EXCLUSION
Edited by
DINESHA P.T
The views and opinion expressed in this book is author own and the facts
reported by them have been verified to the extent possible and the
publishers are not in any way liable for the same.
ISBN: 978-81-923619-1-8
Price: 1200/-
Published by
Spring Leaf Publications
Vinayaka Nagar, Mysore -570 012
Phone No: 8105806756
Email: jythidcn@gmail.com
ii
FOREWORD
As per Census of India 2011, there are 7,935 towns in the country. The
number of towns has increased by 2,774 since last Census. The total number
of Urban Agglomerations/Towns, which constitutes the urban frame, is
6166 in the country. Already the number of metropolitan cities with
population of 1 million and above has increased from 35 in 2001 to 50 in
2011 and is expected to increase further to 87 by 2031. The cities in India are
projecting immense development with sky scrapers, fancy flyovers, massive
shopping malls and multiplexes. However, what are co-existing are
problem of poverty, inequality of income, exclusion, lack of basic
infrastructural facilities etc., in urban areas. In India, most studies on
poverty, exclusion, inequality have been centered on the rural areas and
urban areas have received little attention of the policy makers and
academicians. Though, both rural and urban areas struggle with the
developmental problems the picture of urban poverty and exclusion is
unique.
It is revealed that, despite various policies and programmes since
independence, including recent policies, the situation of urban poor is still
not improved up to a satisfactory level due to numerous reasons. It is,
therefore, at this level that social justice and equity issues need to be
addressed in order to create a fair and just social order that will bring
harmony in economic and societal relations. The caste anonymity of
migrants is not enough to allow access to all urban spaces as their social
profiling restricts entry to most of these enclaves and urban spaces in India
have become notorious for being the silent propagators of discrimination
and marginalization. I hope this volume also facilitate to develop some
information and analysis on theoretical understanding and practical
implications of various inclusive urban development initiatives. I take this
opportunity to congratulate Dr. Dinesha P T, and other colleagues of the
CSSEIP centre for this vital volume which will be an added asset to the
existing knowledge.
iii
FROM THE EDITORS DESK
There are many reasons for urban poverty, exclusion and inequality,
which have become the hurdle for the inclusive urban development. One of
the important constraints that poor people face to come out of poverty is
lack of access to credit. It is argued that in spite of large network of finance
companies, urban cooperative societies, private and public sector banks,
ATMs that exist in cities, many of the poor find their financial needs largely
unmet due to many reasons like lack of documentation (permanent
address, ration card, voter card etc) irregular incomes and low degree of
comfort in visiting banks for transactions etc. Migration from the rural to
urban area also adds to problem of urban poverty and social and financial
exclusion. As the number of migrants increase, so does the index of
poverty. The poor do manage to find some work, but it is either not regular
or in the unregulated sector with no guarantee of minimum wages and
number of working hours. Unsecured employment or no employment force
the urban poor to eke out a living somehow. All these problems ultimately
lead to inequality in income and poverty. Hence, there is an urgent need to
find solutions to these problems. In this context the need of the hour is to
discuss the urban problems in-depth and give geographically compatible
and divergent policy measures to bring urban poor and excluded sections
into mainstream development. In this moment we would like to thank
ICSSR and university Mysore for their support. We hope this conference
volume will provide a common platform for current discussion, sharing
ideas, exploring reasons for inequality, social exclusion, financial exclusion,
poverty, lack of basic infrastructural facilities etc. We would like to express
my heartfelt thanks to all the authors who have enriched the book by
contributing their learned papers. I also thank Prof..K.S.Rangappa,
Hon.Vice Chancellor and Prof..Rajanna, Hon. Registrar, University of
Mysore, Mysore for their never ending encouragement and logistic support.
I thank to Dr.Nanjunda and Dr.Siddaraju V.G faculty members, Research
Assistants and Non-Teaching Staff of CSSEIP, University of Mysore for
their support. I acknowledge all others who have supported and assisted
directly and indirectly for completion of this work. I also grateful to the
Spring Leaf Publications Mysore, Manish DTP Centre Mysore and Sri
Annapurna Printers, Mysore Karnataka for publishing this edited volume.
Editor
Dr. Dinesha P.T
iv
CONTENTS
v
11 Migration and Growth of Urban Population in Karnataka 90-99
-Nagaraj M Muggur
vi
22 Exclusion, Poverty And Inequality In Urban India 176-179
An Analysis
-M.D.Umesha
ix
List of Contributors
Bhadoria, 4th year Bsl LLB, ILS Law College, Pune, Maharashtra.
Jayesh Hariramani, 4th year Bsl LLB, ILS Law College, Pune,
Maharashtra, Govind
xi
Kiran Kumar P, Dr. Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Rani
Channamma University, S.R Kanthi P.G Centre, S.C Nandimath Law
College Premises, Anubhava Sangama, Bagalkot , Karnataka
xii
Naveen.G.V, Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, Karnataka
State Open University, Mysuru, Karnataka.
xiii
Santhosh Areekuzhiyil, Assistant Professor in Educational Psychology,
Government Brennen College of Teacher Education Thalassery, Kannur.
