Achieving Drilling-Performance Improvement

in Horizontal Tight-Gasfield Development

T he full-field development plan

for the Khazzan project in Oman
is based on drilling approximately
300 wells targeting gas-producing
horizons at measured depths of
approximately 6000 m with 1000‑m
horizontal sections. The first attempt
to drill these wells had to overcome
many drilling challenges, including
wellbore instability and drilling
dysfunctions. This paper shows
how the application of existing
technologies and processes is
leading to performance gains and
improvements in wellbore quality.
Introduction
BP has embarked on an appraisal drilling
campaign that targets a tight gas reser-
voir in northern Oman. The subject field
is an area of approximately 2800  km2
and contains the Cambrian Barik, Miqrat,
and Amin reservoirs.
The field-development plan is based
on a deep-horizontal-well design. When
the appraisal phase began, there was very
limited experience within the country in
drilling deep horizontal gas wells. Other
operators in Oman were mostly drilling
vertical gas wells. There were no analog
data available on horizontal wells in the
Barik reservoir.
The wells will be drilled vertically to
approximately 4000-m measured depth
before building up and landing to hori-
zontal in the Barik or Amin reservoir. An
8½×8⅜-in. 1000-m horizontal interval
is drilled, and a 7×4½-in. tapered liner
is cemented in place before fracturing
operations. Figs. 1 and 2 are schematics
of the well designs.
The targeted reservoir is either Barik
or Amin sandstone, both of which have a
high unconfined compressive strength
(exceeding 35,000 psi). The Barik sand-
stone is at the upper margins of the glob-
al rock-strength envelope. Indeed, when
core samples were analyzed by the bit
manufacturer, the strength far exceed-
ed any of their global stock of reference
rock samples.
Horizontal drilling in these hard-rock
conditions presents several challenges:
◗◗Hard rock and slow rate of
penetration (ROP)
◗◗High levels of shock and
vibration
◗◗Polycrystalline-diamond-
compact (PDC) -bit cutter
durability
◗◗Drillpipe fatigue
◗◗Wellbore stability
◗◗Torque and drag management
◗◗High downhole static
temperatures up to 143°C
Challenges to Project Delivery
The 12¼- and 8½-in. hole sections
consume more than 80% of the total
drilling time; therefore, improving the
ROP and bit-run longevity would have
clear benefits for project economics. A
hard-rock drilling strategy was devel-
oped. This strategy targeted drilling
practices and procedures; optimization
of ­bottomhole-assembly (BHA) design;
usage of logging-while-drilling tools, in-
cluding downhole weight on bit (WOB),
downhole torque measurement, and
pressure-while-­drilling measurement;
and selection of downhole tools.
A core aspect of the strategy is to in-
crease the power available at the bit. The
application of high-torque motors and
the latest generation of drilling turbines,
coupled with an improved understanding
of downhole drilling dynamics, promotes
the efficient transfer of energy from the
topdrive to the bit face.
Several drilling dysfunctions were
experienced in the first horizontal well,
and it was recognized that, by address-
ing each of these issues, hole quality and
drilling dynamics could be improved. A
greater efficiency in transferring power
to the bit, therefore, could be achieved.
Mud Weight. Once it was confirmed
that the first well was suffering from
­borehole-stability problems, the mud
weight was increased from a specif-
ic gravity of 1.31 to 1.39. This helped
minimize wellbore breakouts that were
a result of redistribution of the bore-
hole stresses caused by hole deviation
in those formations. The elevated mud
weight was maintained to the well total
depth and was applied to the second well
with positive results.
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD).
Managing the ECD helps maintain the
mud weight within a safe window. There-
fore, it is one of the measurements that
should be monitored continuously with
a downhole pressure-while-drilling tool.

Time Dependency. The wellbore in the

This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights
build section was deteriorating over
of paper SPE 166699, “Achieving Drilling-Performance Improvement in Horizontal
time. This issue has been observed only
Tight-Gasfield Development,” by Mohamed Najwani, SPE, Yaseen Najwani, SPE, on horizontal wells; no wellbore dete-
and Hani Al Lawati, BP Exploration (Epsilon); Colin Cockburn, SPE, BP Exploration rioration was observed on vertical wells.
Operating Company; and Mohammad Reza Heidari, SPE, and Martin Sanderson, Both Barakat and Mabrouk forma-
SPE, Schlumberger, prepared for the 2013 SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling Technology tions have high clay contents, which
Conference and Exhibition, Dubai, 7–9 October. The paper has not been peer reviewed. may react with water and swell. To ex-

For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

154 JPT • OCTOBER 2014

 Subsurface safety valve

18⅝-in. casing

13⅜-in. casing

9⅝-in. casing

7×4½-in. liner hanger

5½-in. 23 lbm/ft×4½-in. 17 lbm/ft S13CR tubing

7×4½-in. tapered liner

Kickoff point, 4114 m Four fracture stages
measured depth
below rotary table

Maximum dogleg
severity, 4.4°/30 m

Landing point, 4784 m Total depth, 5784 m

measured depth measured depth
Fig. 1—Barik horizontal-well design.

amine the chemical reactiveness of
these formations, the operator under-
took a series of detailed laboratory tests
on samples. This revealed that shales
in this location are relatively inactive;
therefore, chemical deterioration was
deemed to be only a minor contributor to
borehole degradation.
The instability is believed to be re-
lated to tectonic stresses combined
with weak laminated clays, which will
tend to collapse when disturbed by
drilling activities.
Hard Reaming. The wellbore quality de-
teriorated after extensive hard reaming.
The wireline-caliper log confirmed that
the borehole enlargement was more se-
vere where hard reaming had been im-
plemented. Both Barakat and Mabrouk
formations have laminated weak bed-
ding planes, which break out because of
harsh drillstring vibration.
Once the deteriorated wellbore con-
dition was understood, a rotary-steerable
system was introduced. This provided a
smoother buildup, with improved weight
transfer to the bit and less detrimental
shock and vibration energy being im-
parted to the wellbore.
Torque and Drag Management. The
deep-kickoff well design, coupled with
high WOB requirements, leads to a risk
of pipe buckling around the kickoff
point. This limits weight transfer and
can increase the risk of drillstring fail-
ure. Heavyweight drillpipe is spaced
across this interval to reduce the risk of
buckling and improve transfer of weight
and torque to the bit.
Torque levels were approaching
string limitations by the end of the first
horizontal well. This situation resulted
partly from earlier problems stemming
from a mechanical sidetrack. High side
forces were evident as the drillstring
passed across the sidetrack interval.
Friction factors were analyzed as drill-
ing progressed through the abrasive-
sandstone interval, and the torque pro-
jections were updated continually.
Where possible, steering intervals were
minimized to reduce wellbore tortuos-
ity, although there were tight direction-
al constraints to be maintained. Torque
was also reduced by enhancing hole-
cleaning practices. It was observed that
on-bottom and off-bottom torque will
drop after performing a cleanout cycle in
the horizontal hole.
Hole Quality and Borehole Spiraling.
In the problematic build section of the
first horizontal well, the caliper log re-
vealed that an increasingly severe spiral-
ing pattern was present in the wellbore.
This had been initiated while drilling
with a rotary BHA in the vertical zone,
and it continued with the turbine drill-
ing assembly. Ultimately, a stiff rotary
BHA with multiple roller reamers was
required to clear the worst of the undu-
lations and enable drilling to continue.
The spiraling signatures in the verti-
cal part of the first well were mainly asso-
ciated with excessive stabilizer spacing,
short bit-gauge length, and poor wellbore
condition. The stabilizer interval pro-
vided a self-perpetuating spiral pattern;
each stabilizer followed the repeated un-
dulations in the wellbore and caused the
bit to continue the spiral pattern. The
overgauged hole reduced the effective-
ness of the stabilizers and allowed off-
center rotation to be established.
Dynamic and static BHA analysis
was made to predict BHA behavior. A va-
riety of BHA designs were modeled with
a long-gauge PDC bit. The results showed
that the optimum BHA for maintaining
low side forces at the bit was a point-the-

156 JPT • OCTOBER 2014

 Subsurface safety valve

18⅝-in. casing

13⅜-in. casing

9⅝-in. casing

7×4½-in. 5½-in. 23 lbm/ft×4½-in. 17 lbm/ft S13CR tubing

liner hanger

Kickoff point, 4510 m

7×4½-in. measured depth
tapered liner below rotary table Six fracture stages

Maximum dogleg
severity, 4.4°/30 m

Landing point, 5179 m Total depth, 6179 m

measured depth measured depth

Fig. 2—Amin horizontal-well design.

bit rotary-steerable system coupled with
a low-speed, high-torque motor. Another
purpose of running a high-torque, low-
speed motor was to deliver the power to
the bit from a downhole drive system in-
stead of from the topdrive, hence reduc-
ing the surface torque and wasted energy
caused by drillstring and BHA dysfunc-
tions. The low-speed aspect of the motor
was to aid bit durability when drilling the
abrasive formation.
Hole Cleaning. Drilling the horizontal
sections through hard rock at a slow
ROP should not, in itself, lead to a hole-
cleaning problem. The turbines that are
used in the horizontal section generate
fines as opposed to PDC-bit cuttings, and
these fines should be easier to remove
from the wellbore. The ROPs are so low
that the system should see minimal sol-
ids loading.
However, under certain circumstanc-
es, hole cleaning can become an issue even
under these slow hard-rock conditions. In
Well 1, wellbore instability resulted in in-
creased solids loading in the wellbore,
coupled with overgauged hole and the as-
sociated reduction in annular velocities.
The flow rate was also restricted because
of high turbine pressure losses. Having a
turbine BHA with a bend limited the sur-
face revolutions-per-minute value for op-
timum hole cleaning. Under these condi-
tions, several instances of packoffs were
experienced, which, in turn, contributed
to further wellbore degradation.
In the next well, a rotary-steerable
system was run in the build section, which
helped increase the cuttings-carrying ca-
pacity, although it was still necessary
to drill with turbines and diamond-
impregnated bits through the horizontal
reservoir. High-angle hole-cleaning prac-
tices were implemented, contributing to
improved hole quality.
Shock and Vibration. Shock and vibra-
tion and stick/slip are common issues in
hard-rock drilling operations. There is
very little dampening of shocks because
of the hard-formation/BHA interface,
leading to greater severity and increased
frequency of shocks. High WOB is typ-
ically required, especially in PDC-bit
drilling, which contributes to increased
levels of stick/slip.
The most severe shock and vibra-
tion were experienced in the first well
through the build section. This resulted
in reduced ROP and bit life and in BHA
and drillstring failures.
The oversized borehole in the first
well had a major effect on increasing
the shock and vibration in the drill-
string by increasing the lateral free-
dom of the BHA. Further adjustments
were clearly required to improve dy-
namics. Dynamic simulation resulted in
the recommendation to use a combined
rotary-steerable system and a high-
torque, low-speed motor as the most
stable BHA to drill the vertical and the
build sections.
Bit Wear. The horizontal reservoir sec-
tion is hard and abrasive with occasion-
al interbedded clays, to the extent that
these formations are not yet considered
PDC-bit drillable. This interval is, there-
fore, drilled with diamond-impregnated
bits and turbines. The analysis from the
second well showed more than 30% of
the average bit-run time had been spent
on tripping, so bit durability is a key to
performance improvement.
A high-speed turbine improved the
ROP by more than 25%, but the aver-
age bit-run length was less than 160 m.
Diamond-impregnated bits require op-
timized WOB not only to maximize the
ROP but also to extend the bit life. It has
been found that running higher WOB in-

158 JPT • OCTOBER 2014

 0
prompt mitigation with corrosion in-
500 hibitors as necessary.
Barik Well 1 Barik Well 2
1000
Directional Control. In the first well,
Depth (meters below rotary table)

