doing some business activities as
secondary occupation. He/ she should be classified into farmer but not in both.

Levels of measurement of variables

It is well understood that a variable must be classified or categorized into different groups
based on their attributes. There are four different levels of measurement of variables
based on their characteristics.

1. nominal level or scale

2. ordinal level or scale
3. interval scale
4. ratio scale

Nominal scale
A nominal scale uses numbers, letters or symbol as the name of independent categories
so that the scale values do not stand in any ordered relationship to one another, such types
of variables have only exhaustiveness and mutual exclusiveness as their characteristics.
For example, the sex variable has its categories as male and female similarly, number of
players in a football match college categories, groupings on the basis of political parties
etc.

Exhaustiveness: exhaustiveness characteristics say that the variable in question should

fall into different categories used for the study purpose, based on their attributes.

Mutually exclusive: Characteristics explain that the variable is question should be

categorized into one and only one category in terms.

Ordinal scale;
This measure indicates the relative position of a variable according to its attributes, or
variables whose attributes may be logically rank ordered are called ordinal measures or
scales. The attributes relatively more or less of the variable, in this case, the interval
points are not defined and therefore may not be equal. For example, academic grades as
first, second, third…..and so on. Satisfaction levels as highly satisfied, dissatisfied and
highly dissatisfied, greater or smaller, tall or short and the like.

Interval scale
In interval scale, the actual distance or interval separating attributes is standard and
meaning full. In the scale, their interval points are equal. It may have arbitrary zero point
and therefore lacks true zero or absolute zero, for e.g. is a thermometer, the scale points
could be form 30°c-40°c or 60°-70°c.
Here,

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 8
 i. There is no absolute point in the scale.
ii. Intervals are standard and equal
iii. It requires some heat to raise temperature either form 30°c-40°c or 60°-70°c
iv. 30 is not half of 60°c

In social science, such scale could be designed for measuring intelligence, attitude such
as level of satisfaction, level of agreement, beauty, and opinions and so on. Say for eg.
Score of one student is 80% and that of the other is 40%. It does not mean that the
previous student is twice as intelligent as the later one since the zero point for grading is
arbitrary. Similarly, a student having zero score is not regarded as completely not
intelligent.

Ratio scale:
In this case a scale has the same characteristics as an equal interval scale plus the fact that
zero represents the complete absent of the thing being measured. It means that in ratio
scale there is true or absolute zero value. For eg, age height, length, weight number of
meetings attended, crop production in a given piece of land etc. here for example it a
farmer says that the production of wheat is 2.0 mt. per hectare and another says 4.0 mt.
/hectare, the yield in the later case is exactly double than that of first ones field. This is
most commonly used scale in measuring the variables.

Sample: part of some population to represent the whole population.

Sampling: process of selecting a sample
Steps in sampling:
• Defining the population to be covered
• Defining sampling units
• Acquiring frame/ list of population to be covered
• Deciding the size of sample
• Selection

Characteristics of good sampling design

• Must result in a true representative sample
• Results into small sampling error
• Design must be viable in terms of fund available
• Less systematic bias

Advantages of sampling/sampling design

• Cost reduction
• Greater speed/ less time
• Collection of comprehensive data
• Accuracy: qualified personnel with intensive training and quality control
• In some cases it is not possible to do all the units for study eg.
o Strength testing of bricks
o Blood sampling

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 9
 Sampling techniques

Probability sampling Non probability sampling

• Sample random sampling

• Accidental sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Purposive sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Quota sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Multistage sampling

Probability Sampling: in probability sampling, a sample or each unit to be selected has

some probability of being included in the sample.
Non probability Sampling: there is no probability of any units to be included in a
sample.

