Chapter 13

Nuclei

Important Results
1. The radius of nucleus is given by R = R0 A1/ 3
where, R0 = emperical constant = 1.1 fm
3m
2. Density of nucleus is given by ρ =
4πR03
3. 1 amu = 1.66 × 10−27 kg, m = mass of neucleon = 1.66 × 10−27 kg
4. 1 MeV = 1.6 × 10−13 J
5. 1 amu = 931 MeV
6. Mass defect is given by ∆m = Z[ mp] + ( A − Z) mn − mN
7. Total binding energy = ∆m ⋅ c2
∆m ⋅ c2
8. Average binding energy per nucleon =
A
where, c = 3 × 108 m/s
M− A
9. Packing fraction =
A
where, A is the mass number.
dN
10. According to radioactive decay law, = λN or N = N0 e − λt
dt
where, λ is disintegration constant.
0.6931
11. Half life of a radioactive element is given by T1/ 2 =
λ
12. Average life or mean life of radioactive element is given by
1
τ = = 1.44 T1/ 2
λ
n
N  1
13. =   where, n is number of half lives.
N0  2
dN
14. Activity A = = λN
dt
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 309

15. A = A0 e − λt
n
A N  1
16. = =   where, n is number of half lives.
A0 N0  2
17. In alpha decay, mass number decreases by 4 and charge number
decreases by 2. In beta decay, mass number remain unaffected
and charge number increases by one. In gamma decay, the mass
number and charge number both remain unaffected. Only the
energy changes.
18. Units of radioactivity —
1 Curie = 3.7 × 1010 disintegration/s
1 Rutherford = 106 disintegration/s
19. mH = 1.007825, mn = 1.008665 u, me = 0.000548 u
m ( 42He) = 4.002603, N = 6.023 × 1023 per mol
N = 6.023 × 1023 per mole
k = 1.381 × 10−23 J/K
1µ = 931.5 MeV/C2

Exercises
6
Question 1. (a) Two stable isotopes of lithium, and 73 Li have
3 Li
respective abundance of 7.5% and 92.5%. These isotopes have
masses 6.01512 u and 7.01600 u, respectively. Find the atomic mass
of lithium.
(b) Boron has two stable isotopes, 10 11
5 B and 5 B. Their respective masses
are 10.01294 u and 11.00931 u and the atomic mass of boron is
10.811 u. Find the abundances of 10 11
5 B and 5 B.
Solution
(a) Given, abundance per cent of 6 Li = 7.5%
Abundance per cent of 7Li = 92.5%
Atomic mass of 6 Li = 6.01512 u
Atomic mass of 7Li = 7.01600 u
Atomic mass = Weighed average of the isotopes
6.01512 × 7.5 + 7.01600 × 92.5
=
7.5 + 92.5
45.1134 + 648.98
= = 6.941 u
100
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(b) Given, mass of 10 B = 10.01294 u

Mass of 11B = 11.00931 u
Atomic mass of boron = 10.811 u
Let the abundance of 10 B be x%.
So, the abundance of 11B be (100 − x)%.
Atomic mass = Weighted average of the isotopes
x × 10.01294 + (100 − x) × 11.00931
10.811 =
(x + 100 − x)
Abundance of 10 B, x = 19.9%
Abundance of 11B,(100 − x) = 100 − 19.9 = 80.1%
Thus, the abundance of 10 B is 19.9% and the abundance of 11
B is
80.1%.
20 21 22
Question 2. The three stable isotopes of neon, 10 Ne, 10 Ne and 10 Ne
have respective abundances of 90.51%, 0.27% and 9.22%. The atomic
masses of the three isotopes are 19.99 u, 20.99 u and 21.99 u, respectively.
Obtain the average atomic mass of neon.
Solution Given, abundance per cent of Ne20 = 90.51%
Abundance per cent of 21Ne = 0.27%
Abundance per cent of 22 Ne = 9.22%
Mass of 20 Ne = 19.99 u
Mass of 21Ne = 20.99 u
Mass of 22 Ne = 21.99 u
Average atomic mass (m) = Weighted average of all isotopes
90.51 × 19.99 + 0.27 × 20.99 + 9.22 × 21.99
=
90.51+ 0.27 + 9.22
1809.29 + 5.67 + 202.75 2017.7
= =
100 100
= 20.18 u
Thus, the average atomic mass of neon is 20.18 u.
Question 3. Obtain the binding energy (in MeV) of a nitrogen nucleus
(147 N), given m(147 N) = 14.00307 u.
Solution Given, mass of proton, mp = 1.007834,
Mass of neutron, mn = 1.00867 u
14
7 N nucleus contains 7 protons and 7 neutrons.

Mass defect (∆m) = mass of nucleons – mass of nucleus

= 7mp + 7mn − mN
= 7 × 1.00783 + 7 × 1.00867 − 14.00307
= 7.05481 + 7.06069 − 14.00307 = 0.11243 u
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 311

Binding energy of nitrogen nucleus = ∆m × 931 MeV

= 0.11243 × 931 MeV
= 104.67 MeV
Thus, the binding energy is 104.67 MeV.
56 209
Question 4. Obtain the binding energy of the nuclei 26 Fe and 83 Bi in
units of MeV from the following data :
26 Fe) = 55.934939 u, m ( 83 Bi) = 208.980388 u.
m ( 56 209