1500
steering the well path within the tight tol-
2000 erances of the directional plan was chal-
2500 lenging and, in some cases, resulted in
tripping out of hole for a correction run.
3000
In the vertical part of the first well,
3500 stabilizer spacing was too long, which al-
4000 lowed the BHA to deviate from vertical.
4500
Reducing the stabilizer spacing and run-
ning a vertical rotary-steerable system
5000 helped eliminate drifting the well from
5500 vertical and minimized spiraling.
6000
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 Results and Additional
Time Performance Improvement
Fig. 3—Time vs. depth curve showing significant improvement on the second well. The first horizontal well had experienced
multiple nonproductive-time events,
creased the ROP to some extent but re- has been revised for all drillstring com- and, ultimately, the reservoir section had
duced the bit life substantially. ponents. This involved following the to be sidetracked before finally achieving
highest service level for directional- the required 1000-m horizontal interval
Downhole-Tool Reliability. There were drilling tools and applying the most rig- in Hole 2.
several downhole-tool or drillstring orous inspection procedure for drillpipe Application of lessons learned in the
failures in both wells, which required and heavyweight drillpipe. A corrosion- first well enabled construction time for
extra prevention or mitigation to ex- monitoring program was put in place the second well to be reduced by 53%
tend the tools’ reliability. To mitigate to monitor corrosion levels from the and cost to be lowered by more than 30%
these failures, the inspection program water-based drilling fluid and provide (Fig. 3). JPT