Kerala
xiv
Vaishnavi Vasanth, 3rdYr B.A.,LL.B. Bangalore Institute of Legal
Studies Bangalore, Karnataka
xv
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Devendraraj M
Introduction:
The concepts of social exclusion and inclusion have been widely
discussed in both policy and academic arenas for the last two decades. The
concepts and definitions of social exclusion vary according to countries,
communities and social groups. And also, it varies according to time. De Haan
(1999) defined social exclusion as ‘the process through which individuals or
groups are wholly or partially excluded from full participation in the society
within which they live’. Miller, J (2007) stated the need to understand the
dynamics of social exclusion and the need to measure social exclusion
according to social indicators overtime. Social inclusion refers to a policy
designed to ensure that all people are able to participate in society regardless
of their background or specific characteristics, which may include: language,
culture, gender, disability, social status, age, and other factors. The goal of
social inclusion is to give all people an equal chance for participation in
society.
1
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
2
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
3
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
stated that there is a wide evidence that large number of eligible children and
beneficiaries do not avail, deny, exclude, discriminate the utilization of the
Integrated Child Development Scheme in India due to their caste, religion,
location, race, disability and other social and economic reasons. This study
analyzed whether social exclusionary factors that deny community
participation in ICDS and explored about the ways to interconnect social
inclusion and community participation in urban blocks of ICDS. The proper
understanding, awareness and satisfaction regarding ICDS are indispensable
for the participation of community with this scheme. So, this study also
analyzed about the awareness, perception and satisfaction of the community
about this scheme in those blocks. The research was conducted to address the
following research questions. i) Are there any social barriers that disrupt the
urban community for good social inclusiveness and effective participation
towards ICDS? If yes, does it results to the social exclusion of any social
groups in the community? ii) What are the influences and mutual impacts
between community participation and social inclusion of the community
towards the scheme?
4
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Research methods
Case-study research design method was adopted to conduct the study as it is
most suitable to collect collecting both quantitative and qualitative data. It
allows flexibility and simplicity in the data collection (Eisenhardt, K M, 1989).
The method adopted to conduct this study is both quantitative and qualitative.
The author adopted a fixed schedule to cover each centre. The parents
whoever are available during this period were interviewed by the researcher.
By adopting this strategy, the researcher was able to collect the data from
around 60 respondents. Also, the author conducted interviews with the
Anganwadi teacher and the worker of the particular centre. It should be noted
that this paper selectively and partially utilized the data that comes from both
methods. The primary data (quantitative) was analyzed in SPSS software and
the results are interpreted. The primary data (qualitative) was sorted in excel
sheets and the results were manually interpreted. This paper selectively
utilizes the primary data and the discussions are made on the basis of the
findings that come from that data.
5
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
6
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Concluding discussion
It is understood that mostly the people who belong to the lower strata of the
society are the main target groups of this scheme. This study shows that the
people who belong to the lower strata of the society are not ready to
participate for the effective implementation of this scheme as they are daily
wage labourers. At maximum, they can participate in any small meetings at
weekend days in the ICDS centres and they can convey their needs to the
7
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Anganwadi workers. Apart from that, they don’t have any ideas to render
their participation towards the scheme. The research shows that this scheme
(ICDS) approach all the sections of the people in the community through same
policies and guidelines. Though this approach takes care all the sections of the
society, some more social inclusionary policies are necessary to include the
marginal urban communities and the ‘poorest’ section of the society. This
article urges the need to conduct more researches to understand ‘social
inclusion’ in ICDS that will lead to provide high quality innovative strategies.
Moreover, this will open the path to future researchers in the area of
community involvement in framing social welfare schemes, the role of social
capital and the need to include social inclusionary measures to ensure the
participation of marginal strata of urban community in ICDS.
References:
De Haan, A 1999. Social Exclusion: Towards an Holistic Understanding of Deprivation,
Social Development Department, Dissemination Note No. 2, Department for
International Development, London, U.K.
Dilip Diwakar G, 2014. Addressing utilization of the ICDS programme in Tamil
Nadu, India: how class and caste matters. International Journal of Sociology and
Social Policy, Vol. 34:3/4, 166 – 180/
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of
Management Review, 14 (4), 532–550.
Harsh Mander & Kumaran, M, 2005. Social Exclusion in ICDS: A Sociological
Whodunit? Retrieved from
ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/food/resource/res15071101.
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme. Ministry of Women and
Child Development Website, Government of India. Retrieved from
http://wcd.nic.in/icds.html
ICDS Scheme in Tamil Nadu. Retrieved from Department of Social Welfare and
NMP, Government of Tamil Nadu Website: http://icds.tn.nic.in
Kaveri Gill, 2012. Promoting ‘Inclusiveness’: A Framework for Assessing India’s
Flagship Social Welfare Programmes. UNICEF India. New Delhi.
Mamgain Rajendra P and G. Dilip Diwakar, 2012. ‘Elimination of identity-based
discrimination in food and nutrition programs in India’, IDS Bulletin, Vol. 43,
Special issue, July 2012, pp-25-31
Millar, J., 2007. Social Exclusion and Social Policy Research: Defining Exclusion.
In: Abrams, D., Christian, D. and Gordon, D., eds. Multidisciplinary handbook of
social exclusion research. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 1-16.
National Council of Applied Economic Research, 2001. Concurrent Evaluation of
the ICDS. (Vol, 1). New Delhi. Retrieved from.
8
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
http://www.sccommissioners.org/News/Documents/ICDS_Literature-Survey-
on-ICDS.pdf
NIPCCD, 2006. National evaluation of Integrated Child Development services,
New Delhi.
NIPCCD, 2009. Research on ICDS: An Overview (1996-2008) - Volume 3. Ministry
of Women & Child Development. Retrieved from NIPCCD website.