Solution Given, mass of proton mp = 1.00783 u

Mass of neutron, mn = 1.00867 u
(i) For 56
26 Fe

26 Fe contains 26 protons and (56 − 26) = 30 neutrons

56

Mass defect (∆m) = mass of nucleons – mass of nucleus of 5626 Fe

Mass defect (∆m) = 26 × mp + 30 × mn − mN
= 26 × 1.00783 + 30 × 1.00867 − 55.934939
= 26.20345 + 30.25995 − 55.934939
= 0.528461 u
Total binding energy = ∆m × 931 MeV
= 0.528461 × 931.5
= 492.26 MeV
Average binding energy per nucleon of 56
26 Fe
Binding energy
=
Total number of nucleons
492.26
=
56
= 8.790 MeV
(ii) For 83Bi 209
It contains 83 protons and (209 − 83) = 126 neutrons
Mass defect (∆m) = mass of nucleons – mass of nucleus of 20983 Bi
= 83 × mp + 126 × mn − mN
= 83 × 1.007825 + 126 × 1.008665 − 208.980388
= 83.649475 +127.091790 – 208.980388
= 1.760877 u
Binding Energy = ∆m × 931 MeV = 1.760877 × 931.5 = 1640.26 MeV
Average binding energy per nucleon of 209 83 Bi

Binding energy 1640.26

= = =7.848 MeV
Total number of nucleon 209
Thus, the binding energy per nucleon of Fe is more than Bi.
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Question 5. A given coin has a mass of 3.0 g. Calculate the nuclear

energy that would be required to separate all the neutrons and protons
from each other. For simplicity, assume that the coin is entirely made of
63
29 Cu atoms (of mass 62.92960 u).
Solution Given, mass of coin = 3 g
6.023 × 1023
Number of atoms in 1 g of Cu =
63
6.023 × 1023
Number of atoms in 3 g of Cu = × 3 = 2.868 × 1022
63
Number of protons in Cu atom, = 29
Number of neutrons in Cu atom = 63 − 29 = 34
mass defect in each atom, ∆m = 29 × mp + 34 × mn − mCu
= 29 × 1.00783 + 34 × 1.00867 − 62.9260
= 0.59225 u
∴Total mass defect in all atoms = 0.59225 × 2.868 × 1022
= 1.6985 × 1022 u
Binding energy = Mass defect × 931 MeV
= 1.6985 × 1022 × 931 = 1.58 × 1025 MeV
Thus, the energy required to separate all the neutrons and protons is
1.58 × 1025 MeV i.e., equal to binding energy.

Question 6. Write nuclear reaction equations for

(a) α-decay of 226
88 Ra, (b) α-decay of 242
94 Pu,
−
(c) β -decay of 15 P,
32
(d) β − -decay of 210
83 Bi,
(e) β + -decay of 11
6 C, (f) β + -decay of 97
43 Tc ,
(g) electron capture of 120
54 Xe.
Solution As we know that
1. in α-decay, the mass number is reduced by 4 and atomic number is
reduced by 2.
2. in β-decay, the mass number remains constant and atomic number is
increased by 1.
3. in a γ-decay, the mass number and atomic number remains same.
The following equations are given :
−α
(a) 226
88 Ra → 222
88 Rn + 42He
−α
(b) 242
94 Pu → 238
92 U + 42He
− ( −β )
(c) 32
15 P → 32 16 S + −1 e + ν
0

−
i. e., β -decay is accompanied by release of antineutrino.
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 313

−( −β ) 210
(d) 210
83
Bi → 84 X+ 0
−1 e +ν
−( +β ) 11
(e) 11
6 C → 5 B + e + + ν
+
β decay of 11C6 is accompanied by the release neutrino.
−( +β ) 97 +
43 TC → 42 X × e + ν
97
(f)
54 Xe + −1 e → 53 X
120 0 120
(g)

Question 7. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of T years. How long

will it take the activity to reduce to
(a) 3.125% and
(b) 1% of its original value?
Solution Given, half-life T1/ 2 = T yr
(a) N = 3.125% of N0
N 3.125 1
∴ = =
N0 100 32
We know that
n
N  1
= 
N0  2
n
1  1
∴ = 
32  2
5 n
 1  1
⇒   = 
 2  2
or n=5
So, time t = n × T1/ 2 = 5 T
After 5 half-time periods activity reduces to 3.125% of initial activity.
(b) Given, N = 1% of N0
N 1
∴ =
N0 100
We know that
N
= e −λt
N0
1
∴ = e − λt
100
Taking log on both the sides, we get
log e 1 − log e 100 = − λt log e e
− 2.303 × 2 = − λt
4.606
or t=
λ
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0.693
Also, we know that λ =
T1/ 2
4.606 ⋅ T1/ 2
∴ t= = 6.65 T
0.693
Question 8. The normal activity of living carbon containing matter is
found to be about 15 decays per minute for every gram of carbon. This
activity arises from the small proportion of radioactive 14
6 C present with
the stable carbon isotope 126 C. When the organism is dead, its interaction
with the atmosphere (which maintains the above equilibrium activity)
ceases and its activity begins to drop. From the known half-life (5730 yr)
of 14
6 C and the measured activity, the age of the specimen can be
approximately estimated. This is the principle of 14 6 C dating used in
archaeology. Suppose a specimen from Mohenjodaro gives an activity of 9
decays per minute per gram of carbon. Estimate the approximate age of
the Indus-Valley civilization.
Solution Given, normal activity, A0 = 15 decay/min
Present activity, A = 9 decay/min
T1/ 2 = 5730 yr
Using the formula,
A
= e −λt
A0
9
= e − λt
15
3
or = e − λt
5
5
or e λt =
3
Taking log on both the sides, we get
λt log e e = log e 5 − log e 3
or λt = 2.303 (0.69 − 0.47)
 0.693
λt = 0.5109 Q λ = 
 T1/ 2 
0.5066 × T1/ 2
∴ t=
0.693
0.5066 × 5730
=
0.693
= 4224.47 yr
Thus, the approximate age of Indus-Valley civilization is 4224 yr.
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 315