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JPT • OCTOBER 2014 159

SPE 62893
Cementation of Horizontal Wellbores
S. A. McPherson, SPE, BJ Services Co. Ltd
Copyright 2000, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2000 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition held in Dallas, Texas, 1–4 October 2000.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is
prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300
words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
Abstract
This paper outlines the cement slurry design methodology
used to cement one of the world’s longest horizontal well
bores. The work detailed has been carried out on ‘M-Site’ of
BP Amoco’s Wytch Farm Development on the south coast of
Dorset, England, over the past 4-5 years. Of the 17 wells, so
far completed on M-Site, none have required remedial
cementing work and all reservoir sections exhibit satisfactory
zonal isolation, as confirmed by bond log results. The
formations to be drilled exhibit very low fracture gradients,
with the possibility of losses during the cement job constantly
present.
The discussion compares and contrasts cementing techniques
between vertical and horizontal casings. It looks at procedures
and concerns common to both, then describes how downhole
temperature calculation and some lab testing techniques, were
modified to account for the nature of the horizontal well bore.
Output from the computer temperature simulator confirmed
assumptions made earlier in the project. Details of the slurry
design criteria and testing procedures are discussed. The slurry
properties included zero free water and low fluid loss, along
with considerable thickening times, to allow for correct
placement.
The discussion includes hole cleaning measures, and the
influences of mechanical contribution, such as centralisers and
pipe movement. Spacers and flushes with controlled flow
regimes have been used to provide optimum mud and solids
removal. In addition, an outline of the computer simulation
programme used for well bore analysis is shown to be
invaluable to the design engineer, by allowing modification of
many inputs very quickly.
Introduction
As exploitable petroleum deposits are found in increasingly
harsh environments so, the technical limits of each discipline
are stretched to meet this demand. This paper aims to
demonstrate how horizontal casings and liners can be
cemented with equal success to vertical ones. Cementing
practices and procedures used successfully to cement
horizontal zones in the North Sea will be reviewed and
discussed. In addition, data from a number of BP Amoco’s
Wytch Farm wells will be presented.
Since BP Amoco’s extended reach drilling work started at
Wytch Farm in 1993, they have continually increased the
boundaries of horizontal drilling, most recently completing
well number 1M-18-SP. The longest well drilled from M-Site
was 1M-16-SP. An outline of the well bore follows:
• vertical pre-set 26inch conductor at 25m
• 18-5/8inch casing set at 260m within the Top Chalk
• 13-3/8inch casing set within the Oxford Clay at 1009m
measured depth and 764m vertical depth.
• 9-5/8inch casing being set in the Top Sherwood reservoir
at 7451m measured depth and 1590m vertical depth.
• 8-1/2-inch section to a total depth of 11,278m – making
this the world’s longest horizontal section to date.
• 7inch liner set at vertical depth of 1610m and a total
depth of 10,210m.
At the time of writing, 4 wells in excess of 9,000m MD have
been drilled and cemented at BP Wytch Farm.
As with any project of this size and duration, changes have
been introduced to the procedures and recommendations, to
allow improvements in job performance, cost efficiency,
safety and environmental issues. To account for this evolution
process, the discussion will focus on the cementation of the
liner sections of the last 4 or 5 wells.
The 12 ¼” and 8 ½” open hole sections were drilled with
low toxicity oil based mud having the properties detailed in
Table 1.
Spacers and Pre-flushes
It is accepted throughout the industry, that increased
displacement and circulation rates offer direct improvements
in mud removal, allowing better bonding to pipe and
formation and improved zonal isolation. All the liner cement
jobs in the Wytch Farm development have used large volumes
of spacers and pre-flushes. At the start of the extended reach
work liner well bores were prepared for cementing using a
base oil pre-flush followed by a weighted water based spacer,
at about half way between the mud and cement densities. This
system had repeatedly provided the cement slurry with a
substantial base for good bonding to the pipe and formation, as
borne out by the cement bond logs run on wells M08 and
M10, and that no remedial work has ever been required. At
2 S.A. MCPHERSON
this time the average displacement rate for liner jobs was in
the region of 6-8bpm. During planning for well M11 (the first
well with a liner set at greater than 10,000m MD), it was noted
that the displacement rate would have to be reduced to
approximately 4bpm to ensure the fracture pressure of the
formation was not exceeded during cementing.
Work done previously by Lockyear, Ryan and
Gunningham1 indicated, that as flow rate decreases, so the
degree of channeling increases, except where water is being
displaced. In addition, due to the increased ease of gaining a
turbulent flow regime, less viscous fluids are more effective at
displacing more viscous ones. Based on this work and the
previous successful well cementations, it was decided to
introduce a water only phase to the current spacer system. This
led to the use of a number of fluids with varying densities and
flow regimes. In addition, density differences can help reduce
channelling of the cement during placement 1.
Since well number M11, the following fluids have been
used ahead of the cement on liner cementations. Typically 100
barrels of base oil is pumped first, due to its compatibility with
the low toxicity, solids laden oil based mud used for drilling.
With its viscosity of 1-2cp the base oil is in turbulent flow,
even at very low pump rates. This allows improved mud
removal throughout the annulus, especially below the pipe,
where mud tends to get trapped. The base oil thins and
removes mobile mud ahead of it and contributes greatly to the
breakdown of filter cakes and pockets of immobile mud. The
base oil flush is followed by 75 barrels of sea water. Again the
turbulent flow regime of this fluid promotes the removal of
immobile mud on the low side of the annulus.
Seventy-five barrels of water based spacer containing a
surfactant, is weighted to part way between the density of the
mud and the cement slurry, using barite. Weighting this fluid
ensures the equivalent density of fluids in the annulus does not
fall below the pore pressure of the formation. The surfactant
aids the break down and removal of immobile mud and will
prevent the formation of any incompatibility products at the
spacer/mud interface. As with vertical wells, incompatibility
between oil based mud and water based spacer is usually
manifest as the generation of a thick mixture resembling
“putty”. Depending on severity, these incompatibility products
can be of great detriment to hole cleaning by changing the
calculated flow regime to something less effective, or by
creating a blockage. In addition, the spacer yield point is kept
low to promote turbulent flow and cuttings removal.
A second sea water flush of 75 barrels follows the
weighted spacer to reduce the ECD and therefore the pressure
on the formation. The sea water contains the same surfactant
as the weighted spacer, which in conjunction with the
turbulent flow regime of this fluid, continues the attack on
immobile mud pockets in the annulus.
The final fluid ahead of the cement slurry is a further 75
barrels of water based spacer. Mixed to the same design as the
previous weighted spacer pill, it has mutual solvent added at
the same loading as the surfactant. The density of the fluid and
the surfactant content work in the same way as before. The
mutual solvent dramatically improves the water wetting of the
SPE 62893
annular surfaces, offering improved bonding to both pipe and
formation. In addition, the density and rheological properties
of the spacer help prevent channelling of the cement through
the previous fluids.
A summary of the spacer properties is shown in
Table 2.
Slurry Design
Cement Type and Slurry Density. The extended reach work
at Wytch Farm has all been done at vertical depths of less than
1800m, for which the drilling programme states a reservoir
temperature of 150-165degF. The slurries are mixed with neat
Class ‘G’ cement and sea water to 1.92S.G. (16ppg).
(Although land based, Wytch Farm does not have a ready
supply of fresh water.) The 16ppg slurry density ensures the
generation of a sheath of cement with competent compressive
strength development to properly support the casing.
Test Temperature. In order for the laboratory testing to
closely simulate circulation along the extended horizontal
section, the API temperature tables detailed in Spec. 10a2 are
only used to determine the bottom hole static temperature
(BHST). The calculation of the bottom hole circulating
temperature is based on the assumption, that at some
horizontal distance from a vertical well bore, cold fluids
pumped from surface will have been exposed to the well
temperature for sufficient time to warm up to BHST
conditions. As a result of this, it is assumed all fluids will
reach the bottom hole static temperature by the time they are
displaced to the total measured depth of the well. To simulate
this all laboratory work is carried out at ambient (surface
conditions) and bottom hole static temperatures. This
assumption has been verified using a computer based well
temperature simulator.
Graph 1 details the well temperature simulator output for
well number 1M-16-SP, over the duration of the 7” liner
cementation. At the start of the simulation, it is assumed the
well is in (worst case) static conditions. In this case the bottom
hole static temperature taken from the Drilling Programme,
165degF, is used. The computer programme accounts for the
pumping of all the fluids detailed in the spacer section, along
with the required amount of cement slurry. As the job
progresses the cold fluids pumped from surface force the well
temperature to decrease. At the end of the simulation the
temperature at the toe of the liner is approximately 164degF,
showing that in this case the bottom hole circulating
temperature is not measurably different from the bottom hole
static temperature. Laboratory testing was therefore carried
out at 165degF, bottom hole static temperature.
Thickening Time. Inherent with the extended length of both 9
5/8” casing strings and the liners, is the requirement for
extended slurry thickening times to compensate for the large
displacement volumes. In addition, real well situations can be
different from the simulated ones and a long thickening time
allows the displacement rate to be reduced, if required, during
the job. Building-in safety margins to slurry thickening times
SPE 62893 CEMENTATION OF HORIZONTAL WELLBORES
allows the cementer and rig site personnel to deviate from the
simulated programme, if well conditions dictate. This
flexibility can be used, for example, to heal a fracture created
during cementing in a previously unseen weak spot, by
reducing pump rate and therefore ECD.
On average, liner slurry designs have a thickening time of
10 hours, with the cement job taking in the region of 5-7
hours. The cement slurry used on the liner for well 1M-16-SPz
had a thickening time of 15 hours, with the job taking 81/2
hours to complete.
Free Water. Cement slurries with long thickening times,
tested at BHST inherently take a long time to set when in the
annulus. This has an effect on more than just the drill out time
of the shoetrack or when the liner lap can be pressure tested.
Having the slurry in a liquid state for extended periods
downhole can lead to increased free water generation and
solids segregation. Free water generation by cement slurries in
horizontal sections can be more detrimental to the overall
annular isolation than the same percentage loss from slurries
in vertical wells. In vertical wells, any free water released by
the cement will migrate to the top of the cement column,
resulting in the potential formation of fluid channels and poor
well bore isolation. Unless the free water generation is very
high this effect does not greatly influence vertical work. In
horizontal wells the top of the cement column runs the full
length of the well bore and any free water generated will result
in poor bonding and possible communication along the high
side of the well bore.
To guard against this, laboratory testing involves two
stability tests. The first is based around the API free water test.
Initially, it is carried out with the test cylinder vertical using
the procedure described in Spec. 10a.2. When the slurry design
has passed this test it is re-tested with the test cylinder set at
45degrees inclination. For work at Wytch Farm the results for
both these tests must be zero free water at bottom hole static
temperature.
The second stability test, The Segregation Tube Test3
allows empirical measurement of the density of the set slurry
over the height of the tube. The variation in density from the
top to the bottom of the tube gives a clear indication of the
amount of settlement experienced during the setting of a
specific slurry design. For a Wytch Farm liner slurry to pass
the test, this variation must be less than 1.5% of the design
density.
Fluid Loss Control. Loss of mix water from the slurry, during
displacement, will reduce the slurry’s thickening time and
increase its viscosity4. As the slurry loses water it will lay
down a filter cake, against the permeable formation wall.
Uncontrolled, this will change the flow regime of the slurry
from the calculated one to some unpredictable alternative and
may result in excessive ECD being experienced during
displacement. The filter cake will continue to grow over the
whole length of the permeable zone, and in extreme cases may
result in a total blockage of the annulus, preventing further
displacement. To reduce the amount of fluid lost from the
3
slurry to the permeable reservoir section, liner slurries for use
at Wytch Farm, must have an API fluid loss of less than 80mls
in 30min, tested with a differential pressure of 1000psi and at
bottom hole static temperature. This level of fluid loss from
the slurry generates a thin sacrificial filter cake, which
prevents further loss of fluid from the slurry during
displacement.
The Wytch Farm development is oil producing and does
not have a requirement for gas migration control within
cement slurries.
Rheology. API rheology measurements are taken, using a
standard Fann 35 rheometer, at ambient and bottom hole static
temperatures. These readings are used to determine a number
of characteristics about the fluid. Its ease of mixing at the
cement unit is of paramount importance as stoppages during
mixing and pumping will interrupt the planned flow regimes
of fluids already in the pipe and annulus. The fluid model
which best represents the slurry can also be calculated and
used to predict, among other things, expected pressures during
the job and hole cleaning abilities. This information can then
be used to determine optimum pump rates and spacer designs.
For speed, the figures can be incorporated into computer based
job simulation programmes, which generate information on
more than just the critical factors stated above.
Other Testing. Inherent with the long open hole sections are
large annular volumes and consequently large amounts of
cement are required to fully isolate the annulus. To ensure that
cement used at the end of the job performs to the same
standard as that used at the start, the API thickening time of
the final slurry is re-tested with a second sample of cement
taken from a different sample point to the first. Only when
these two samples are within experimental error limits, is
testing complete.
Table 3 details the cement slurry lab results for 3 recent
liners.
Well bore considerations During Displacement
The ECD values seen while cementing horizontal wells vary
greatly from those experienced with vertical wells. Graph 2
compares ECD values calculated during the displacement of a
horizontal well (demarked by squares) with those for a vertical
well of the same length (demarked by triangles) using the
same fluids and displacement rates. As can be seen the vertical
well exhibits lower ECD’s for the majority of the job but these
rise by the end of the displacement to almost 0.7ppg higher
than those seen in the horizontal well. This is due to the
hydrostatic weight of the fluids having greater influence in the
vertical instance.
However, in a horizontal well, the weight of the fluids in
the liner or casing, are spread along the length of the hole.
Centralisers applied using spacing that will support the casing
off the bottom of the hole would have to be increased in
number to support the extra weight of the cement in the
casing. At Wytch Farm the number of centralisers used over
the length of the liner section has fallen as later wells are
4 S.A. MCPHERSON
drilled, see discussion in Centraliser section. This allows the
extra weight of the casing string to force the casing into
eccentricity. This change in well bore profile and narrowing of
the low side of the annulus can lead to decreased solids
removal efficiency, pockets of trapped dehydrated mud and
will alter the planned flow regimes of the hole cleaning
spacers ahead of the cement. To overcome this effect the
spacer system described earlier has been designed so that it
will provide effective annulus cleaning, before casing stand-
off reduction becomes significant, and will be easily removed
by cement slurry when required. When the leading edge of the
cement leaves the shoe and enters the annulus, it initially
passes along the high side of the hole. As more cement enters
the annulus, so the weight of the liner decreases allowing
access to the low side. At this time any spacer previously
trapped below the casing, is swiftly removed by the cement
slurry. Due to the minimal effect upon ECD while cementing
shallow horizontal casings and liners, relatively high density,
cement slurries can be passed through low fracture gradient
formations in controlled conditions.
Centralisation
Regardless of well geometry, a minimum API stand-off of
67% is recommended to obtain a sound cement job. This
amount of clearance from the well bore allows sufficient
access around the casing for good mud removal and correct
cement placement. When cementing liners, many operators
and service companies recommend a higher stand-off, in the
region of 80%, to ensure high quality cement job. As the
deviation angle increases, the number of centralisers required,
to achieve these stand-off figures also increases. In addition,
compressible (bow type) centralisers have to overcome the
weight of the pipe as it lies along the low side of the well. This
extra strain on the restoring force results in each centraliser
contributing less to the “lift” of the casing or liner from the
low side of the well bore. In extreme cases the stand-off
achieved will be lower than the minimum API
recommendation, perhaps only 60%. In response to this solid
centralisers, that are not be limited by restoring forces, are
used in highly deviated and horizontal well bores.
Liner jobs for the Wytch Farm project have used solid
centralisers from the outset of the extended reach programme.
They were applied at 2 per joint over the whole length of the
liner and generated up to 90% stand-off. As the horizontal
sections extended the forces required to run all these
centralisers became too great and latterly they were only used
over intervals which required a particularly high degree of
zonal isolation. When the liner on 1M-10-SP was cemented
centralisers were used every 6m, over the required intervals,
this was stretched to every 24.4m for the liners on M-11 and
M-12 and has remained between these values for the
remainder of the project. This change was mainly due to the
increased running forces experienced with the extremely long
liners. In addition, it has been found that, an excessive number
of centralisers would increase the rotational friction forces of
the centraliser/well bore interface beyond manageable limits.
The centralisers used have a spiral blade design, which
SPE 62893
enhances well bore cleanup and cement placement. The blade
design promotes turbulence of fluids in the annulus and
improves the removal of filter cake solids. The reduced stand-
off achieved by this centraliser programme is compensated for
in the spacers and pre-flushes described earlier.
The centralisation of the 7inch liner for well number 1M-
16-SPz differs from previous liners by using low torque
centralisers. These units have rollers mounted on the outside
and inside of the centraliser. The rollers on the outside are
angled long the length of the pipe to reduce the forces seen
while running pipe. They were run at one per joint, over the
length of the whole liner, without stop collars so that at the
end of running each would sit at the high end of the pipe. The
internal rollers allow the pipe to move inside the centraliser.
This reduces friction experienced during rotation, compared to
solid centralisers, as the pipe is only moved against the smooth
rollers, rather than the centralisers scraping against the well
bore. Use of these low torque centraliers allowed the liner to
be rotated for nearly the entire cement job.
Movement of pipe
Movement of the pipe, during pre-job circulation and
cementing, either by reciprocation or rotation has long been
accepted by the industry as beneficial to primary cementing
operations. Moving the pipe has been shown to improve
cuttings and filter cake removal, and help break down mud
gel. These advantages continue to hold true when considering
horizontal or highly deviated wells. However, due to the
nature of the well bore, pipe tends to lie along the bottom
introducing additional torque and drag forces, which must be
overcome.
Reciprocation raises a number of risks including, high
slack-off drag, which may prevent the casing from returning to
bottom, perhaps leading to a liner not being set where
designed. In addition, surge pressures greatly in excess of
those experienced while running casing may be countered and
in long casing strings, movement at the drill floor may not be
transmitted to where it is needed due to pipe stretch5.. These
issues are only exacerbated as longer and longer casings and
liners are run.
For these reasons most liners are now set and released
before pumping cement, and whenever possible, rotated. In
addition, when the casing/bore hole relationship is severely
eccentric rotation appears to be more beneficial than
reciprocation 6. Rotation of the pipe requires sufficient torque
to overcome the down hole forces. These include the weight of
the pipe (which is lying on the low side of the open hole with
little or no buoyancy), the weight of the cement slurry before
it leaves the pipe and the inherent restrictions associated with
(any) centralisers etc. Liners at Wytch Farm have been rotated,
during circulation and cementing, at rates up to 30rpm. Since
well number 1M-10-SP, 7inch liners have been run in 8-½inch
open hole, with an average liner length of over 2330m.
Mathematical models can predict these operating forces, and
should be used, to ensure the casing connections, the liner
hanger and the surface equipment are designed with the
required performance.
SPE 62893 CEMENTATION OF HORIZONTAL WELLBORES
Computer Simulations
Calculation of all the varying factors encountered during a
cement job can be very time consuming. It is not practical to
determine all the changes to all the interrelated factors
experienced during the job by hand. Use of a computer
simulation programme gives much more versatility to the
design engineer. Fluid flow regimes and pump rates can be
changed within seconds and the effects of these changes
studied many times over. Many parameters including fluid
type and rheology, pump rates, well trajectory and excess
cement handling, are used by the simulation’s algorithms to
generate the job.
As mentioned above the anticipated well bore temperature
during the job is also modelled using a computer simulation
programme. Using similar information as above it calculates
the temperature along the well bore during the pumping,
shutdowns and displacement, of the cement job.
The output of the programmes can be shown graphically,
or as text listings, alternatively both can be incorporated in to
a more detailed report.
These computer simulations can also be used for real time
data collection and post-job analysis. In real time mode the
engineer can study the well bore as the job is being pumped,
allowing any necessary adjustments to be made. The post job
analysis mode allows the engineer to review jobs already
pumped, so that authentic job information to be fed back into
the job design process.
Post-Job Data
Due to their inherent cost cement bond logs are not usually run
on every well within a development. At Wytch Farm cement
logs have been taken twice since well number 1M-10-SP, in
both cases to verify cement coverage for dual
producer/injector wells. During the each test the casing was
filled with sea water and there was no pressure applied during
logging. Conclusions from both these tests found that the
required zonal isolation had been achieved and completion
was to continue as planned. In addition, none of the liners
within the development have reported poor zonal isolation or
required remedial work.
Conculsion
Excellent well bore isolation at Wytch Farm has primarily
been successful through the application of the well grounded,
cementing practices. Due to the limitations on reciprocation of
the pipe and the low fracture gradient of the formation,
annular cleaning has been achieved by other techniques.
Implementation of the multiple spacers, each with a different
flow regime, has allowed improved hole cleaning, while
reducing the placement ECD. The thin low fluid loss slurry is
easy to mix and pump, yet provides excellent zonal isolation
and pipe support. The ability to simulate the job on computer
ensured that the fluid’s rheology and density, were beneficial
to the job objectives and that the effects of any changes were
accounted for. In addition, the novel use of centralisers, with
rollers during well 1M-16-SPz allowed this long section of
5
pipe to be rotated for the majority of the cement placement
process.
Acknowlegements
The author wishes to thank BJ Services Co. Ltd. and BP
Amoco and partners in the Wytch Farm oilfield for permission
to publish this work. Thanks also to Steve Gill, Dan Daulton
and Graham Want (Snr. Service Supervisor) of BJ Services
Co. Ltd.
References
1. Lockyear, C.F., Ryan, D.F., Gunningham, M.M., “Cement
Channeling: How to Predict and Prevent”, SPE 19865.
Presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition held in San Antonio, 8-11 October 1989
2. American Petroleum Institute, Specification for Well Cements
10a, 21st Edition, 1 September 1991
3. Greaves, C., Hibbert, A., “Test Improves Measurement Of
Cement Slurry Stability”, Oil and Gas Journal, 12 February
1990
4. Cook, C., Cunningham, W., “Filtrate Control – A Key in
Successful Cementing Practices”, SPE 5898. Presented at the
Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, May 11-12, 1976
5. Buchan, R., Little, M.T.S., “Innovative Techniques Improve
Liner Cementation in North Sea Wells; An Operator’s
Experience”, SPE 15896. Presented at the SPE Conference held
in London, 20-22 October 1986
6. Haut, R.C., Crook, R.J., “Primary Cementing: The Mud
Displacement Process”, SPE 8253
7. BP Amoco Exploration, Wytch Farm Stage 111 Development,
Drilling Programme Revision 1, 3 February 1999
Author’s Note
In the text reference is made to API Spec 10a dated 1991.
Please note that this was the most recent issue of the
specification at the start of the project and that test procedures
have been continually compared against more recent issues, as
they have become available.
6 S.A. MCPHERSON SPE 62893