Probability sampling
1. Simple random sampling: It is the most commonly used technique. In this
method every unit of the population has equal ability or chance of being selected
as a sample. There are two methods of selecting samples in this technique.

a. Random sampling without replacement: in this case, once the sample is

drawn, it is not replaced again. Therefore for the consecutive units the
chance of being selected as a sample increases.
b. Random sampling with replacement: in this technique,
a unit or sample once drawn is again replaced, i.e. its chance of being
selected in a sample is always equal each item.
c. Sample drawing technique
i. Lottery method:
SN assigned
SN write in a paper
All paper pieces are kept in pot and mix homogenously
Then the piec4es are blind pick up from the container
The number written in the piece is certified as a sample

ii. Random No. table:

066 902 652 287

217 110 961 084
317 218 650 734

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 10
 2. Systematic sampling:
a. Used when the population under study is evenly distributed
b. Calculation of sampling interval
K=N/n e.g. 150/15=10
c. Therefore no of items in each interval =10 , say 1,2,3,…….,10
d. Select first no randomly, suppose the no is 7 then sample are 7, 17, 27, 37,
47,….., 147.
It is known as systematic sampling with a random start.

3. Stratified sampling:
a. Divide population in different strata (e.g. according to sex, geography etc)
b. Purpose of stratification is to make population more homogenous – to
decrease sample error.
c. After forming strata select sample by using sample random sampling,
systematic sampling etc.
Types
Proportionate stratified sampling
Disproportionate stratified sampling
4. cluster sampling:
a. used when study area is large
b. area divided into smaller units called cluster
c. then select all clusters or select clusters randomly select sampling units
randomly from selected clusters
d. i.e. the techniques is used for geographical areas, the techniques is called area
sampling.

5. Multistage sampling:
a. In this items are selected in different stages

Stage 1- district
Stage 2- VDCs
Stage 3- wards
Stage 4- HHs
Stage 5- individuals

b. Reduce traveling cost

c. Reduce cost in conducting interviews.

Non probability sampling

a. Accidental sampling:
• A sample is selected by a researcher those units be happens to come across
• There is no time to prepare sampling frame, bias ful
b. Purposive / judgment sampling: in this method samples are selected based on
the researchers’ interest and objective so as to illustrate some particular
characteristics in the population, study on successive farmers, progressive
farmers, and tractor owning farmers.

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 11
 c. Quota sampling: certain quotas are fixed in each group under study and then
select samples. If random procedure is applied this techniques becomes the
stratified sampling.

Methods and techniques of data collection

A. Questionnaires method
i. This is a way to collect information by using a set of questionnaire
ii. This technique is also known as mailed questionnaire method
iii. In this technique respondents are educated and can understand the
questions easily
iv. This technique is used when respondents are scattered in wider areas
v. A well structured set of question sent to the concerned persons with the
request letter so that the questionnaire is filled and returned to the
concerned personnel or agency with in a given period of time.

Merits:
a. Low cost
b. Free from the bias of interviewer
c. Respondents get enough time to answer large samples can be handled
d. Sensitive ideas are also responded.

Demerits:
a. Relatively lower response rate
b. Limited only to educated and cooperating respondents
c. Inbuilt flexibility
d. Omission of some of the important but difficult questions
e. Slowest of all
f. Willing respondent not known

B. Characteristics of good questionnaire

a. Significant and relatedness to the respondent
b. Short
c. Attractive nearly arranged and clearly printed
d. Clarity in concept
e. Objective questions
f. Orderly arranged

C. Mode of administration of questionnaire

a. Mail
b. Telephone
c. Face to face
d. Website/ email

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 12
D. Problems in asking question
a. Sensitive question
b. Complexity of questions
c. Length of the question
d. Hypothetical question
e. Threatening question

E. Questionnaire layout
1. Sequencing of questions
a. Start with easy interesting and n9on threatening questions
b. Put difficult and sensitive questions towards the end
c. Put related content together
d. Distinguish questions from instruction
e. Usually ask demographic question in the end
f. Use transitional phrase when switching from one topic to another
e.g. nests I would like to learn more about………..

2. Sequencing with in the topic area: Go from general to specific ( use

funneling technique)

*Thank you*

Praveen Sapkota, BSc Ag. 8th Sem, Survey Research Methodology (Elective Economics) 13