Question 9. Obtain the amount of 60 27 Co necessary to provide a

radioactive source of 8.0 mCi strength. The half-life of 60 27 Co is 5.3 yr.
dN −3
Solution Activity, = 8 mCi = 8 × 10 × 3.7 × 10 = 8 × 3.7 × 107
10
dt
disintegration/s
(Q1 Ci = 3.7 ×1010 disintegration/s)
27 Co, T1 / 2 = 5.3 yr = 5.3 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60
Half-life of 60
= 1.67 × 108 s
We know that
0.693 0.693
λ= = = 4.14 × 10−9 /s
T1/ 2 1.67 × 108
dN
Activity, = λN
dt
dN / dt 8 × 3.7 × 107
or N= = = 7.133 × 1016
λ 4.14 × 10−9
By using the concept of Avogadro number —
Mass of 6.023 × 1023 atoms of 60
27 Co = 60 g

60 × 7.133 × 1016
Mass of 7.133 × 1016 atoms of 60
27 Co =
6.023 × 1023
Mass m = 7.12 × 10−6 g
−6
27 Co is 7.12 × 10
Thus, the required mass of 60 g.
90
Question 10. The half-life of 38 Sr is 28 yr. What is the disintegration
rate of 15 mg of this isotope?
Solution 38 Sr, T1 / 2 = 28 yr
Given, half life of 90
= 28 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s
According to Avogadro number concept—
90 g of Sr contains = 6.023 × 1023 atom
6.023 × 1023 × 15 × 10−3
15 mg of Sr contains =
90
Number of atoms, N = 1.0038 × 1020
dN
Activity, = λN
dt
dN 0.6931 0.6931 × 1.0038 × 1020  0.693
or = ⋅N = Q λ = 
dt T1/ 2 28 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60  T1/ 2 
dN
= 7.877 × 1010 disintegration/s
dt
= 7.877 × 1010 Bq
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Question 11. Obtain approximately the ratio of the nuclear radii of the
gold isotope 197 107
79 Au and the silver isotope 47 Ag.
Solution Radius of nuclei, R = R0 A1/ 3
where A is the mass number of nucleus and R0 is an empirical constant.
∴ R ∝ A1/ 3
1/ 3
Rgold  Agold  197
13
∴ =  =  = 1.225
Rsilver  Asilver  107
= 1. 23
Question 12. Find the Q-value and the kinetic energy of the emitted
α-particle in the α-decay of (a) 226 220
88 Ra and (b) 86 Rn.

88 Ra ) = 226.02540
Given, m( 226 86 Rn) = 222.01750
u, m( 222 u,
mα = 4.00260 u, m( 220
86 Rn) = 220.01137 u,
84 Po) = 216.00189 u
m( 216
Solution (a) The process of α -decay of 226
88 Ra can be expressed as
226
88 Ra → 222
86 Rn + 42He + Q
Q-value of the reaction is given by
Q-value = [ m (226
88 Ra ) − m ( 86 Rn) − mα ] × 931.5 MeV
222

= (226.02540 − 222.01750 − 4.00260) × 931.5

= 0.0053 × 931.5 = 4.94 MeV
 A − 4 226 − 4
Kinetic energy of emitted α-particle =   ⋅Q = × 4.94
 A  226
= 4.85 MeV
(b) The process of α-decay of 220
86 Rn can be expressed as
220
86 Rn → 216
84 Po + 42He
Q-value of the reaction—
Q-value = [ m( 220
86 Rn) − m( 84 Po ) − mα ] × 931.5 MeV
216

= [220.01137 − 216.00189 − 4.00260] × 931.5

= 6.41 MeV
( A − 4)Q 220 − 4
Kinetic energy of emitted α-particle = = × 6.41
A 220
= 6.29 MeV
Question 13. The radionuclide 11 C decays according to
11
6C → 11
5B + e + + ν : T1 / 2 = 20.3 min
The maximum enregy of the emitted positron is 0.960 MeV.
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 317

Given, the mass values

m(116 C) = 11.011434 u and m(116 B) = 11.009305 u
Calculate Q and compare it with the maximum energy of the positron
emitted.
Solution Mass of e = 0.000548 u
The mass defect, ∆m = [ m( 11
6 C) − m ( 5 B) − me ]
11

where, the masses used are those of nuclei and not of atoms. If we use
atomic masses, we have to add 6 me in case of 11C and 5 me in case of
11
B.
As 116 C atom is made up of 116 C nucleus and 6 protons.
∴Mass of 116 C nucleus
= Mass of 11
6 C atom – mass of 6 electrons

= 11.011434 u – 6 me
Similarly mass of 115 B nucleus
= Mass of 11
5 B atom – mass of 5 electrons

= 11.00930 – 5 me
∴ Q = [(11.011434 – 6me ) – (11.009305 – 5me ) – me ]
∆m = [ m (116 C) − m (115 B) − 2me ]

= 11.011434 − 11.009305 − 2 × 0.000548

= 0.001033
Q = Binding energy = ∆m × 931
= 0.001033 × 931
= 0.9617 MeV
The daughter nucleus is too heavy compared to e + and V. So it carries
neglible energy (Ed = 0). It the kinetic energy (EV ) carried by the
neutrino is minimum (i. e. zero, the positron carries maximum energy
and this is practically all energy Q; hence maximum Ee ≈ Q.)
Question 14. The nucleus 23
10 Ne decays by β − emission. Write down the
β-decay equation and determine the maximum kinetic energy of the
electrons emitted. Given that
23
m(10 Ne) = 22.994466 u
23
m(11 Na ) = 22.989770 u.
Solution The β-decay equation of 23
10 Ne is given by
−β
23
10 Ne → 23
11 Na + −1 e
0
+ ν+Q
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Similar to Q. 13 the mass defect can be given as