Table 1
12 ¼” Open Hole 8 ½” Open Hole
Weight (PPG) 10.0 – 10.4 9.60 – 10.0
PV (cp) 40 – 60 15 – 20
YP (lb/100ft2) 28 – 32 10 – 14
Stability (volts) >400 >400
Fluid Loss (mls) @ 200degF <5 <4
Oil / Water 60 / 40 70 / 30
Fluid Base Base Oil Base Oil

Table 2
Pumping Order 1 2 3 4 5
Weight (PPG) 7.8 8.55 11.5 8.55 11.5
PV (cp) 1 1 8.5794 1 8.5794
YP (lb/100ft2) - - 3.2612 - 3.2612
Surfactant Concentration - - 2 2 2
(gal/bbl)
Mutual Solvent Concentration - - - - 2
(gal/bbl)
Minimum Rate for Turbulent 0.3746 0.34375 3.1327 0.34375 3.1327
Flow (bbls/min)

Graph 1 – Bottom Hole Temperature v’s Time @ 1610m TVD

SPE 62893 CEMENTATION OF HORIZONTAL WELLBORES 7

Table 3
1M-14-SP 1M-15-SP 1M-16-SP
Test Temperature (degF) 160 150 165
Time to 50Bc (Hrs:Min) 9:52 13:17 14:42
Time to 70Bc (Hrs:Min) 10:02 13:27 14:55
Time to 100Bc (Hrs:Min) 10:11 13:39 15:10
API Freewater (%) 0 0 0
Fluid Loss (mls) 72 80 54
Rheology @ Test Temperature 78 79 68
600 rpm
300 rpm 42 44 36
200 rpm 30 32 24
100 rpm 17 18 14
6 rpm 3 4 3
3 rpm 2 3 2
Compressive Strength Development @ Test Temperature 32 hrs; 32hrs; 32hrs; 3272psi
2108psi 2000psi

Graph 2 – Comparison of ECD values calculated in Horizontal and Vertical wells

12

1 1 .5

11
ECD at Shoe Depth (ppg)

1 0 .5

10

9 .5

8 .5

8
0

60

12

72

33

93

53

13

73

00

24

48

72

87

99

11

23

35
12

18

24

30

36

40

44

50

56

62

68

72

77

83

89

95

10

10

11

11

12

13

13

14

14

14

14

14

14

15

15

15

V o lu m e o f F lu id P u m p e d ( b b ls )