Policy note, 2013. Government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved from minister for social
welfare and nutritious meal programme department.
UNICEF, 2011. The Situation of Children in India: A Profile. New Delhi.
Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org
Note: The present paper comes from the M.Phil research work of the author. The
primary data of this research was collected for about 2 months in the years 2011
and 2012.
9
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
2
Urban Exclusion and Social Stigma: A Case Study of
Pettipalam Colony in Thalassery Municipality, Kerala.
Jyothsna E P
Introduction
This paper attempts to look at the everyday living condition of the people of
Pettipalam colony in the outskirts of Thalassery municipality in Kannur district
of Kerala, whose lives are made miserable by the waste dumping site of the
municipality. In the municipality’s efforts at greater urbanization, modernity
and aesthetic town development, a few communities have been pushed to the
peripheries; exclusion from the urban center and its amenities have pushed
these populations to inhabit the available wasteland in the suburbs, thus
forming a congested urban slum where urban wastes and refuse get dumped. In
approaching the issue of social exclusion arising out of urban development and
beautification, this grass root level empirical study attempts a critical
engagement with the living condition of the affected people of Pettipalam and
the everyday practices of waste management of the Thalassery municipality, in
the context of revised rules and policies of waste management.
10
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
municipality to resettle them when they were dislocated from the railway
precincts on account of urban developments initiated in the area and the rest of
the people are in the single huts.
Data collection was done through various anthropological techniques like
Observation, Interview and case studies. Secondary sources were also utilised to
interpret data on the topic and to understand existing rules and regulations
regarding waste management and practical problems if any, in complying with
the rules.
11
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
12
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
beneficiary funds, only five flats have been built. This shows the insufficient
housing for these dislocated people.
Of the total population of 392 in the puramboke land, only 371 people are literate,
most of them female (221). Bachelor degree is the highest educational level in the
community. Most of these people have no stable occupation. Now the source of
income has changed; from begging in trains, they have moved to diverse
occupations like fishing, wage labor, driver, head load worker, bookkeepers in
shops, nurse, washer men, domestic labor, making of soaps and detergent
powders, organizing themselves into self-help groups. Some people collect old
clothes from houses and sell these second-hand clothes on the wayside. In the
household survey both male and female are income generators, majority of
household heads are female, and they bring income to the family. The male
members are getting income, but a major chunk of their income is being spent for
alcohol, drugs and smoking. Majority of the people in this new formed colony are
Muslims, but some Hindus and three Christian households are there. Inter-
marriages happen.
The living setting has a vital role in the health of the community especially in the
slums. If living environment is poor, this will get reflected in the poor health of the
people (Gangadharan, 2008). The community’s health condition is very poor; one
year back, all people in the colony had fever. Water from polluted pools used for
drinking and bathing cause spread of diseases. Eighty percentages of all human
diseases are linked to unsafe water, poor sanitation and lack of basic knowledge of
hygiene. According to Donaldson (1976), the health status of inner urban area is
worse compared to the urban centers with their problem of unemployment,
overcrowding, air pollution etc.
13
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
For more than 140 years continuously, Thalassery has been dumping its waste in
the trenching ground near the Pettipalam in New Mahe Panchayat. When
originally that practice began the area was a sterile uninhabited land, population
very low also in the surrounding areas and wastes were not so hazardous as it is
today because most of the wastes then were food waste, paper etc., all degradable
wastes. They used this land as a trenching ground. There were no environmental
concerns then. Later the population increased in that area, and also the amount of
waste dumped here increased due to the increase in industries, hotels and
hospitals in Thalassery and the discard of plastics is very high. The plastic waste
from hotels, plastic bags, covers etc. and the disposable syringes, bottles, blood
and urine bags, catheters, surgical gloves, etc used in healthcare are mixed into the
compostable ones. The mixing of waste causes foul smell besides spread of
epidemics. 30-35 tons of waste per day is dumped in the trenching ground. People
living in surrounding areas complain of many health problems like lung disease
and asthma and most of the diseases increase in the rainy season. Both
municipality wastes and some of the hospital liquid wastes are dumped in the
coastal region where most of the people are engaged in fishing. During fishing,
many times, instead of fish, they catch waste in their nets. Due to the toxic wastes
in water fishes are becoming extinct. Thus, this waste disposal is also affecting
their livelihood.
Pettipalam residents also complain that they are facing the problem of drinking
water. Of the nine public taps, only five are working, and quarrels for water are
frequent. The public tap water is not only uncertain, but also its quality is suspect
due to its yellow color. When there is water scarcity, people have to cut across the
National highway and the railway line to collect water from the public well that is
located one k.m away from their settlement. In open wells in the area water purity
is said to have decreased. This too leads to many health problems.
14
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
community of Pettipalam colony did not participate in the agitation because they
were “outsiders” who in-migrated to Kerala and got settled in the municipality
puramboke land and somehow did not feel the exclusion. For a migrant nomadic
population from diverse and difficult backgrounds, settling in Pettipalam as a
community might have been inclusion, however peripheral.
23 Years old woman named Jisha shared with me the difficulties she faced during
her pregnancy periods and delivery. She was carrying twins and there was
deficiency of amniotic fluid in her sac. It caused complications and she gave birth
in the seventh month of her pregnancy. There was no toilet facility in her home.