Mass defect ∆m = m(2310 Ne) − m(11 Na )
23

= 22.994466 − 22.989770
= 0.004696 u
Q = ∆m × 931 = 0.004696 × 931 = 4.372 MeV
The maximum kinetic energy of the electron of the emitted β-particle is
equal to the Q-value.
Ee = Q = 4.37 MeV
23
10 Na nucleus is much heavier than electron-neutron, practically whole of
the energy released is carried by electron-neutrino pair. When neutrino
gets zero energy, the electron will carry the maximum energy. So the
maximum KE of the electron is 4.374 MeV.
Question 15. The Q-value of a nuclear reaction A + b → C + d is defined
by Q = [ mA + mb − mC − md ]c 2 , where the masses refer to the respective
nuclei. Determine from the given data, the Q-value of the following
reactions and state whether the reactions are exothermic or endothermic.
(a) 11 H + 13H —→ 1H + 1H
2 2

(b) 12
6 C + 12
6 C —→ 10 Ne + 2He
20 4

Atomic masses are given to be

m(1 H1 ) = 1. 007825 u, m(12 H) = 2.014102 u, m(13 H) = 3.016049 u,

6 C) = 12.000000 u,
m(12 Ne) = 19.992439 u.
20
m(10
Solution The given reaction
(a) 11H + 31 H → 21 H + 21 H
Mass defect ∆m = m(11H) + m(31 H) − 2m(21 H)
= 1.007825 + 3.016049 – 2 (2.014102)
= − 0.00433 u
Q-value of the reaction
Q = ∆m × 931 = − 0.00433 × 931 = − 4.031 MeV
As the energy is negative so, the reaction is endothermic.
(b) The given reaction 126 C + 6 C → 10 Ne + 2 He
12 20 4

∆m = 2m ( 12
6 C) − m(10 Ne) − m( 2 He)
20 4

= 2 × 12 − 19.992439 − 4.002603
= 0.00495 u
Q = ∆m × 931 = 0.00495 × 931 = 4.62 MeV
Since, the energy is positive thus, the reaction is exothermic.
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 319

56
Question 16. Suppose, we think of fission of a nucleus into two
26 Fe
28
equal fragments, Is the fission energetically possible? Argue by
13 Al.
working out Q of the process. Given m( 56 26 Fe) = 55.93494 u and
28
m(13 Al) = 27.98191 u.
Solution The given reaction for the decay process
26 Fe → 2 13 Al
56 28

Mass defect ∆m = m ( 56
26 Fe) − 2 m (13 Al)
28

= 55.93494 − 2(27.98191)
= − 0.02888 u
Q = ∆m × 931 = − 26.88728 MeV
Because the energy is negative so, the fission is not possible
energetically.
239
Question 17. The fission properties of 94 Pu are very similar to those of
235
92 U. The average energy released per fission is 180 MeV. How much
239
energy, in MeV, is released if all the atoms in 1 kg of pure 94 Pu undergo
fission?
Solution According to the concept of Avogadro number
94 Pu = 6.023 × 10
The number of atoms in 239 g of 239 23

6.023 × 1023 × 1000

94 Pu =
Number of atoms in 1 kg of 239
239
= 2.52 × 1024
The average energy released in one fission = 180 MeV
94 Pu = 180 × 2.52 × 10
So, total energy released in fission of 1 kg of 239 24

= 4.53 × 1026 MW

Question 18. A 1000 MW fission reactor consumes half of its fuel in

5 yr. How much 235 92 U did it contain initially? Assume that the reactor
operates 80% of the time that all the energy generated arises from the
fission of 235
92 U and that this nuclide is consumed only by the fission
process.
Given power of reactor P = 1000 MW
Solution Use the concept that the energy generated in one fission of
235
92 U is 200 MeV.
Let x kg of 235 U is used.
According to Avogadro number concept
235 g of 235 U contains = 6.023 × 1023 atoms
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6.023 × 1023
∴ x kg of 235 U contains = × x atoms
235 × 10−3
As half fuel is used in 5 yr and each atoms gives energy of 200 MeV, so
energy given by fuel is
6.023 × 1023 × x × 200 × 1.6 × 10−13
= J …(i)
235 × 2 × 10−3
Energy produced in reactor in 5 yr as 80%
80
= 1000 × 106 × 5 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 ×
100
(From formula E = Pt ) …(ii)
Equate Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
6.023 × 1023 × 200 × 1.6 × 10−13 x 109 × 5 × 365 × 24 × 3600 × 80
=
235 × 2 × 10−3 100
5 × 365 × 24 × 36 × 80 × 235 × 2 × 10−3 × 109
⇒ x=
6.023 × 1010 × 200 × 1.6
= 3071.5 kg
The initial amount of 235
92 U is 3071.5 kg.

Question 19. How long can an electric lamp of 100 W be kept glowing
by fusion of 2.0 kg of deuterium? Take the fusion reaction as
1 H + 1 H → 1 He + n + 3.27 MeV
2 2 3

Solution Let t be the time.

According to the Avogadro number concept
Number of atoms in 2 g of deuterium = 6.023 × 1023
6.023 × 1023 × 2 × 103
Number of atoms in 2 kg of deuterium =
2
= 6.023 × 1026 nuclei
From given equation, energy released during fusion of two deuterium
= 3.27 MeV
3.27
∴ Energy released by one deuterium = = 1.635 MeV
2
Energy relesed in 6.023 × 1026 deuterium atoms
= 1635
. × 6.023 × 1026 = 9.848 × 1026 MeV
= 9.848 × 1026 × 1.6 × 10−13 = 15.75 × 1013 J
Energy used by bulb in 1s = 100 J
100 J energy used in time = 1 s
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 321

1 × 15.75 × 1013
15.75 × 1013 J energy used in time = = 15.75 × 1011 s
100
(QWe know that 1 yr = 60 × 24 × 60 × 365 s)
15.75 × 1011
= yr= 4.99 × 104 yr
60 × 24 × 60 × 365
Thus, the bulbs glow for 4.99 × 104 yr.