SPE 39647
Chemical Wellbore Plug for Zone Isolation in Horizontal Wells
Nestor F. Saavedra, SPE, Ecopetrol, Daulat D. Mamora, SPE, Texas A&M U., David B. Burnett, SPE, Westport Tech.
Center Int., and Frank M. Platt; SPE, Texas A&M U.
Copyright 1998, Society of Petroleum Engineers, lnc
Tfds paper wss pi’epared fof pmsentafioir at the 199S SPE/OOE Impfov.sd Oil RecoveIY
Symposium held in Tulsa, Otdahoma, 1S-22 P+ril 199S.
This paper was selected for pmsentafiin by an SPE Prcgram Commitfes following review of
mfcimation cmntained in an abstract submtied by the author(s), Contents of the paper, as
presented, have no! been reviswed by the %cisty G+Petroleum Engineers and am subject to
cl%-r@fksr by the suftr@s). The matarisl, as presented, does not necessarily raffed any
position of the Society of Petrolswn Engineers, its off”m, or memhs Paprs presented af
SPE meetings ere subjed io pubfkdon mviow by E@!oriaI Committees of the %=ciety of
Petroleum Engineers. Elacfmnic rsprcducfii. dlstrlwtion, c+ storage of any part of this paper
for czwnmercial purposes wifhcd tfm wriffsn consent cd ths Society of Petroleum Engineers is
prohibited Pwrnisalon to mproducs in jxfnf is res!rfcfetf to an abstract of rwf mom than 3c0
words illustratkms may not tM copied The ebsfr@d must ccotain conspicuws
Wkmw@dgment cd where and by wlwrn fhe papsr was presentsd Wriie Librarian. SPE, P.O
BOX ~, R-tiard-, TX 750S3-3836. U S A, W 01 -972-952-S435
Abstract
A new technique for zone isolation in horizontal wells has
been developed and tested in the laboratory. The technique
consists of three sequential stages: (i) setting a chemical
wellbore plug upstream of the problem zone, (ii) spotting and
squeezing a gel into the problem zone, and (iii) washing or
drilling out excess gel and the wellbore plug to clean the
borehole prior to production.
Two main problems were investigated using laboratory
horizontal wellbore models: (a) placement of the wellbore
plug so that slumping would not occur, and (b) selection and
testing of chemicals that could be used to make wellbore plugs
with suftlciently high holding pressures. The horizontal
wellbore models consisted of PVC pipes internally lined with
sand. Three chemicals, used in the oil industry for gas and/or
water shut-off, were selected for the study: a monomer, a
polyacrylamide, and a plastic. The x-ray CT scanner was used
to obtain cross-sectional images of the plug to help understand
the shear mechanisms involved.
Experimental results indicate that a plug could be placed in a
horizontal wellbore with minimum slumping if the plug is
introduced into a viscous completion brine pill. For the plastic
plugs, the completion brine contained 100,000 ppm NaC1 and
4 lb/bbl carboxyl methyl cellulose, Only the plastic plug had
a suftlciently high holding pressure (343 psi for 37 in. long
plug of 1 in. diameter). The experimental study indicates the
proposed zone isolation technique to be viable. Research is
being continued to evaluate the effectiveness of the wellbore
plug during displacement of formation gels.
435
.
1+
aOdMydmrc+lulaFe&,
-@
Introduction
Although horizontal drilling is not a new idea,’ less than 50
“modem” horizontal wells had been drilled worldwide by
1986.2 This number rose significantly in the next few years as
“booms” occurred in the Pearsall and Giddings Austin chalk
fields and in the Bakken formation in North Dakota and
Montana. Activity levels then flattened in the U. S., and
horizontal drilling stabilized at about 8V0 of the rig count.
Horizontal drilling has been made possible by technological
advances in the drilling, completion, formation evaluation,
stimulation, and production of horizontal wells: DriIling
breakthroughs include dual-powerhead mud motors,
retrievable whipstocks, and routine multiple lateral wells.3
With the current technology, horizontal drainhole distances
that are much longer than the fracture lengths achieved by
hydraulic fracturing are possible at moderate costs.
The two main types of completion for horizontal wells are
openhole, and cased and cemented.4 Openhole completions
may be subdivided into three types, namely, true open hole
completions, slotted or preperforated liner/casing, and
segmented uncemented liner/casing (Fig. 1). The true open
hole completion is the simplest and cheapest to execute.
Slotted or preperforated liners are run to help prevent
borehole collapse. Slotted liners are generally used in
unconsolidated formation, while preperforated liners are used
for consolidated formation. The use of uncemented liners has
the disadvantage that, for remedial treatments, there is no way
to control the injection of fluids into the formation. The use
of segmented uncemented liners allow open hole evaluation of
the wellbore and subsequent selective stimulation. Using
liners, segments of the wellbore may be isolated if port collar
tools are run in conjunction with external casing packers.
Cased and cemented completions are used for certain
conditions. Perforation and stimulation costs are so
significant for this completion type that it is only used if
problems associated with the wellbore and formation can not
be remedied in any other ways
Thus, more than 90% of horizontal wells have openhole
completions. Wells completed on poorly consolidated sands
are generally equipped with prepacked gravelpack, wire-
2 N. F. Saavedra, D. D.Mamora,D. B. Burnett,F. M, Platt
wrap-pealscreens, or slotted liners, to control sand production.
Consequently, there is complete fluid communication at the
reservoir interface throughout the horizontal section.G
An interval(s) along the horizontal section may encounter
early gas andlor water breakthrough due to cresting or
extraneous production from a high permeability streak or
tlacture. Although certain intervals along the horizontal
section are affected, the totaI well production rate may be
significantly reduced for the foIlowing reasons. First, when
water breaks through in a horizontal well, water blockage may
occur, since: (i) the flowing pressure differential in the
wellbore is typically very small,’ and (ii) the lows of the
undulating sections of the well act as water traps. Water
blockage thus results in reduced oil production rate. Second,
when early water and/or gas breakthrough occurs, oil flow
capacity into the well and in the wellbore maybe significantly
reduced. Consequently, the ability to shut off high water
and/or gas producing zones in a horizontal well would result
in increased production and profitability.*
However, zone isoIation in a horizontal well with open hole
completion or uncemented pipe is not a trivial job for two
main reasons. First, since there is fluid communication at the
reservoir interface, spotting and squeezing a zone isolation
material (e.g. a gel) across the zone of interest could result in
the material being squeezed into other intervals that are to be
left untouched. Second, zone isolation materials are generally
denser than the workover brine, so that the material may
slump on the low side of the hole. To alleviate these
problems, inflatable straddle packers have been used to isolate
the zone to be treated. However, these packers may not seal
against the wellbore wall if the hole is badly washed out or is
very irregular in shape, For slotted-liner completions, there is
no mechanical way of sealing off the liner-borehole annulus.9
Consequently, a zone isolation method has been developed
which would utilize a chemical wellbore plug instead of a
mechanical packer. The wellbore plug gel would be spotted
using coiled tubing just upstream of the problem zone,
penetrating the liner slots before hardening to take the shape
of the wellbore, thus providing annular seal and holding
pressure. A formation gel would be spotted across and
squeezed into the problem zone. Upon hardening, the gel
would fimish an impermeable block against undesirable fluid
production.
Experimental Apparatus and Procedure
Two main types of experiments were performed in this study,
namely, evaluation of placement techniques, and measurement
of holding pressure of the chemical wellbore plug.
Gel Placement. The apparatus (Fig. 2) consisted of the
following main components.
1. 4 ft. long by 1.5 in. I.D. straight plexiglass tube, which
represented the horizontal wellbore. One end of the tube
was cappd. The other end had a right-angle extension
which was open to ensure the tube was completely till
when placed in the horizontal position.
436
SPE 39647
2. 1/4 in. plastic tubing - representing the coiled tubing -
attached to a positive displacement pump.
3. An electrically-heated temperature jacket which provided
the required reservoir temperature (150 ‘F), in which the
plexigkiss tubing (weIlbore) was placed.
A typical experiment would be conducted as follows.
Completion brine was prepared by dissolving sodium chloride
in water for the required salt concentration. If the experiment
also required the use of CMC (carboxyl methyI celluIosej as a
placement fluid, then a CMC mixture in water of 4 Ibibbl was
prepared. The completion fluid was poured into the plexiglass
tube which was filled to excess. The plexiglass tube was
placed completely in a horizontal constant-temperature jacket,
whose temperature had already stabilized at 150 “F for several
hours. Liquid gel (to form the chemical wellbore plug) was
prepared and placed in a reservoir connected to a- positive
displacement pump. Gel concentration varied depending on
the chemical used. The liquid gel was injected at 400 cc/rein
and spotted at the center of the plexiglass tube via-the 1/4 in.
plastic tubing attached to the outlet of the pump. Total gel
volume placed in the plexiglass tube varied between 50 to 300
cc. The pIastic tubing was removed and the geI was Ieft to
cross-link and age, to form the chemical wellbore plug. The
plexiglass was later removed and profile of the wellbore plug
was observed and its dimensions measured.
Holding Pressure. Apparatus for determination of the
holding pressure of the chemical wellbore plug consisted of
the following main components (Fig. 3).
1. PVC pipes of various sizes md lengths, with the inside
wall lined with sand to simulate the roughness of a
wellbore in a sandstone reservoir, Sand-lining was
achieved by applying PVC cement evenly to the inside
wall of the PVC pipe, followed by sand.
2 Positive displacement pump for injecting water into the
PVC pipe. A pressure transducer was used to measure the
injection fluid pressure.
3. Electric oven.
4. Data logger and personal computer system to record
pressure transducer readings.
5. HD 200 x-ray CT scanner,
A typical experiment would be conducted as foIlows. A
PVC tube (wellbore) - with one end capped - was filled with
gel and then placed vertically in an oven set at 150 ‘F. After
the gel had cured to form a chemical wellbore plug, the
capped end was sawn off, while the other end was connected
to the positive displacement pump. Water was slowly injected
into the PVC pipe. Injection pressures were recorded at 5-
second intervals. The injection pressure would begin to fall
after reaching a peak value that corresponded to the holding
pressure of the wellbore plug. The PVC pipe was CT scanned
to obtain a profile of the wellbore plug and the channel
through which the injected water traversed the wellbore plug.
Chemicals Used. Chemicals used in the experiments were,
namely, a monomer, a polyacrylamide, and a plastic.
SPE 39647 CHEMICAL WELLBORE PLUG FOR ZONE ISOIATION
Mmmters. Monomers are the units that form a polymer,
and thus have lower molecular weight and lower viscosity
than a polymer. Monomers are used to improve conformance,
thus oil-displacement efficiency, in water injection wells in
the following manner, 10 The low-viscosity monomer solution
is injected into the formation where it polymerizes to form a
high-viscosity gel. As more monomer solution enters the
higher permeability layers of the formation, more high-
viscosity polymers are formed in those areas. Thus, injected
water is diverted into the less permeable parts of the formation
that have received less water, resulting in a more uniform and
efilcient injection profile.
Poiyacrylamides. These consist of carbon-carbon chains
to which are attached amine groups, possibly tens of
thousands of them, resulting in molecular weights in the
millions. In its pure form, the polymer is electrically neutral,
and would appear to preclude any crosslinking by ionic
bonding. However, when mixed with a small amount of
alkaline solution (e.g. sodium hydroxide), or when heated to a
high temperature, some of the amine groups react to form
carboxylate groups that are negatively charged, thus making
ionic crosslinking possible to form a polymer called partially
hydrolyzed polyacryhunide (PHPA).}1 The fraction of amine
groups converted to carboxylate groups is called the degree of
hydrolysis @lZ), with values typically varying from Oto 60’XO.
Typical cross-linkers for PHPA are trivalent metal ions such
as aluminum (A1+3)121and chromium (Cr+3).
Piastics. Because of their physical strength, thermosetting
plastics are often used to seal off fractures, vugs, channels,
and perforations, and are aIso used for sand consolidation.
They are also used, in less concentrated form, for zone
isolation. Phenolic, epoxy and furfiuyl alcohol plastics are
commonly used for this purpose in the field. 13
Gel Placement Experimental Results
Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of brine
density, brine yield point, and gel placement rate on gel
slumping. The results are described as follows.
Brine density. These tests were conducted for polyacrylamide
and plastic gels. Slumping occurred when the gel was placed
in a horizontal welIbore filled with water, To alleviate the
problem of gravity segregation, the use of a high-density
completion brine was investigated as follows, Sixteen 20 ml.
test tubes were fiIIed with 15 ml of KC1 brine with KCI
concenti”titfv@@Timr 50,000 ppm to 250,000 ppm KC1.
5 ml of gel was then placed in each of the test tubes. The 16