They go to seashore early in the morning, preferably before four ‘o’ clock, for open
defecation, to avoid the fishermen who might be out for fishing. During
pregnancy period also, the need to go to seashore for defecation, made her control
her eating. As she used clothes during her menstrual periods, scarcity of water
made her not to change the blood stained clothes frequently. They use diapers for
babies due to the problem of having to wash napkins and throw the soiled diapers
into the sea.
15
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Kerala Municipality Act 1994 and the Panchayat Raj Act 1994 (together they may
be called the LSGB [Local Self – government Body] Acts)), clearly point out that it
is the duty of LSGBs to ensure proper sanitation and a clean and safe environment.
LSGBs also have rights regarding the waste generated in the Panchayat or
municipalities. Nevertheless, many Panchayats and Municipalities fail to rise up to
this responsibility due to various factors. The Environment Ministry has revised
Solid Waste Management Rules after 16 years. The Rules are now applicable
beyond Municipal areas and extend to urban agglomerations, census towns,
notified industrial townships, areas under the control of Indian Railways, airports,
airbase, port and harbor, defense establishments, special economic zones, State
and Central government organizations, places of pilgrims, religious & historical
importance. According to revised policy of municipal solid waste management,
any person who generates the waste is the only responsible person to manage it
properly. If it is not possible to find proper space for waste management system
the concerned authorities-- local self-government, municipality or co-operation—
have to arrange the facility and give proper guidance. The LSGs can take any
action against improper any waste management practices of the public.
The Thalassery municipality presently does not collect any degradable waste.
Since July 1, 2016, the municipality has started plastic collection from households,
having coordinated with a private recycling center at Mysore. The municipality
banned plastic cover below 20 microns in 2012, but still hotels and shops are using
plastic bags but no action according to the policy is taken. Presently 40 tones
plastics are collected per month in the municipality. The municipality has started
to supply pipe composting plant and bio- gas plant for managing degradable
waste. Presently 5200 pipes for composting and 500 bio-gas plants are distributed
through subsidy. This is a first step for reducing waste from municipality. But this
project does not seem to have succeeded as most of the bio gas plants are not
working well and some of them are dysfunctional, as gathered during my field
study. People say that as all food waste cannot be put in these pipes and as
removal process is difficult, they do not use pipe compost. In the case of slaughter
houses, hotels and restaurants there are no treatment facilities; some restaurant
owners say that it is the duty of the workers to dispose waste and that they do not
know where waste is dumped. The slaughter houses prefer two ways of waste
management; one is pig farms and other is to pay people to manage waste some
way or the other. Thus, even the revised waste management policy has not
16
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Conclusion
The citizens in urban centers increase their quality of life at the expense of
the excluded communities who are denied even a basic quality of living. These
excluded, like in Pettipalam colony, are denied their basic needs and excluded
from the urban center and its amenities such as safe water supply, sewage and
sanitation and clean toilets. The Pettipalam community has poor housing and poor
living environment, amidst the municipality dumping site. Of the affected
populations those who are economically sound alone have started to protest the
municipality’s waste management system, others severely affected, have not
participated in this. They continue to live the stigma of an excluded population
living amidst waste mostly generated elsewhere, and witnessing the aesthetic and
sanitizing urban center nearby.
References
Donaldson. K.J. (1976) Urban and suburban differentials in co-carter and john
peel (eds). Equalities and inequalities in health. London. Academic press.
Gangadharan.k.2008.health and living environment in urban slum: a micro level
analysis. Delhi. Manglam publications.
India census report 2011. http://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/803263-
thalassery-
Ministry of Environment and Forest Notification, “Municipal Solid Wastes
(Management and
Handling) Rules, 2000.
Misra. S.G. and Prasad D. 1992. Environmental pollution, solid waste. New Delhi.
Venus publishing house.
Solid Waste Management Rules in India Revised after 16 Years: new rule
2016.http://www.miscw.com/solid-waste-management-rules-india-revised-16-
years-new-rule-says-6326.html.
17
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
3
Issue of Marginalization, Exclusion and Poverty Of Dalits
In Urban Sanitation Occupation
Kalidas Khobragade
Introduction
The urban life has made it possible for a large number of its inhabitants
to go through the processes of Sanskritisation for enhanced status (Srinivas
1966), acquisition of wealth and consumption, educational achievements,
socio-religious reformism and new social networks (Osella and Gardner 2004).
Urbanization has brought about a considerable degree of occupational
mobility and change (Sharda 1991: 262). The exposure to new places, ideas and
practices has led to the questioning of existing forms of hierarchy or a
reinvention of the self place within the social order. One of the major
drawbacks of the form of urbanization in India is that it has contributed to
enlargement of social contradictions. It led to massive migration of rural poor
to cities without their integration in the urban-industrial economy (Jain: 2002).
The volume of urban poor living in slums of the cities has increased
tremendously
With the growth of urbanization, where an estimated 27 percent of the
population now live in the cities, both the ideology and organization of the
traditional caste system have seen some changes. Nonetheless, caste exhibits
its adaptability under the transformed conditions of urban life in India. It has
been claimed that traditional Indian social institutions such as the caste and
joint family have not disappeared under the modernizing influences of urban
life, but adapted themselves to changing conditions (Kosambi 1994). The
blatant display of untouchability is not manifested in urban areas but is
practiced with sophisticated concealment in a variety of ingenious ways
(Krishnan 2002: 279). the experience of segregation and exclusion of the ex-
untouchables in rural life were not reversed in the urban context. They were
absorbed almost entirely in poorly paid, menial, and low status service jobs.