Question 20. Calculate the height of the potential barrier for a head on
collision of two deuterons. [Hint : The height of the potential barrier is
given by the Coulomb repulsion between the two deuterons when they
just touch each other. Assume that they can be taken as hard spheres of
radius 2.0 fm.]
Solution Given, radius r = 2 fm = 2 × 10−15 m
For head on collision, the distance between the centres of two deuterons
d= r
d = 2 × 10−15 = 2 × 10−15 m
Charge on each deuteron, e = 1.6 × 10−19 C
1 q1q2 9 × 109 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 1.6 × 10−19
Potential energy = ⋅ =
4πε0 d 2 × 10−15
 1 
Q = 9 × 109 
 4πε0 
5.76 × 10−14
= = 720000 eV
1.6 × 10−19
According to the law of conservation of energy.This potential energy will
be equal to kinetic energy of both deuteron.
∴ Potential energy = 2 × Kinetic energy of each deuteron
720000
Kinetic energy of each deuteron = = 360000 eV = 360 keV
2
Thus, the potential barrier is 360 keV.
Question 21. From the relation R = R0 A1 / 3 , where R0 is a constant and
A is the mass number of a nucleus, show that the nuclear matter density
is nearly constant (i.e., independent of A).
Solution Given, the expression of the radius of nucleus is given by
R = R0 A1/ 3 where R0 is a constant and A is the mass number of nucleus.
Mass
Density of nucleus =
Volume
Mass of each neucleon × Number of neucleons
ρ=
4 3
πR
3
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m× A ×3
=
4πR3
Am 3 3m 3 × 1.66 × 10−27
= = =
4πR0 A 4πR0 4 × 3.14 × (1.1 × 10−15 )3
3 3

= 2.97 × 1017 kg/m3

As R0 is a constant so, density is constant or independent of A.
Question 22. For the β + (positron) emission from a nucleus, there is
another competing process known as electron capture (electron from an
inner orbit say, the K-shell is captured by the nucleus and a neutrino is
emitted).
e + + ZAX → ZA−1Y + ν
Show that if β + emission is energetically allowed, electron capture is
necessarily allowed but not vice-versa.
Solution Let us first consider positron emission
ZX
A
→ Z −1Y A + 1e0 + Q1 …(i)
Let us now consider electron capture
ZX
A
+ −1e0 → Z −1 Y
A
+ ν + Q2 …(ii)

The energy released in Eq. (i),

Q1 = [ mN(Z X A ) − mN(Z −1 Y A ) − me ] c2
= [ mN(Z X A ) + Zme − mN(Z −1 Y A ) − (Z − 1) me − me ] c2
= [ mN(Z X A ) − mN(Z −1 Y A ) − 2me ]c2 …(iii)
where, me = mass of electron
Energy released in Eq. (ii),
Q2 = [ mN(Z X A ) + me − mN(Z −1 Y A )] c2
= [ mN(Z X A ) + Zme + me − mN(Z −1 Y A ) − (Z − 1) me − me ]c2
= [ mN(Z X A ) − mN( Z −1)Y A ] c2 …(iv)
Here, if Q1 > 0 then Q2 > 0.
i.e., if positron emission is energitically allowed electron capture is
necessarily allowed.
But if Q2 > 0 does not necessarily mean that Q1 > 0. Hence, converse is not
true.
Question 23. In a periodic table, the average atomic mass of magnesium
is given as 24.312 u. The average value is based on their relative
natural abundance on earth. The three isotopes and their masses are
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 323

24 25 26
12 Mg (23.98504 u), 12 Mg (24.98584 u) and 12 Mg (25.98259 u). The natural
24
abundance of 12 Mg is 78.99% by mass. Calculate the abundances of other
two isotopes.
Solution Given, atomic mass of Mg = 24.312 u
Mass of 24
12 Mg = 23.98504 u
Mass of 25
12 mg = 24.98584 u
Mass of 26
12 Mg = 25.98259 u
Abundance of 24
12 Mg = 78.99%
Let the abundance of 25
12 Mg be x%.

12 Mg = 100 − 78.99 − x
The abundance of 26
= (21.01 − x)%
Atomic mass = Weighted average of masses
Abundance of the isotopes
=
Total abundance
78.99 × 23.98504 + x × 24.98584 + (21.01 − x) × 25.98259
24.312 =
100
⇒ x = 9.303%
So, the abundance of 12 Mg25 is 9.303% and the abundance of 12 Mg26 is
11.71%.
Question 24. The neutron separation energy is defined as the energy
required to remove a neutron from the nucleus. Obtain the neutron
41 27
separation energies of the nuclei 20 Ca and 13 Al from the following data :
20 Ca ) = 39.962591 u
m( 40
20 Ca ) = 40.962278 u
m( 41
26
m(13 Al) = 25.986895 u
m(13 Al) = 26.981541 u
27

41
Solution (i) When a neutron is separated, from 20 Ca, we are left with
40
20 Ca and the reaction becomes
41
20 Ca → 40
20 Ca + 0 n1
Mass defect ∆m = m (40
20 Ca ) + m( 0 n ) − m( Ca )
1 41