test tubes were placed in an oven at 150 “F for eight hours
atler which they were taken out to observe the gel formed.
Poiyacryiamide piug. The gel was formed at different
Ievek in the test tube depending on the polyacrylamide and
brine concentrations (Table 1). The gel was formed at the top
of the test tube (i.e. no slumping) for 5 wt% polyacryhunide
gel in brine of greater than 150,000 ppm KC1, and for 10 vvt%
polyacrylamide gel in brine of greater than 17,500 ppm KC1.
Dispersion of the gel occurred at Iow brine concentrations.
437
IN HORIZONTAL WELLS 3
Pfaxficpkg. The plastic gel was more uniform in size and
no dispersion was observed (Table 2). No slumping occurred
for brine concentration greater than 160,000 ppm.
Brine yield point. A brine concentration of 160,000 ppm KC1
for a plastic gel would result in severe fluid losses in practice.
Following the cement plug placement technique.of Calvert et
al.,’4 in which a high density and high yield point brine was
used to prevent cement slumping, experiments were carried
out to determine the brine yield point (and density) required to
prevent gel slumping.
First, the increase in brine yield point with addition of
CMC and NaC1 was studied. Experiments involved dissolving
the required amount of NaCl in 700 g of water, followed by
the addition of CMC. After blending, yield point of the brine
was measured. The results indicate that NaCl concentration
had negligible effect on brine yield point (Fig. 4).
Second, gel slumping tests were conducted in which the
gels were placed in horizontal tubes containing brine of
different yield point and density. As the results (Table 3)
show, gel slumping could be avoided at considerably lower
brine density if the brine yield point was increased. For
plastic gel, for example, no slumping occurred for a lower
brine density of 100,000 ppm (9 lb/gal) KCI if the brine yieId
point is greater than 59 lb/100 sq.ft.
Gel placement rate. Gels were placed in horizontal tubes at
various injection rates to study the effect of injection rate on
gel slumping. Results indicate that each gel type had a
minimum injection rate to prevent slumping (T’able 3).
Because of its high density, plastic gel had a minimum
injection rate of 1450 cc/hr to prevent slumping.
Holding Pressure Experimental Results
Holding pressures were measured for the three chemical
wellbore plugs, placed in PVC pipes internally lined with
sand. For a particular PVC pipe I.D., the length of the plug
was increased in steps, tlom as short as 1 in. to as long as 37
in. The polyacrylamide and monomer plugs were cured at
150”F, while the plastic plug (highly exothermic curing
reaction) was allowed to form at room temperature for safety
reasons.
Polyacrylamide plug. Figure 5 shows a graph of injection
pressure versus time for a typical polyacrylamide plug. As
can be seen ffom Fig. 5, the injection pressure increases up to
a maximum and then drops with continued injection. The
holding pressure of the plug corresponds to the maximum
injection pressure obtained (14 psi). At the holding pressure,
the gel failed Wd water broke through the gel.
An interesting observation was the effect of aging time on
the holding pressure. Figure 6 shows that the optimum aging
time for the polyacrylamide plug is about five hours. Afier
one to two hours, the gel was formed but after about five
hours the gel achieved optimum consistency. A conservative
eight hours of aging was used in all subsequent tests. The
4 N. F. Saavedra, D. D. Mamora, D. B. Burnett, F. M. Platt
effect of plug length on holding pressure is shown in Figs. 7
and 8 for plug diameters of 0.5 in. and 1 in., respectively, for
polyacrylamide concentration of 5 wt%. The holding pressure
increases up to an optimum length, beyond which it remains
constant with increasing plug length, indicating an optimum
plug length of six to eight times the plug diameter.
Holding pressure tests were conducted for different
polyacrylamide concentrations (5 wt% and 10 wt%) and
polyacrylamide:cross-linker ratios (11: 1 and 5.5:1), Figure 9
shows that increasing polyacrylamide concentration increases
the holding pressure to about 20 psi, which is still low for
practical purposes.
A PVC pipe cut at the outlet end revealed a shear or
fi-acture through which the injected water broke through the
gel. The existence of a fracture throughout the plug was
corroborated by a CT scan cross-sectional image taken at the
center of the plug (Fig. 10), which clearly shows a fracture
going through the gel. It is concluded that the gel shear
strength is significantly less than the gel-PVC wall adhesive
strength, so that increasing the plug length beyond a certain
(optimum) length would not increase the holding pressure.
Monomer plug. About half of the monomer plugs prepared
did not form, and when formed, the plugs tended to be brittle
and to have minute internal fissures which probably acted as
flow paths for the injected water.
Experiments were carried out for 1 in. diameter plugs with
the manufacturer’s recommended monomer concentration of
15 w%. When this gave a low holding pressure (Fig. 11),
plugs of 26%, 35%, and 41% monomer concentrations were
also used. For a 15 wt% monomer plug, the maximum
holding pressure was about 7 psi for a 12 in. long plug (Fig.
12), while a 26 wt% monomer plug had a maximum holding
pressure of about 20 psi for a plug length of about 12 in. (Fig.
13). 35% and 41% monomer concentrations resuIted in
fractured plugs with no holding pressure.
Plastic plug. Figure 14 shows a holding pressure test for a
plastic pIug, clefily indicating a holding pressure (343 psi)
significantly higher than those of polyacrykunide or monomer
plugs. The plug had the consistency of a very strong solid
material. However, the plug shrank in size due to
vaporization of volatile components in the gel, reducing
adhesion of the plug to the pipe wall and thus the holding
pressure.
To alleviate the plug-shrinking problem, the gel was
continuously subjected to an applied pressure of 50 psig
throughout the curing period (about two weeks). (In the field,
a favorabIy TiigXer pressure head would result from the
hydrostatic column in the well). Curing the plug in this
manner resulted in an increase in holding pressure of about
twice that without application of pressure (Fig. 15).
Figure 16 shows holding pressure of plastic plug (1 in.
diameter) increases linearly with plug length. The effect of
plug diameter on holding pressure was studied using pipes of
1.5,2 and 4 in. I.D. The holding pressures obtained are listed
438
SPE 39647
in Table 4 and plotted in Fig. 17. Figure 17 indicates that the
holding pressure is independent of plug diameters studied.
The linear increase in holding pressure with plug length (Figs.
16 and 17) maybe described by the following relationship.
Holding pressure (psi) = 9 x plug length (in.)
Several cross-sectional images of a plastic plug were
obtained using a CT scanner. Figure 18 is typfca[ of these
images. It can be seen that the injected fluid leaks through a
gap created between the plug surface and the inner ‘wallof the
PVC pipe, and not through a fracture in the plug as in the case
of polyacrylamide and monomer plugs. This explains the
different behavior of the plastic plug and provides insight into
the different mechanisms affecting holding pressure. The
plastic plug body is strong and does not shear with pressure.
Instead, when the holding pressure is reached, part of the outer
surface of the plug is dislodged from the inner wall of the
pipe. This failure in plug-pipe adhesion occurs at a weak area.
Consequently, the adhesive force along the weak area is
mainly a function of plug length, and hence the holding
pressure is only a fimction of plug length and not plug
diameter. This also explains why the plug does not slip but
stays in place after the holding pressure is reached.
Holding pressure tests for the plastic were conducted under
very unfavorable conditions compared to those found in the
field. First, the plastic gels were cured at room temperature
instead of reservoir temperature. Plug strength is greater at
reservoir temperature. Second, at the high holding pressures,
the PVC pipe could have bulged slightly, contributing to a
lower-than-actual holding pressure. Third, the pressure head
applied to avoid vaporization of light components is very low
compared to the hydrostatic pressure in a well. Fourth, there
would be some penetration of the plastic gel into a formation,
so that the holding pressure would be greater than that
obtained in the study. Despite these unfavorable laboratory
conditions, a holding pressure of 343 psi was obtained for a
plug length of 37 in. and 1 in. diameter. The plastic plug thus
hold promise for field applications.
Summary and Conclusions
1. GeI siumping can be avoided by using completion brine
of sufficiently high density and viscosity.
2. The use of CMC to increase the viscosity of completion
brine is particularly appropriate, since as a polymer it
reacts with the cross-linker in the gel, preventing fiu-ther
cross-linker migration and dilution in the brine, thus
forming a stronger wellbore plug.
3. A sufficiently high injection rate is required during gel
placement so the gel straddles the wellborej- thereby
minimizing gel dispersion and slumping. “”
4. For all chemicals tested, temperature was found to reduce
the gelation time significantly.
5. Polyacrylamide and monomer plugs showed an increase
SPE 39s47 CHEMICAL VVELLBORE PLUG FOR ZONE ISOLATION
in holding pressure with increasing length up to a
maximum point, beyond which an increase in plug length
did not increase the holding pressure. This maximum
length (and therefore the optimum plug length) was found
to be about six to eight times the internal diameter of the
plug.
6. For polyactylarnide and monomer plugs, on reaching the
holding pressure, the injected liquid leaked out of the
fracture created in the plug, without slippage of the plugs.
7. Holding pressures of the polyacrylamide and monomer
plugs were low, making these chemicals unsuitable for
chemical plugs that require high holding pressures, They
are, however, excellent candidates for use as formation
gels, since they can penetrate deep into the formation,
8. Only the plastic plug showed promise for field application
where high holding pressures are required. The
maximum holding pressure obtained was 343 psi for a
plug length of 37 in. and 1 in. diameter.
9. For plastic plugs, when the holding pressure was reached,
the injected liquid leaked through a gap created between
the plug surface and inner wall of the pipe (wellbore).
There was no fracture in the plug body. The holding
pressure thus increases with increasing plug length.
10. For plastic plugs, the holding pressure increases linearly
with plug length, independent of plug diameter. The
relationship indicates the holding pressure (in psi) to be
equal to nine times the plug length (in inches).
11 In summary, a placement technique using high-viscosity
brine has been developed and tested to be viable, which in
conjunction with the plastic wellbore plug, augurs well
for the proposed zone isolation technique. Further
research is however required, particularly in the
placement of the formation gel, before field testing,
Acknowledgments
This research was sponsored in part through industry joint
venture research project CEA 88. We wish to thank Chevron
Production Technology Co., Halliburton Energy Services,
Shell Development Co., and Texaco Inc. for sponsoring the
project.
439
IN HORIZONTAL WELLS 5
References
1, Ranney,L.: “DrilIingWells Horizontally,”Oil WeekZy (Jan. 20,
1941) 12-14.
2. Meehan, D.N.: “Technology Vital for Horizontal Well
Success,” Oil & Gas J. (Dec. 11, 1995) 39-46.
3. Payne, M.L., Cocking, D.A., and Hatch, A.J.: “Critical
Technologies for Success in Extended Reach Drilling,” paper
SPE 28293 presented at the 1994 SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Sep. 25-28.
4. Aguiler& R., Artindale, J.S., Cordell, G.M., Ng, M.C., Nicholl,
G.M., and Runions, G.A.: Horizontal Wells, Gulf Publishing
Company, Houston (1991 ) 76-126.
5. Economies, M.: Horizontal Wells: Completion & Evaluation,
International Human Resources Development Corporation,
Boston (1993) 19-34.
6. Mamor% D.D., Burnet4 D.B., %avedr~ N. and Platt, F., “Zone
Isolation in Horizontal Wells,” paper CEA 88 presented at the
Completion Engineering Association Meeting, DaIlas, Texas,
Oct. 26, 1995.
7. Goode, P.A., and Thambynayagam, R.K.M.: “Pressure
Drawdown and Buildup Analysis of Horizontal WeI1s in
&isotropic Medi%” SPE Formation Evaluation (Dec. 1987)
683-693.
8. Odosirio, V.G., and Curtis, S.C., “Operational Advances from
Field Application of Short-Radius Horizontal Drilling in the
Yates Field Unit,” paper SPE 24612 presented at the 67th
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the SPE,
Washington DC, October 4-7, 1992.
9. Andersen, S., and Hovd~ S.: “Experience With Drilling C-26A,
A World Record Extended Reach Horizontal WeIl in the
Oseberg Field, North Se%” paper presented at the 1995 SPE
AnnuaI Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Oct. 22-
25.
10. “Conformance Technology,” Halliburton Services, Houston
(Dee 1993).
11. Borling, D., Chan, K., Hughes, T., and Sydansk, R.: “Pushing
Out the Oil with Conformance Control: Oil Review (April
1994) 44-58.
12. Dovan, H.T., and Hutchins, R.D.: “Development of a New
Aluminum/Polymer Gel System for Permeability Adjustment;
SPE Reservoir Engineering (May 1987) 177-183.
13. Sparling, D.D., and Hagen, R.W.: “Part 4-Controling Water in
Production Operations,” World Oil (June 1984) 149-154.
14. Calvert, D.G., Heathman, J.F. and Griffith, J.E.: “Plug
Cementing: Horizontal to Vertical Conditions,” paper 30514
presented at the 1995 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Texas, Oct. 22-25.30514 presented at the 1995 SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Texas, Oct. 22-
25.
6 N. F. Sazsvedra, D. D, Mamora, D. B. Burnett, F. M. Platt “SPE 39647