Caste divisions prevalent in the rural situation were replicated in urban areas,
notwithstanding the relaxation of direct caste domination in employment
18
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
relations. The caste distinctions were not eradicated in the crucial area of
employment opportunities. can city life wipe out differences caused by
gender, caste, race or culture, where a large majority of its population is
marginalized and excluded based on differences and inherent inequalities.
A large number of poor and the ex-untouchables have remained excluded
from liberating modern processes and continue to experience deprivations.
Nevertheless, it provided environment to the marginalized, conducive for the
construction of cultural and social identities. The poverty and its dimension
involve inequality, injustice, insecurity, vulnerability, discrimination,
powerlessness, marginalization and exclusion. The poverty causes due to not
only economic background but also causes from such inequality, human
rights, entitlement. (Parsuraman 2003, 3)
19
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
inequality and dignity. The hindu social order was mythical and unwritten
legal document which people are separated from one another by hierarchal
status of caste and varnas (Louic 2002). The exclusion of the dalit is on
traditional occupational slavery which causes inequality and vulnerability to
untouchables. By this occupational degradation of dalit more oppressed in
dominated by higher caste (Alam, 2004,xvvi).
20
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
identified on the caste association and their habitat style. Hence, the caste
identity is one of a factor of Indian social culture and it has strong connectivity
with their livelihood and rights (Alam 2004). The modern Indian politics has
based on caste voting and identified as caste politics. Dalit or ex-untouchables
are oppressed caste group outcome from with different socio-political
background ( Omvedt 1995). Caste identity of oppressed and untouchables as
Dalit was very different socio-economical background in Indian social
structure. Dalit is not the name of caste but is the identity of caste where they
divided into different caste into sub-caste based on in caste system (Shah A M
2002). The concept of daily is struggling for revolution and change in socio-
economic life. (Zelliot 2001)
21
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
22
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
23
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
This paper have objective to study the marginalization. exclusion and poverty
of the dalit in urban sanitation occupation. The present paper used the
empirical research method based on primary and secondary data. The
research area of this study is done in Pune Municipal Corporation.
Caste in city and economic condition
The caste practice are more exploitative nature and dalits are victim of the
caste practices and faced the discrimination and untouchability in all sphere of
the life. Out of the all respondent 83% sanitation worker said that no change in
the caste practices in city, 5% sanitation worker said that caste practices are not
in city, 11% sanitation respondent are replied the somewhat caste practices are
in city and 1% said city does not forger the caste practices and untouchability.
The economic condition of sanitation worker are responsible for the poverty
and practices of the caste. 67% safai karmachari are said from the respondent
have same condition in sanitation work, 29% sanitation worker said they have
perceives the economic condition than past in this occupation those who are
working permanently in PMC, 4% are said can’t said about their economic
condition.
24
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
16000-20000 17 17 17
21000-25000 10 10 10
26000-30000 05 05 05
Total 100 100 100
25
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
26
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
easily accessible to slum dalits and which they had monopoly or 100%
reservation in sanitation work of PMC. The privatization of sanitation work
organised the informal sector in PMC. The large section of safai karmachari
community experience is increasing vulnerability in urban area and labour
market due to lack of education and poverty in dalit.
Variable Cording Frequency Percentage Total
category
Atrocity Yes 95 95 95
No 05 05 05
Total 100 100 100
Yes 65 65 65
Pressure of No 35 35 35
work Total 100 100 100
Forced Yes 52 52 52
employment No 48 48 48
Total 100 100 100
Equal Yes 00 00 00
Treatment No 100 100 100
Total 100 100 100
Raising of Yes 08 08 08
issues No 92 92 92
Total 100 100 100
Harassment of Yes 95 95 95
women No 05 05 05
Total 100 100 100
References
Ambedkar B R. "Writings and Speeches" Vol.S, On Untouchables and
Untouchability, Bombay: Government of Maharashtra (1954)
Anandhi, S. 1995 .. Contending Identities: Dalits and Secular Politics in
Madras Slums, New Delhi: Indian Social Institute and Sudha Pai (eds.),
Democratic Governance in India - Challengesof Poverty,
Beteille, Andre.2002. 'Hierarchical and Competitive Inequality', Sociological
Bulletin, 51 (1), March, Pp.6
Bhalla, A. and F. Lapeyre. 1997. 'Social Exclusion: towards an Analytical and
Operational Framework', Development and Change, Vol. 28, Pp. 413-433
Chaudhary, S.N. 2000. Occupationally Mobile Scavengers, Delhi: Har- Anand
Chicago: University of Chicago Press
27
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
28
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4
Urban Poverty in India and the Role of Microfinance:
Issues and Suggestions
Kiran Kumar P
Introduction
Economic development and urbanization are closely interlinked and the
urban cities in India are contributing 60 percent of country’s GDP, thus
urbanization has been recognized as an important component of economic
growth. However, the labour force is falling into poverty in urban areas due to
lack of housing and shelter, water, sanitation, education, health, social security
and livelihoods. 27.8 per cent of the country’s population comprising 285.4
million people lives in urban areas. India’s urban population grew by 31.2 per
cent during the decade 1991-2001 which is significantly higher than the rural
rate of 17.9 per cent. Population projections by the United Nations indicate
that by 2030, India’s urban population will grow to 538 million with more than
half of the total population living in urban areas (United Nations, 2005).