= 39.962591 + 1.008665 − 40.962278

= 0.008978 u
Energy for separation of neutron = ∆m × 931 = 0.008978 × 931 = 8.362
MeV
324 www.arihantbooks.com

(ii) When a neutron is separated from 27 28

13 Al, we are left with 13 Al. Thus
the reaction
13 Al → 13 Al + 0 n
27 26 1

Mass defect ∆m = m (26

13 Al) + m( 0 n ) − m( 13 Al)
1 27

= 25.986895 + 1.008665 – 26.981541

= 0.014019
Energy for separation of neutron = ∆m × 931 = 0.014019 × 931
= 13.06 MeV
32
Question 25. A source contains two phosphorous radio nuclides 15 P
(T1 / 2 = 14. 3 day) and 15
33
P(T1 / 2 = 25.3 day). Initially, 10% of the decay come
33
from 15 P. How long one must wait until 90% do so?
Solution Initially, the source have 90% of 32 33
15 P and 10% of 15 P. Let x g be
32
initial number of P nuclides and 9x g be initial number of 33 P.
After t days, the source has 90% of 33 P and 10% of 32 P i.e., y g of 33 P and
9y g of 32 P.
Using the equation,
t/ T
N  1 1 /2
= e −λt =  
N0  2
t / T1 /2
 1
N = N0  
 2
For P33 , y = 9x ⋅ 2− t /14.3 …(i)
− t /25.3
32
For P , 9y = x2 …(ii)
Dividing Eq (i) by Eq. (ii),
y 9x 2− t / 14.3
= ⋅
9y x 2− t / 25.3
1
or = 9 × 2( t / 25.3 − t / 14.3 )
9
1
or = 2−11t/25.3 × 14.3
81
Taking log on both the sides,
11t
log 1 − log 81 = − log 2
25.3 × 14.3
−11 × t
or − 1.9085 = × 0.3010
25.3 × 14.3
25.3 × 14.3 × 1.9085
or t=
11 × 0.3010
= 208.5 days
So, we must wait for 208.5 days to do so.
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 325

Question 26. Under certain circumstances, a nucleon can decay by

emitting a particle more massive than an α-particle. Consider the
following decay processes :
223
88 Ra → 209
82 Pb + 14
6C

223
88 Ra → 219
86 Rn + 42He
Calculate, the Q-values for these decays and determine that both are
energetically allowed.
Solution (a) The given reaction
88 Ra → 82 Pb + 6 C
223 209 14

Mass defect ∆m = m( 223

88 Ra ) − 82 Pb) − m( 6 C)
m( 209 14

∆m = 223.01850 − 208.98107 − 14.00324 = 0.03419 u

Q-value for the given decay process
Q = ∆m × 931.5 = 0.03419 × 931.5 = 31.83 MeV
(b) The given reaction
88 Ra → 86 Rn + 2 He
223 219 4

Mass defect ∆m = m ( 223

88 Ra ) − m ( 86 Rn) − m ( 2 He)
219 4

= 223.01850 − 219.00948 − 4.00260 = 0.00642 u

Q-value for the given decay process,
Q = ∆m × 931.5 = 0.00642 × 931.5 = 5.98 MeV
Here, in both the case, value of Q is positive so, the decays are
energetically possible.
238
Question 27. Consider the fission of 92 U by fast neutrons. In one

fission event, no neutrons are emitted and the final end products, after the
140 99
beta decay of the primary fragments, are 58 Ce and 44 Ru. Calculate Q for
this fission process. The relevant atomic and particle masses are
92 U) = 238.05079 u
m( 238
58 Ce) = 139.90543 u
m(140
44 Ru) = 98.90594 u
m( 99
Solution The fission reaction is given by
92 U + 0 n → 14058 Ce + +Q
238 1 99
44 Ru

Mass defect ∆m = m( 238

92 U) + m( 0 n ) −
1
m( 140
58 Ce) − m(99
44 Ru)

= 238.05079 + 1.00867 − 139.90543 − 98.90594

= 0.24809 u
326 www.arihantbooks.com

Q-value for the given decay process,

Q = ∆m × 931.5 = 0.24809 × 931.5 = 231.1 MeV
Question 28. Consider the D-T reaction (deuterium-tritium fusion)
2
1H + 13H → 4
2He +n
(a) Calcualte the energy released in MeV in this reaction from the data
m(12 H) = 2.014120 u
m(13 H) = 3.016049 u
(b) Consider the radius of both deuterium and tritium to be
approximately 2.0 fm. What is the kinetic energy needed to
overcome the coulomb repulsion between two nuclei? To what
temperature must the gas be heated to initiate the reaction?
(Hint : Kinetic energy required for one fusion event = Average
thermal kinetic energy available with the interacting particles
= 2( 3 kT / 2); k = Boltzmann’s constant, T = absolute temperature)
Solution (a) The D-T reaction is given by
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 0 n + Q
2 3 4 1

Mass defect ∆m = m( 21H) + m( 31H) − m( 42He) − m( 0 n1)

= 2.014102 + 3.016049 – 4.002603 – 1.00867
= 0.018878 u
Q-value for the given decay process
Q = ∆m × 931 = 0.018878 × 931 = 17.58 MeV
(b) Repulsive potential energy of two nuclei when they almost touch
each other
1 q2 9 × 109 (1.6 × 10−19 )2
U= ⋅ =
4πε0 2r 2 × 2 × 10−15
= 5.76 × 10−14 J
Also we know that kinetic energy required for one fusion event =
average thermal kinetic energy available with the interacting
particles.
3
Kinetic energy = × kT × 2 (Two nuclei)
2
= 3kT
Kinetic energy 5.76 × 10−14
T = =
3k 3 × 1.38 × 10−23
= 1.39 × 109 K
This temperature cannot be achieved in actual behaviour.
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 327