TABLE 1- FLOTATION TESTS FOR POLYACRYLAMIDE GELS

PolymerConcentration I
5%

BrineConcentration Gel Position Brine Concentration Gel Position

(%) (%)
2.5 Bottom 2.5 NtA
5,0 Bottom, Dispersed 5.0 Bottom
8.5 Bottom, Dispmed 7.5 Bottom
10.0 Top, Dkpersed 10.0 Bottom
12.5 Top 12.5 Bottom
15,0 Top 15.0 Bottom, Dispersed
17.5 Top 17.5 Top, Dispersed
20.0 Top 20.0 Top

TABLE 2- FLOTATION TESTS FOR PLASTIC GELS

BrineConcentration(ppm) Gel Position

100,000 Bottom
150,000 Bottom
160,000 Middle-top
I70,000 Top
175,000 Top
180,000 Top
190,000 Top
200,000 Top

TABLE 3- PARAMETERS FOR SUCCESSFUL PLACEMENT TECHNIQUE

PlasticViscosity Yield Point Mud Density Inj. Rate

Chemical Plug (Cp) (lb/100 sq ft) (lb/gal) (cc/trr)

Polyacryhunide >31 >26 >8.7 >800

Monomer >14 >17 ~8.7 >800
Plastic >53 >59 >9.0 >1450

440
SPE 39647 CHEMICAL WELLBORE PLUG FOR ZONE ISOLATION IN HORIZONTAL WELLS 7

TABLE 4- HOLDING PRESSURE OF PLASTIC PLUGS

Diameter (in) Length (in) HoldingPressure(psig)

55.8
I 7.5 80
1 14.5 126
1 37 347
1.5 7.5 66
2.0 7.25 40
2.0 14.5 110
4.0 13.75 114

-..-....-.<”; . ;.- . . ..—.

,,,, .? ,....=:.. . ... .

,W%r.. w- - .-

(a) True open hole (b) Slotted liner

(c) Uncementedsegmented liner (d) Cased, cemented and

perforated liner
Fig. 1- Common horizontal well completions

Inject chemical plug

1 ,

+ -

Horizontal pi% (wellbom)

Wellbore (PVC pipe lined insidewith sand) Chemicalplug

Constant \ h
-v=
Positive displacementpump
Rotation

(0-309

(
Transducer
Chemical WdlbO~ phlS
Coiled Tubing

n~
Completion fluid

Data logger

Fig. 2- Schematic of gei piacement apparatus Fig. 3- Schematic of hoiding pressure apparatus

441
8 N. F. Saavedra, D. D. Mamora, D. B. Burnett, F. M. Platt SPE 39647

140
Diameter= 0.5”
25.

lm
m. ●
●

f 15.

E
~
10-
? ●
n
5.

o 0
0 2 4 6 a 0 5 10 15 20
CMC concentration (lb/bbl) Length, in.

Fig. 4- Effect of NaCl on yield point (68”F)

Fig. 7 - Effect of piug iength on hoiding pressure
(polyacryiamide)

Length = 15“, Diameter= 1”

D = 1’1
14.

12.
12.

10
D
“ 10.
!i s. ‘ii
: 8. ●
ii t!
; 6.
t? j 8“
n 4. 4.
2. 2.

0 0
0 m 40U eoo m Im lzm 0 5 to 15 )
Time, S6C. Length, In.

Fig. 8 - Effect of piug iength on hoiding pressure

Fig. 5- Hoiding pressure test (poiyacryiamide) (poiyacryiamide)

8 In
20. 4 A*
7
● n
=6
Lk5 ~15. ●
l?!- e

i4 :10.

❑
a.3 c ●
●5% 11:1
n
~ 10% 11:1
2 5. .0
A 10% 5.5:1
1
/
0 01”
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 5 10 15
Time, hr
Length, in.

Fig. 6 - Effect of aging time on hoiding pressure Fig. 9 - Effect of cross-i inker concentration on
(poiyacrylamide) hoiding pressure (poiyacryiamide)

442
SPE 39647 Chemical Wellbore Plug for Zone Isolation in Horizontal Wells 9

Monomer 26%
Diameter = 1“
Fracture 25

I
20
PVC pipe

PVC cap

Sand lining
5
Gel

0
o 5 10 15 20

Length, in.

Fig. 10 - CT scan cross-sectional image showing Fig. 13- Effect of plug length on holding pressure
shear in polyac@amide plug (monomer)

Monomer 15%
Length = 6.5” Diameter= 1“ Length = 37” Oiametar= 1“
3,5 350
00

3. 300
Q 00000

2.5. 250
o
g
0
22 200
$ 0
0
450
: 1.5
o o
?!
&
1
103
0

0.5 5a
0
0 A o
o 20 40 60 so Ifxl 0 2(XI 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Time, eec.
Time, sec.

Fig. 11- Holding pressure test (monomer)

Fig. 14- Holding pressure test (plastic)

Monomer 1570
Diameter = 1“
10 140

9
120
8
10U

●
☞
● “

I
2
20 0
1

0
0 5 10 15 20 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Lwrgth, In. Length, in.

Fig. 12- Effect of plug length on holding pressure Fig. 15- Effect of plug length on holding pressure
(monomer) (gel cured at O psig and 50 psig)

443
10 N. F. Saavedra, D. D. Mamora, D. B. Burnett, F. M. Platt SPE 39647

350 350
m’

300 3(KJ
I
El
y = 9J3049X
t?= o.9e37
250

E?
g 150
!! .*:
n 100
1# $:
so

o
50
I ■
●

0 10 20 30 40 o 10 20 30 40
Lmgth, In. Length, In.