Poverty is one of the bottlenecks of development and at the same time
alleviation of poverty is recently recognized as the primary objective that a
development process shall pursue, especially in developing countries. More
than one billion people live on less than a dollar a day in the world and such
higher level is partly ascribed to increase of poverty in the last generation. The
most important constraint that poor people face to come out of poverty is lack
of access to credit to run their own businesses. Complementary to this
microfinance through self help groups proving good in alleviating poverty by
providing easy and affordable credit facilities to the poor and become an
effective strategy of financial inclusion in rural India. However, while rural
areas account for up to 95% of current microfinance outreach in India, its cities
are under served i.e outreach of microfinance activities in urban India is much
less compared to rural areas. Hence, urban poor feel forced to rely on informal
credit from moneylenders who demands interest as high as 10% per day from
borrowers. In spite of large network of bank branches and ATMs that exist in
cities, many of the poor find their financial needs largely unmet due to lack of
documentation, regular incomes, and a low degree of comfort in visiting banks
29
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
30
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
31
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
facilities to those who have been excluded from commercial financial services,
has been promoted as a key strategy for reducing poverty in all its forms by
agencies all over the world. Microcredit has been defined as “programmes that
provide credit for self-employment and other financial and business services
(including savings and technical assistance) to very poor persons” (Micro
Credit Summit, 1997). Nowadays, microfinance represents something more
than microcredit - it also refers to savings, insurance, pawns and remittances,
in sum to a much wider range of financial services (Tankha, 1999). The basic
idea of microfinance is that poor people are ready and are willing to pull
themselves out of poverty if given access to economic inputs. Micro-finance is
a new development in which Indian institutions have acquired considerable
expertise and where up-scaling holds great promise both to expand the nature
of financial services offered to micro enterprises and to make these the
springboard for entrepreneurial development (Planning Commission, 2006
and Christabell and Vimal Raj 2012).
32
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
33
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
34
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
the goal is to hire and retain field staff in the urban space where demanding
work of this nature is not particularly glamorous when compared with
office jobs. There is a need to hire female field staffs not only to meet staffing
needs but also to develop an even further supportive environment for
women (CMR: 2006). Problem of migration is a major problem faced by
urban microfinance industry. Ujjivan (A leading microfinance institution in
India) had adopted a new strategy to handle this problem. That is it added a
residency requirement stating that clients must have lived in an area for a
certain period of time prior to joining the group. As cities expand and new
cities are developed, special care will have to be taken to ensure that there is
room for economically weaker sections alongside the higher income groups
in the urban areas. Rental markets for low income housing will have to be
developed. There is also need for promoting access to home-ownership
through necessary interventions in the market for low income housing
(GOI: 2011b). There is a need to develop new poverty reduction tools and
approaches to attack the multi-dimensional issues of urban poverty (CMR:
2006).
Conclusions
Micro Credit to the urban poor is strongly evincing interest from all
quarters of the sector; this is an excellent opportunity to help improve the
livelihoods of a vast majority requiring these services. At the same time, it is
also an opportunity to build strong and sustainable MFIs specializing in
catering to the financial needs of the urban poor. Microfinance is
considered to be a valuable tool for the alleviation of poverty around the
globe and urban poverty, in absolute terms, is far too huge for micro finance
to make a sizeable dent. Moreover, it is pointed out by critics that funds
obtained from micro credit are often employed on domestic necessities, such
as marriage or cost of hospitalization and not on profit generating activity.
Hence it can at best be a community lending activity without an adequate
rate of return or an agent of profit generation. But, it is accepted that micro
finance is still in its nascent stages in India and given the right fillip, can
metamorphose into a bigger activity in the urban areas.
35
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
References
Asian Development Bank (2011): Understanding the Poverty in India
Centre for Microfinance Research (CMR) (2006): Reaching the Other 100
Million Poor in India: Case Studies in Urban Microfinance, Chennai.
GOI: (2011): Census of India, Provisional Populations Total, Census of India,
2011
GOI: (2011b): Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services, Ministry of
Urban Development, Government of India
NABARD (2011): ‘Status of Microfinance in India’, 2010-11, Mumbai, India.
Rachel Bergenfield (2010): The Urban Market Potential, Centre for
Microfinance Research
Srinivasan, (2009): Microfinance India: State of the Sector Report 2008, Sage
Publications, New Delhi.
United Nations, 2005, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision. New
York: United Nations Population Division.
Varda Pandey (2007): Urban Microfinance – Efforts towards a Lasting
Impact, Microfinance Focus, Vol-2, Issue-1.
Vinod Kumar (2009): Microfinance, University Science Press, New Delhi,
2009.
Dr. Christabell. P. J. 2Vimal Raj. AFinancial Inclusion in Rural India: The role
of Microfinance as a Tool, IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science
(JHSS), Volume 2, Issue 5 (Sep-Oct. 2012), PP 21-25
Tankha, Ajay. “Some NGO Dilemmas In Reaching The Poorest With
Microfinance.” Search Bulletin 14(1), 1999, Pp.73-79.
Planning Commission, Towards Faster And More Inclusive Growth: An
Approach To The 11th Five Year Plan, Government Of India, New Delhi, 2006
36
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
5
Urbanization- Its Impact on Coastal / Marine Resources in
Coastal Karnataka
Gunakara S
Introduction
Coastal and marine ecosystem plays an important role in the livelihood
of the fishermen communities who largely depend upon sea to earn their
livelihood. As many as 3.5 million people depend on marine fisheries for their
livelihood in fishing, processing, marketing and other ancillary activities. The
vast majority of them belong to traditional fishing communities. A substantial
part of the fishing communities live close to coastal or an estuarine shoreline.