Question 29. Obtain the maximum 198 Au

79
kinetic energy of β-particles, and the –
β1
radiation frequencies of γ decays in the –
β2 1.088 MeV
decay scheme shown. You are given that
m(198 Au) = 197.968233 u γ1 γ3
m(198 Hg) = 197.966760 u 0.412 MeV
γ2
0
Solution The energy corresponding to γ1, 198
80 Hg
E1 = 1.088 − 0 = 1.088 MeV
= 1.088 × 1.6 × 10−13 J
E1 1.088 × 1.6 × 10−13
Frequency for γ1, ν1 = =
h 6.63 × 10−34
= 2.63 × 1020 Hz
The energy corresponding to γ2 ,
E2 = 0.412 − 0 = 0.412 MeV
= 0.412 × 1.6 × 10−13 J
E2 0.412 × 1.6 × 10−13
Frequency for γ2 , ν2 = =
h 6.63 × 10−34
= 9.98 × 1019 Hz
The energy corresponding to γ3 ,
E3 = 1088
. − 0. 412 = 0.676 MeV
= 0.676 × 16. × 10− 13 J
Frequency for γ3 ,
E3 0.676 × 1.6 × 10−13
ν3 = =
h 6.63 × 10−34
ν3 = 164
. × 1020 Hz
Maximum KE of β1,
Kmax (β1) = [ m(79
198
80 Hg] × 931 MeV
Au) − mass of second excited state of 198
= 931 [197.968233 – 197.66760] – 1.088
= 1.371 – 1.088 = 0.283 MeV
Maximum KE of β 2,
Kmax (β2 ) = [ m(198
79 Au) − mass of third excited state of
198
Hg] × 931 MeV
= 931 [197.968233 – 197.66760] – 0.412
= 0.957 MeV
328 www.arihantbooks.com

Question 30. Calculate and compare the energy released by (a) fusion
235
of 1.0 kg of hydrogen deep within sun and (b) the fission of 1.0 kg of U
in a fission reactor.
Solution (a) In sun, four hydrogen nuclei fuse to form a helium nucleus
with release of 26 MeV energy.
Q 1 g of hydrogen contains 6.023 × 1023 nuclei.
∴ Energy released by fusion of 1 kg (=1000 g) of hydrogen
6.023 × 1023 × 26 × 103
E1 = = 39 × 1026 MeV
4
(b) Energy released in one fission of 235
92 U nucleus = 200 MeV.
Mass of uranium = 1 kg = 1000 g
We know that 235 g of 235 U has 6.023 × 1023 atoms or nuclei.
∴ Energy released in fission of 1 kg of U235 ,
6.023 × 1023 × 1000 × 200
E2 =
235
E2 = 51
. × 1026 MeV
E1 39 × 1026
∴ = = 7.65 ≈ 8
E2 51 . × 1026
Thus, the energy released in fusion is 8 times the energy released in
fission.
Question 31. Suppose India had a target of producing by 2020 AD,
200000 MW of electric power, ten percent of which was to be obtained
from nuclear power plants. Suppose we are given that, on an average, the
efficiency of utilization (i. e., conversion to electric energy) of thermal
energy produced in a reactor was 25%. How much amount of fissionable
uranium would our country need per year by 2020? Take the heat energy
per fission of 235 U to be about 200 MeV.
Solution Total target power = 200000 = 2 × 105 MW
Total nuclear power = 10% of total
10
= × 2 × 105 = 2 × 104 MW
100
Energy produced/fission = 200 MeV
Efficiency of power plant = 25%
Energy converted into electrical energy per fission
25
= × 200 = 50 MeV
100
. × 10− 13 J
= 50 × 16
Total electrical energy to be produced in per year
= 2 × 104 MW = 2 × 104 × 106 W
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 329

= 2 × 1010 W = 2 × 1010 J/s

= 2 × 1010 × 60 × 60 × 24 × 365 J/yr.
2 × 1010 × 60 × 60 × 24 × 365
Number of fission in one year, n =
. × 10− 13
50 × 16
2 × 36 × 24 × 365
n= × 1024
8
Mass of 6.023 ×1023 atoms of 235 U = 235 g = 235 × 10− 3 kg
2 × 36 × 24 × 365
Mass of 235
92 U required to produce × 1024 atom
8
235 × 10− 3 × 2 × 36 × 24 × 365 × 1024
=
6.023 × 1023 × 8
= 3.08 × 104 kg
Thus, the mass of uranium needed per year is 3.08 × 104 kg.

Selected NCERT Exemplar Problems

Question 1. Why do stable nuclei never have more protons than
neutrons?
Solution Because the protons are positively charged and repel each
other. This repulsion force is more, so that an excess of neutrons are
required to reduce this repulsion.
Question 2. Consider a radioactive nucleus A, which decays to a stable
nucleus C through the following sequence
A→ B→ C
Here, B is an intermediate nuclei, which is also radioactive. Considering
that there are N 0 atoms of A initially, plot the graph showing the variation
of number of atoms of A and B versus time.
Solution At t = 0, N A = N0 (maximum)
while N B = 0. As time increases, N A A B
No. of atoms

decreases exponentially and the number of

atoms of B increases. They becomes (N B )
maximum and finally drop to zero
exponentially by radioactive decay law.
Time
Question 3. A piece of wood from the
ruins of an ancient building was found to have a 14 C activity of
12 disintegrations per minute per gram of its carbon content. The 14 C
activity of the living wood is 16 disintegrations per minute per gram. How
330 www.arihantbooks.com