Fig. 16- Effect of plug length on holding pressure Fig. 17 - Effect of plug diameter (figure next to
(plastic) symbol) on holding pressure (plastic)

PLASTICPLUG

Fracture I PVC pipe

Fig. 18 -CT scan cross-sectional image showing shear in plastic plug

444
 Foamed Cement for Zonal
Isolation: Case Histories
Data from six deep gas wells in
Wyoming indicate that foamed
cement outperforms conventional
cement for zonal isolation. Two
wells that were cemented across the
production zones with conventional
nonnitrified cements experienced
outer-zone communication after
stimulation treatments. In the other
four wells, the foamed-cement
sheath provided zonal isolation even
after the sheath was perforated and
stimulation treatments were per-
formed. Case histories described in
the full-length paper compare
foamed-cement performance with
C e m e n t i n g Te c h n o l o g y
conventional cement performance
in similar wells in the same geo-
graphic area.
Properties and Applications
Introduction. The tensile strength,
ductility, and displacement properties
of foamed cement have made it espe-
cially useful in several zonal-isolation
scenarios. Though the cost of foamed
cement is greater than that of conven-
tional cement, the improved zonal-iso-
lation capability of foamed cement
often provides substantial cost savings
over the life of the well.
Mud Displacement and Migration
Control. During pumping operations,
foamed cement can develop higher
dynamic-flow shear stress than con-
ventional cement, increasing its mud-
displacement capabilities. A system
that consists of cement slurry injected
with nitrogen gas can be optimized for
individual well conditions. Slurry den-
sity, which is determined by gas con-
tent or quality, depends on the pump
This article is a synopsis of paper
SPE 62895, “Foamed Cement vs.
Conventional Cement for Zonal
Isolation: Case Histories,” by Kevin
Kopp, SPE, Chevron, and Shawn
Reed, Jay Foreman, SPE, Brian
Carty, SPE, and James Griffith, SPE,
Halliburton Energy Services Inc., origi-
nally presented at the 2000 SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, 1–4 October.
72
rate of the base slurry, foamer, and sta-
bilizer injection rates and nitrogen
rate. The gas used to foam the system
continues to expand while the cement
volume decreases, allowing slurry
pressure to remain almost constant
during the transition period. The sys-
tem effectively controls gas migration
and formation fluid influx, which lim-
its migration channels in the set
cement sheath.
Ductility. Brittleness or lack of ductil-
ity of conventional cement has been
identified as one of the primary failure
mechanisms of primary cement jobs.
Flexible cement systems have been
used successfully to combat and pre-
vent cement sheath cracking.
However, flexible cement systems that
contain vulcanized rubber are very
costly and require extreme conditions
to justify their use.
Foamed-cement systems also exhib-
it improved ductility. Testing has
shown that systems made with foamed
20- to 30-quality cement remain at
least one magnitude more ductile than
conventional cements. This ductility
allows the cement sheath to withstand
higher hoop stresses from casing pres-
sure and/or temperature cycling. This
feature allows the cement sheath to
give as the well casing expands, help-
ing prevent long-term cement-sheath
cracking. Cement with quality greater
than 35 is too porous to provide isola-
tion, and cement with quality less than
20 becomes brittle. Fig. 1 shows a
photomicrograph of 20-quality
foamed cement.
In sandstone reservoirs, in-
creased stress caused by reservoir
pressure depletion can cause large
compaction strain that can severely
deform the casing. Foamed cement
is one of several solutions that can
be used to deal with the damage
mechanism associated with forma-
tion compaction caused by reser-
voir depletion.
Tensile Strength. The tensile
strength and mechanical properties
of foamed cements make these low-
density cements ideal for zonal isola-
tion in many hydraulic-fracturing
operations. The low compressive
strength of foamed cement does not
increase the risk for fracture initiation
and propagation during hydraulic-
fracturing treatments. Stresses induced
in the cement sheath by increased
wellbore pressures during casing pres-
sure tests or fracture stimulation treat-
ments are tensile. The ability to with-
stand these stresses is determined by
the mechanical properties of the
cement (Young’s modulus and
Poisson’s ratio) and tensile strength.
The compressive strength of the
cement is of minimal importance.
Economy. Although flexible cement
systems such as vulcanized rubber sys-
tems offer longer life in sour-well
applications, foamed-cement systems
are less expensive. Foamed cement
may add incrementally to the initial
cost of the primary cement job, but the
useful life of a foamed cement sheath
to provide zonal isolation is measured
in hundreds of stress-relaxation cycles
compared with conventional cement
which will crack in two to ten stress-
relaxation cycles.
Case Studies
Project Requirements. The operator’s
drilling/completion program required
cementing liners in six nearly-vertical
wellbores. These jobs, cementing 7-in.
casing in 81/2-in. wellbores, required
complete drilling mud displacement.
In addition, the cement had to pro-
vide good zonal isolation in the well-
Fig. 1—Twenty-quality foamed cement.
AUGUST 2001
 bores because different producing
horizons were targeted for zonal
stimulation treatments. Reduced-
density cements were required to
prevent cement losses to the primary
zone of interest. Production from
this zone had reduced reservoir pres-
sure drastically, and drilling and
cementing operations were required
to keep equivalent circulating densi-
ties (ECD’s) as low as possible.
Job Design. The first two wells were
cemented with a hollow-sphere
cement lead and a conventional tail
system. Prejob laboratory testing
and design were complicated by the
fact that the hollow spheres crush
with increased hydrostatic pressure.
The foamed cement job design
was based on the actual hole condi-
tion, drilling-fluid properties, and
cementing materials. Jobs were
designed for a constant downhole
C e m e n t i n g Te c h n o l o g y
slurry density over the entire
cemented interval.
Because improper mud removal has
been well documented as a cause of
primary cement job failures, the fol-
lowing steps were scrutinized closely
to enhance mud displacement.
• Pipe centralization practices
were reviewed and changed appro-
priately.
• Casing centralization and liner
drag programs were run to improve
centralization and mud displace-
ment to ensure that the liner would
go to the bottom of the hole with the
required number of centralizers.
• In oversized openhole sections,
oversized bow-spring centralizers
were run.
• Mobility of drilling fluid samples
was measured because mobility
determines the shear rate or amount
of force required to displace the
drilling fluid from the wellbore.
With this information, proper
pumping and displacement rates
could be designed to remove the
drilling mud.
Cement materials from the base
camp also were tested. Laboratory per-
sonnel generated rheology values for
the mud and cement systems as well as
thickening time, fluid loss, and com-
pressive stress at downhole condi-
tions. Cementing simulation software
was used to generate values for
required nitrogen rates, ECD’s based
on the drilling-fluid weight, wellhead
pressure, and fluid-pumping rate.
74
Job Execution. Water analysis was
performed in the laboratory and again
on location. When the 7-in. liner was
run in the well, the rig pump circulat-
ed the well with drilling fluid, which
was monitored for the lowest possible
plastic viscosity and yield point.
Controlling these properties helped
ensure the best possible fluid move-
ment in the annulus. When the
drilling fluid was properly condi-
tioned, the foamed-cement job began.
The premium cement base was
mixed in a batch mixer until the
weight was 15.7 lbm/gal. The spacer
was mixed on the fly. After the nitrified
spacer was pumped, the base cement
slurry and nitrogen were pumped.
Foamer and nitrogen concentrations
were controlled automatically by com-
puter-controlled pumping equipment.
Foamer concentrations were constant,
and nitrogen rates were ramped to
maintain a constant downhole density
throughout the entire cement column.
A wiper plug was then pumped. The
plug was designed to land; then the
displacement pressure was exceeded
by 500 to 1,000 psi. After the plug was
set, the pressure was bled off, and
operators checked for indications of
flowback. The liner hanger was set and
drillpipe was stung out of the liner.
The “U-tube” of the cement over the
liner top was monitored to ensure that
cement had returned to the required
height over the top of the liner. Finally,
the drillpipe was pulled out of the
hole, leaving the stable nitrified
cement on top of the liner. After the
foamed cement set, the rig dressed off
the liner top and ran a tieback string.
Project Review and Results. After
the first well was cemented with the
hollow-sphere and conventional
cement systems, acid fracture treat-
ments were performed. Radioactive
tracer logs indicated communication
on most of the zones. The second well
that was cemented with hollow-
sphere and conventional cement
experienced casing damage during the
completion phase that caused a lower
zone to be abandoned.
After the first two wells were com-
pleted, the cementing program was
thoroughly evaluated to determine
ways to improve results. Foamed
cement was reviewed and determined
to be the best alternative for success-
fully achieving effective zonal isolation
on this completion program. The plan
was to cement the third through sixth
wells with foamed cement and to eval-
uate each well before proceeding with
the next well. Criteria for success
included cement evaluation logs, liner-
top integrity, measured stimulation
pressures, and initial production rates.
Because of the poor acoustic prop-
erties of foamed cement, a cement
bond log will only indicate marginal
zonal isolation when 100% mud dis-
placement is achieved. An alternative
method for evaluating foamed cement
with ultrasonic logging tools has been
developed that evaluates the imped-
ance variation exhibited by the
foamed cement instead of the meas-
ured value of the cement impedance.
Sonic and ultrasonic logs were used to
gather cement integrity data. The
cement evaluation logs from the four
foam-cemented wells showed ade-
quate zonal isolation between the
low- and higher-pressure zones.
All jobs had circulated cement
above the liner tops. The liner tops
were pressure tested with successful
results, and no liner-top remediation
was required. Individually stimulated
perforations showed distinctive
breakdown pressure, indicating a
diversion of the acid treatments and
zonal isolation of the high- and low-
pressure formation. No evidence of
zonal communication has been
observed to date. In general, initial
production rates from the four foam-
cemented wells were 2.5 to 5 times
higher than the two wells cemented
with conventional cement.
Conclusions
1. The excellent displacement quali-
ties of foamed cement and the result-
ing cement bond make it an excellent
choice for primary cementing of pro-
duction casing.
2. Deep liners can be cemented
effectively with foamed cement.
3. Pressure and radioactive-tracer
data of stimulation treatments show
that zonal isolation is maintained with
a foamed cement sheath.
4. Foamed cement costs approxi-
mately one-third less than other non-
foamed, premium lightweight slurry
systems. JPT
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and ref-
erences. The paper from which the
synopsis has been taken has not been
peer reviewed.
AUGUST 2001
SPE 71055
Foamed Cement Selection for Horizontal Liners Proves Effective for Zonal
Isolation—Case History
Tony D. Harlan, SPE, Chevron, USA; Jay M. Foreman, SPE, Shawn D. Reed, SPE, and James E. Griffith, SPE,
Halliburton Energy Services, Inc.
Copyright 2001, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2001 Rocky Mountain Petroleum Technol-
ogy Conference held in Keystone, Colorado, 21-23 May 2001.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review
of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper,
as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are
subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily
reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers
presented at SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more
than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A, fax 01-972-952-9435.
Abstract
This paper describes the reasons for and execution of four
foamed cement jobs to provide zonal isolation for a 4 ½-in.
horizontal liner. Foamed cement was selected as the most
effective means to help achieve all of the following objectives:
• High mud displacement in a small annulus
• Hole cleaning on the low side of the hole
• No free water or gas channel development
• Low slurry fluid loss
• Containment of stimulation treatment in selected
porosity streaks
• Prevention of cement sheath cracking
The benefits of foamed cement vs. non-nitrified cement as
they relate to the above objectives are explained in the body of the
paper. From the analysis, foamed cement can be a far superior and
effective means of providing long-term zonal isolation when
compared to conventional, non-nitrified cements.
The paper also outlines steps taken to execute the foamed
cementing operation on horizontal liners of four Wyoming
wells. Included are best practices for pre-job analysis and
planning, job execution, and post-job evaluation.
Foamed Cement Advantages
Introduction. Foamed cement’s tensile strength, ductility,
and displacement properties have made it especially useful in
several zonal-isolation scenarios. Although the initial cost of
References at the end of the paper.
conventional cement can be less than that of foamed cement,
the improved zonal-isolation capabilities of foamed cement
often provide substantial cost savings over the life of the well.
The following section discusses both the advantages of using
foamed cement for zonal isolation and its economic value
compared to flexible cement.
Mud Displacement and Fluid Loss. During pumping opera-
tions, foamed cement can develop higher dynamic-flow shear
stress than conventional cements, increasing its mud-dis-
placement capabilities. A system that consists of cement
slurry injected with nitrogen gas can be optimized for indi-
vidual well conditions. Slurry density, which is determined by
gas content or quality (the porosity of the set cement), depends
on the pump rate of the base slurry, foamer and stabilizer
injection rates, and nitrogen rate. Computer programs help
optimize slurry design and predict job-placement pressures.
The gas used to foam the system continues to expand
while the cement volume decreases,1-5 allowing the slurry
pressure to remain almost constant during the system’s tran-
sition period. Consequently, the system effectively controls
gas migration and formation-fluid influx, which limits migra-
tion channels in the set cement sheath.
Ductility. Foamed cement is resistant to both temperature-
and pressure-induced sheath stresses.6 Foamed cement is at
least one order of magnitude more ductile than other ce-
ments. Testing has shown that a foamed, 20- to 35-quality,
Class H cement remains more ductile than other cements,
allowing the cement sheath to withstand higher internal
casing pressures.7 This feature permits the cement sheath to
yield while the well casing expands. Consequently, the
cement sheath has less potential for cracking on a long-term
basis. Fig. 1 is a photomicrograph of a foamed-cement
system consisting of 25-quality, foamed premium cement.
Above 35-quality, the cement is generally too porous to
provide isolation, and below 20-quality, it is generally too
brittle to provide the required ductility.
Tensile Strength. The tensile strength and mechanical prop-
erties of foamed cement can make it ideal for zonal isolation
2 FOAMED CEMENT SELECTION FOR HORIZONTAL LINERS PROVES EFFECTIVE FOR ZONAL ISOLATION
in many hydraulic-fracturing operations. However, the low
compressive strength of this cement is a concern for some
operators who have considered compressive strength a leading
indicator of cement sheath integrity in high-pressure fracturing
conditions.
The lower compressive strength of foamed cement does
not increase the risk for fracture initiation and propagation
during hydraulic-fracturing treatments. The stresses induced
in the cement sheath by increased wellbore pressures during
casing pressure tests or fracture stimulation treatments are
tensile in nature. The sheath’s ability to withstand these stresses
is predominantly determined by the cement’s mechanical
properties (Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio) and tensile
strength. The cement’s compressive strength is of minimal
importance.8
Economy. Although foamed cement may add incrementally to
the initial cost of the primary cement job, the useful life of a
foamed-cement sheath to provide zonal isolation is measured
in hundreds of stress-relaxation cycles compared to conven-
tional cement, which will usually crack in two to ten cycles.6 In
a marginal or mature field, the economic life of a well can
justify the use of foamed cement for providing long-term zonal
isolation where it could not justify the installation of a flexible
sheath.
Case Study
The current drilling program began in 1996. Since then, six
new wells and twelve sidetracks have been drilled. Field
conditions for these wells include retrograde condensate,
water drive, gas cap, and nitrogen injection for pressure
maintenance. The reservoir parameters include:
• 7.6 lb/gal reservoir
• 11,500 ft total vertical depth (TVD)
• 190°F reservoir temperature
• Productive nugget sandstone
The previous drilling program set whipstock and the cut
window between 10,000 and 11,000 ft in a 7-in. casing with a
5 7/8- to 6 1/8-in. hole. A 4 ½-in. liner with sliding sleeves and
ECP’s were installed throughout production zone. Wells aver-
age four ECP’s and sleeves, and ECP’s inflated with cement
slurry. The curve and nugget gas caps were typically cemented
into the liner lap. Drilling fluid was displaced with 2% KCL
ahead of the installation job, and an acid soak was used on
some wells to remove drilling damage.
Several changes were made to drill four sidetract wells in
the 2000 drilling program. The program moved from sliding
sleeves/ECP’s because of high N2 cuts and gas-to-oil ratios
(GOR). The operator could not effectively isolate intervals
with this setup. The previous drilling program was replaced
with a near-balance drilling approach, the drilling fluid density
was lowered from 8.5 to 7.6 lb/gal, and the horizontal liners
were to be cemented with foamed cement.
SPE 71055
Program Objectives. The operator’s drilling/completion
program required cementing liners in four horizontal wellbores
in order to produce from the matrix rather than the fracture
network, while reducing GORs and N2 breakout. These jobs,
which included cementing 4 ½-in. casing in 6-in. wellbores,
required complete drilling-mud displacement. In addition,
the foamed cement had to provide complete zonal isolation in
the wellbores. This allows selective perforating and will
allow remedial treatments to accomplish the sweep of matrix
reserves, maintain low GOR’s, and help prevent N2 break-
through. Reduced-density cements were required to help
prevent cement losses to the primary zone of interest. Drill-
ing and cementing operations were required to help keep
equivalent circulating densities (ECDs) as low as possible
(less than 0.55 psi/ft).
Design. Solids-free fluid replaced the polymers of the original
drilling program, with a sodium formate base fluid. This
change was driven by the need to limit possible formation
damage. Drilling fluid cleanup was simplified and sodium
formate return permeability tests indicated that the fluid would
not damage the formation. Nitrogen was used to control fluid
losses because previous wells lost between 500 to 10,000 bbl
of polymer fluid.
ECP’s and sliding sleeves were replaced by a fully ce-
mented liner (Fig. 2). Foamed cement was used to help
minimize cement losses in the fractured formation. The foamed-
cement job design was based on the actual hole conditions,
drilling-fluid properties, and cementing materials. Jobs were
designed for a constant downhole slurry density over the entire
cemented interval. Because improper mud removal has been
well documented in industry literature as a cause for primary
cement job failures, the following steps were closely scruti-
nized to enhance mud displacement:9,10
• Previous pipe centralization practices were reviewed and
changed appropriately, including the use of ridged
turbolizers.
• Casing centralization and liner drag programs were run
extensively to help improve centralization and mud dis-
placement and to help ensure that the liner would go to the
bottom of the hole with the required number of centraliz-
ers (2/jt).
• A sample of the drilling fluid was sent to a laboratory for
testing. In addition to the measurement of mud weight and
rheologies, the drilling fluid’s mobility, which determines
the shear rate (amount of force required for displacing the
drilling fluid from the wellbore), was determined.
With this information, proper job pumping and displace-
ment rates could be designed to effectively remove the drilling
mud.
Only 5% excess cement was used to reduce ECD’s while
N2 rates were ramped, which required automated control and
SPE 71055 HARLAN, FOREMAN, REED, GRIFFITH
local area network communication. The displacement rate was
reduced at the end to reduce ECD’s while lifting cement,
resulting in a 9.0-lb/gal lead and a 12.5-lb/gal tail on all wells.
Only N2 rate was changed to obtain the desired downhole
density. No additional slurry modifications were required.
Cement materials from the base camp were also tested.
Laboratory personnel generated rheology values for the mud
and cement systems as well as API thickening time, fluid loss,
and compressive strength at downhole conditions. Service
company engineers used cementing-simulation software to
predict job results. This software generated values for required
nitrogen rates, ECDs based on the weight of the drilling fluid,
wellhead pressure, and fluid-pumping rate. When digital cali-
per data were available, actual caliper logs were downloaded
into the simulator to improve overall accuracy of the job
design. When all of the correct data were used in the simulator
models, the actual job parameters (such as cement tops and
spacer volume circulated from well) very closely matched the
simulator predictions. The output from software runs in one of
the four wells with the foamed liner appears in Fig. 3.
Equipment. The cementing equipment used for this job in-
cluded the following items:
• truck-mounted recirculating cement mixer
• downhole pump truck
• cement batch mixer
• nitrogen pumper
• automated chemical truck
• real-time job-monitoring van
Execution. Water analysis was performed in the laboratory
and again on location. When the 4 ½-in. liner was run in the
well, the rig pump circulated the well to achieve a wellbore
condition as with drilling operations. Controlling the mud
properties helped ensure the best possible fluid movement in
the annulus. When the drilling fluid was properly conditioned,
the foamed cementing job began.
Foamer and nitrogen concentrations were automatically
controlled by computer-guided pumping equipment. Foamer
concentrations were constant and nitrogen rates were “ramped”
to maintain a constant downhole density throughout the lead
and tail cement section. A wiper plug, designed to land, was
then pumped. Then, the displacement pressure was exceeded
by 500 to 1,000 psi. After the plug was set, the pressure was
bled off and operators checked for indications of flowback.
The liner hanger was set, and the drillpipe was stung out of the
liner. The U-tube of the cement-over-liner top was monitored
to help ensure that cement had returned to the required height
over the top of the liner. Finally, the drillpipe was pulled out
of the hole, leaving the stable nitrified cement on top of the
liner. After the foamed cement set, the rig dressed off the liner
top and ran a tieback string. Fig. 4 shows the cementing
3
placement simulator output with the final positions of the
fluids when the plug was bumped.
In some cases, getting the liner to the bottom of the
wellbore was difficult, but nitrogen was pumped to move the
liner, and all liners successfully reached the bottom. Job data
for one of the foamed-cement operations appears in Fig. 5.
Results. Criteria for success were based on several factors,
including cement evaluation logs, liner-top integrity, and
sustained low N2 and GOR’s. For these four horizontal liners,
the detailed criteria were met. The operator had previously
used foamed cement to help ensure proper isolation in devi-
ated sidetracked liners. In that case, communication between
zones during subsequent hydraulic fracturing operations had
been alleviated. Costs were compared, and the foamed-cement
jobs were comparable with the previous specialized conven-
tional cement job.
Because of poor acoustic properties of foamed cement, a
cement bond log (CBL) will only indicate marginal zonal
isolation when 100% mud displacement is achieved. This
logged response is not unusual, and an alternative method of
evaluating foamed cement with ultrasonic logging tools has
been developed.11 This method evaluates the impedance varia-
tion exhibited by the foamed cement instead of the measured
value of the cement’s impedance. The sonic and ultrasonic
logs were used to gather cement-integrity data, and the refer-
enced processing was conducted. The cement-evaluation logs
from the foam-cemented wells showed adequate zonal isola-
tion between the low- and higher-permeability zones.
The wells experienced no lost circulation during the
cement job, with foamy spacer and a trace of foamed cement
when dressing off the liner top. Production history shows low
GOR’s and nitrogen breakout as compared to previous ECP
type completions.
Conclusions
The displacement qualities of foamed cement and the resulting
cement bond can make it an excellent choice for primary
cementing of horizontal liners. Because of the success of this
foamed-cementing program, the foamed-cement process along
with other best practices for mud removal and pipe centraliza-
tion has become the first choice for horizontal liner cementing
where zonal isolation is critical.
The well construction program met its objectives of ob-
taining a matrix sweep of the gases, as evident in the low
GOR’s and little N2 breakthrough. The drilling program also
found success in:
• Reduced total well costs by 25%
• Reduced total fluid loss by 70%
Acknowledgements
The authors thank both the management of Chevron, USA, and
Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. for allowing the publication
of this paper.
4 FOAMED CEMENT SELECTION FOR HORIZONTAL LINERS PROVES EFFECTIVE FOR ZONAL ISOLATION
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J.E.: “Foamed Cement Job Successful in Deep HTHP Offshore
Well,” Oil & Gas J (March 1996) 58.
Fig. 1—25-quality foamed cement at 600x magnification.
SPE 71055
7. Goodwin, K.J. and Crook, R.J.: “Cement Sheath Stress Fail-
ure,” paper SPE 20453 presented at the 1990 Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Sept. 23-26.
8. Deeg, W.F., Griffith, J.E., Crook, R.J., and Benge, G.: “How
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Operations,” World Oil (Nov. 1999) 51-53.
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field, March 30-April 1.
SPE 71055 HARLAN, FOREMAN, REED, GRIFFITH 5

Fig. 2—Cemented liner schematic.

Fig. 3—Output from software runs in one of four foamed liner wells.
6 FOAMED CEMENT SELECTION FOR HORIZONTAL LINERS PROVES EFFECTIVE FOR ZONAL ISOLATION SPE 71055

Fig. 4—Cement-placement simulator output after the plug was bumped.

SPE 71055 HARLAN, FOREMAN, REED, GRIFFITH 7

Fig. 5—Job data for one of the four foamed-cement operations.