About 40% of the worlds’ population lives within 100 km of coast. India has
long coastline about 7,500 km including that of its island territories. In India 73
coastal districts (out of a total of 593) have a share of 20% of the national
population live within 50km of the coastline. In the south west-coast,
Karnataka is one of the Coastal states, its ecosystem consists of mosaic of
monsoon wetlands, beaches and mountains, stretched along its 300 km long
shoreline from Ullal in south to Majali in north with 27,000 sq.km of
continental shelf and 87,000 sq.km and Exclusive Economic Zone. The coastal
eco-region of the state is separated by Western Ghats where 14 rivers originate
and connected by 26 estuaries with more than 70,000 Ha. of water-spread area
and 8000 Ha of brackish water area render the inshore area rich in nutrients
(Bhatta, Rao & Nayak 2003). All these natural phenomena create conducive
conditions that attract fish and other marine organisms to inshore waters. A
shallow continental shelf, wet lands and mangroves provide rich breeding and
feeding grounds for fish and other marine species (Nandakumar & Nayak
2010). In addition to marine fisheries, coastal Karnataka also has a large
potential for brackish water fisheries. According to Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute (CMFRI) 2010 census Coastal Karnataka has 144 marine
fishing villages spread over the three districts (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and
Uttara Kannada), each covering about 1.6 km of the coastal line, with 30,173
fishermen families which forms 5.3 per cent of the total fisher population of
the country.
37
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Methodology
The study is based on both primary and secondary data. Vast set of secondary
data were collected from various reports of state and central government.
Socioeconomic data on coastal villages to estimate the trend in population
density, literacy, gender ratio, employment and occupational changes were
collected from National Census 1991, 2001, 2011. Further, the primary data
related to ddevelopment of a regional plan were collected by interviewing the
community leaders of coastal fishing villages and also on the basis of field
observation.
Measurement of urbanization
The urbanization could be measured in terms of-
a. Land use/land cover changes
b. Density of population
c. Social conflicts
38
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Uttara 391 57 17416 28330 32475 62.6 14.6 445 724 830
39
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Kannad 7 7 0 6 3
a
(Source: Census data 1991,2001,2011)
40
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
d. Coastal tourism
Nature-based and coastal tourism is a growing sector in India and around the
world. There has been rapid growth of urban populations in coastal areas and
domestic and international demand for tourism has been increasing with
increase in income. India has 590 protected areas covering less than 5 % of the
total land area; they are small (<300 km2) and are highly fragmented. One of
the key challenges in managing these coastal tourism areas is to protect them
from commercial interests such as infrastructure developments, ports,
41
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
hazardous industries, coal-fired power plants and public utility services, and
tourism adds another significant dimension to these challenges. Tourism
affected the social life and culture apart from environmental degradation.
42
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
43
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
6
Urban Agglomeration, Deprivation in Basic Amenities,
Poverty and Social Exclusion in India
1. Introduction
The historical legacy of poverty alleviation in India can be traced back to
the trickledown theory in the early years of planning. Later the growth
oriented approach, generation of employment and income through creation of
assets and work and provision for basic amenities to the poor were the
approaches of the government in the strategies of poverty eradication in India.
But even after the experimentation of myriads of poverty eradication
strategies, the problem of poverty is still pervasive in India in
multidimensional structure. It is noted that the characteristics and the
dimensions of poverty in India has been encompassing radical changes from
the basic necessities to multidimensional poverty, rural and urban poverty is
decreasing but still a small portion of the Indian urban population is also
endure the poverty and approaches to social exclusion. Thus it requires
government attention to alleviate the urban poverty and social exclusion along
with strategies for rural poverty eradication. In this juncture this paper is an
attempt to analyse how the urban agglomeration stimulates urban poverty
and deprivation in basic amenities and amplify social exclusion of urban poor.
44
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
before. The tendency of the people to migrate urban area has been increased.
Rural areas, by and large, lack educational facilities, especially those of higher
education and rural people have to migrate to the urban centres for this
purpose. Many of them settle down in the cities for earning a livelihood after
completing their education (Tyagi, R.C. et al. 2016).
It is observed that the magnitude of urban migration has been increased
as a result; the urban population has been increasing. Increased urban
population and density in urban area cause to boost the disequilibria between
the availability of resources and the population in urban area. It increases the
vulnerability of poverty in Urban India. When the number of poor increases, it
also lead to many other sociological problems including social exclusion. Thus
it is the responsibility of the researchers and social scientists to shed light on
the increasing trends of urban migration and resultant socio-economic
problems. This paper will be an asset in the literature of urban agglomeration,
poverty and social exclusion and will be an eye opener to the policy makers
and planners to policy formulation and planning in the field of poverty
eradication in urban India.
3. Methodology
This paper is based on the secondary data collected from census of 2001
and 2011, Reports of the Working Group on Urban Poverty, Slums and Service
Delivery System 2011 by the Planning Commission and World Migration
Report 2015 and information collected from some other literature on Urban
Poverty and Social Exclusion. The results of the study has been generalised
using various empirical studies gathered in India. The present study have
been used the simple statistical techniques for data analysis such as
percentage, averages and diagrammatic presentations.