lond ago did the tree, from which the wooden sample came, die? Given
half-life of 14 C is 5760 yr.
Solution Given, R = 12 dis/min per g
R0 = 16 dis/min per g
T1/ 2 = 5760 yr
Let t be the time span of the tree.
According to radioactive decay law,
R = R0 e − λt
R
or = e −λt
R0
R0
or e λt =
R
Taking log on both the sides
R0
λt log e e = log e
R
 16
λt =  log10  × 2.303
 12
2.303 (log 4 − log 3)
t=
λ
2.303 (0.6020 − 4.771) × 5760  0.6931
= Q λ = 
0.6931  T1/ 2 
= 2391.20 yr
Question 4. Are the nucleons fundamental particles or do they consist
of still smaller parts? One way to find out is to probe a nucleon just as
Rutherford probed an atom. What should be the kinetic energy of an
electron for it to be able to probe a nucleon? Assume the diameter of a
nucleon to be approximately 10 −15 m.
Solution Each particle (neutron and proton) present inside the nucleus
is called a nucleon.
Let λ be the wavelength λ = 10−15 m
To detect separate parts inside a nucleon, the electron must have
wavelength less than 10−15 m.
We know that
h
λ= and KE = PE …(i)
p
hc
Energy = …(ii)
λ
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 331

From Eq. (i) and Eq. (ii)

hc 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
kinetic energy of electron = PE = = eV
λ 10−15 × 1.6 × 10−19
KE = 109 eV

Question 5. Sometimes a radioactive nucleus decays into a nucleus

which itself is radioactive. An example is
half -life half -life
38
Sulphur → 38
Cl → 38
Ar (stable)
= 2.48 h = 0.62 h
Assume that we start with 1000 38 S nuclei at time t = 0. The number of
38
Cl is of count zero at t = 0 and will again be zero at t = ∞. At what value
of t, would the number of counts be a maximum?
Solution Let at any time t, 38 S have N1 active nuclei and 38
Cl have N2
active nuclei.
dN1
We know that = − λ 1N1 = Rate of formation of Cl38
dt
dN2
= − λ 1N1 − λ 2 N2
dt
But N1 = N0 e −λ 1 t
dN2
∴ = − λ 1N0 e − λ 1 t − λ 2 N2 …(i)
dt
dN2 = − λ 1N0 e − λ 1 t dt − λ 2 N2 dt
Multiplying both sides by e λ 2 t ,
e λ 2 t dN2 + λ 2 N2 e λ 2 t ⋅ dt + λ 1 ⋅ N0 e( λ 2 − λ 1 )t = 0
Integrating, ∫ λ 1N0 e( λ 2 − λ 1 )t dt + ∫ d(N2 e λ 2 t ) = 0

λ 1N0 e( λ 2 − λ 1 )t
N2 e λ 2 t + =C
(λ 2 − λ 1)
λ 1N0
At t = 0, N2 = 0 0+ =C
λ2 − λ1
λ 1N0
∴ N2 e λ 2 t + [ e( λ 2 − λ 1 )t − 1] = 0
(λ 2 − λ 1)
N  λ1
e λ2 t +  0  [ e( λ 2 − λ 1 )t − 1] = 0 …(ii)
 N2  (λ 2 − λ 1)
dN2
For maximum count, =0
dt
∴ λ 1N0 e − λ 1 t − λ 2 N2 = 0 [From Eq. (i)]
332 www.arihantbooks.com

N0 λ
= − 2 e λ1 t
N2 λ1
From Eq. (ii),
λ2 λ1
e λ2 t − ⋅ e λ 1 t [ e( λ 2 − λ 1 )t − 1] = 0
λ 1 (λ 1 − λ 1)
λ2 λ2
or e λ2 t − e λ2 t + e λ1 t = 0
(λ 2 − λ 1) λ2 − λ1
λ2 λ2
1− + e( λ 1 − λ 2 )t = 0
(λ 2 − λ 1 ) (λ 2 − λ 1)
λ2 λ2
e( λ 1 − λ 2 )t = −1
(λ 2 − λ 1) (λ 2 − λ 1)
λ
e( λ 1 − λ 2 )t = 1
λ2
 λ 
t =  log 1  (λ 1 − λ 2 )
 λ2 
 2.48
log e  
 0.62  0.693
= λ = 
2.48 − 0.62  T1/ 2 
log e 4 2.303 × 2 × 0.3010
= =
1.86 1.86
= 0.745 s
Question 6. Deuteron is a bound state of a neutron and a proton with a
binding energy B = 2.2 MeV. A γ-ray of energy E is aimed at a deuteron
nucleus to try to break it into a (neutron + proton) such that the n and p
move in the direction of the incident γ-ray. If E = B, show that this cannot
happen. Hence, calculate how much bigger than B must E be for such a
process to happen?
Solution Binding energy B = 2.2 MeV
From the energy conservation law,
p2n p2p
E − B = Kn + Kp = + …(i)
2m 2m
From conservation of momentum
E
pn + pp = …(ii)
c
As E = B, Eq. (i) p2n + p2p = 0
It only happen if pn = pp = 0
So, the Eq. (ii) cannot satisfied and the process cannot take place.
Let E = B + X , where X << B for the process to take place
 NCERT Class XII Physics Solutions 333

Put value of pn from Eq. (ii) in Eq. (i), we get

2
E 
 − pp p2p
c 
X = +
2m 2m
2Epp E2
or −
2p2p + 2 − 2mX = 0
c c
Using the formula of quadratic equation, we get
2E 4E2  E2 
± − 8  2 − 2mX 
c c2
c 
pP =
4
For the real value Pp, the discriminant is positive
4E2 E 
= 8 2 − 2mX 
c2  c2 
4E2
16mX =
c2
E2 ~ B2
X = −
4mc2 4mc2