45
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
46
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
47
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
urban areas has decreased but still, 13.7 percent of the urban population is
in poverty.
4. The percentage of poor belongs to lower median consumption expenditure
and upper median consumption expenditure has increased from 9.6 to 10.9
and 65.7 to 66.4 respectively 2004-05 to 2011-12. It is very interesting to note
that in the rural area, increase in percentage of poor on the basis of median
consumption expenditure has increase only in lower median consumption
expenditure where the percent of upper median consumption expenditure
has not increased instead decreased marginally.
6. Some of the urban population not having basic amnesties such like housing,
bathing facilities, latrine and electricity. Whereas, percent of urban
population not having drainage and drinking water are something more
than the former.
6. Conclusion
From the result and discussion it is apparent that, urban population has been
increasing over the years. Where, the rural urban migration and the
reclassification of rural and urban areas plays important role. It magnifies the
degree of urban agglomeration in India. At the same time rate of poverty is
decreased in the urban population but some of the urban population still
undergoes in poverty. Some of the urban population not having basic
amenities about 15 percent of the urban population are illiterate (Census, 2011)
and lacking banking services etc. It is realised that when the population
pressure increases the available resource in the urban area may not be
sufficient to effectively address the problem of poverty. Thomas Malthus
believed that the world's population and resources grew at different rates. He
believed that the Population would increase geometrically but food
production would only grow arithmetically, which would result in famine and
starvation (Wikipedia). It creates disequilibrium between available resources
and population.
Thus the present study forwards some of the postulates that, the
escalating trends in urban agglomeration step up the susceptibility to poverty
through the inadequacy of resources and fatalities the urban poor to social
exclusion. Poverty increases the deprivation in basic amenities, literacy. and
the participation in main stream activities. Poverty leads to myriads of socio-
political, economic and psychological deprivation. It rampant the
48
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
References
Bhagat, B.R. (2014). World Migration Report 2015. Urban Migration Trends,
Challenges and Opportunities in India. International Institute for Population
Sciences.
Chandramouli, C. (2011). Houses, Household Amenities and Assets Data 2001 -
2011 Visualizing Through Maps, Census of India. Retrieved from
censusindia.gov.in/2011.../H.
Madanipour, A., Cars, G. and Allen, J. (eds) (1998) Social exclusion in European
cities. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishing
Planning Commission. (2014). Urban Poverty, Slums, and Service Delivery System.
New Delhi: Retrieved from planningcommission.nic.in/.
Spicker, P. (2007). The idea of poverty. In Shildrick, T and Rucell, J. (2015)
Sociological Perspectives on Poverty. Joseph Rountry Foundation. Retrieved from
https://www.jrf.org.uk/.../soc..
Tyagi, C.R and Tarannum Siddiqui. (2016). Causes of Rural Urban Migration in
India: Challenges and Policy Issues. Indian Journal of Research, 5(6), 173-176.
.
49
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
40 31.5 31.8
30 21.5
17.6 18.1 2001
20 12.2
2011
10
0
India Rural Urban
50
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
70 62.3
57.6
60
43.8
50
35.6 1981-91
40
30 18.7 20.8 20.6 19 21.5 1991-01
20 2001-11
10
0
Natural increase Rural Urban Reclassification
Migration
60 50.1
50 45.3
41.8
37.2
40 31.8 33.8 Rural
29.8
25.7 25.7
30 20.9 21.9 Urban
20 13.7 Total
10
0
1993-94 2004-05 2009-10 2011-12
51
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Table.6: Persons below Different Levels of Median PCE in Rural Areas (in
%).
Year and Rounds 2004-05 (NSS 2009-10 (NSS 66th 2011-12 (NSS 68th
61st Round) Round) Round)
1. 0.5 of Median 3.5 3.9 4.2
2. 0.6 of Median 9.4 10.1 10.4
3. 0.7 of Median 18.6 19.0 19.4
4. 0.8 of Median 29.4 29.3 29.9
5. 0.9 of Median 40.0 40.0 40.4
6. 1.0 of Median 50.0 50.0 50.0
7. 1.1 of Median 58.6 58.7 57.9
8. 1.2 of Median 65.8 66.0 64.8
9. 1.3 of Median 72.0 71.9 70.7
Source: Planning Commission 2014
Table.7: Persons below Different Levels of Median PCE in Urban Areas
(in%)
Year and Rounds 2004-05 (NSS 2009-10 (NSS 2011-12 (NSS
61st Round) 66th Round) 68th Round)
1. 0.5 of Median 9.6 10.4 10.9
2. 0.6 of Median 18.1 18.9 18.9
3. 0.7 of Median 26.7 27.9 27.4
4. 0.8 of Median 35.4 35.9 35.6
5. 0.9 of Median 43.1 43.2 43.2
6. 1.0 of Median 50.0 50.0 50.0
7. 1.1 of Median 55.7 55.9 56.3
8. 1.2 of Median 60.8 60.7 61.6
9. 1.3 of Median 65.7 65.2 66.4
Source: Source: Planning Commission 2014
Table. 8: Urban population not having basic amenities (in percent)
Serial No. Basic Amenities Percentage
1 Dilapidated houses 3
2 No bathing facilities 13
3 No latrine 8
4 No drainage 18.2 (37.3 OD)
5 No electricity 7
6 Drinking water away from premises 29
Source: Census data update 2011.
52
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
7
Demographic dimensions and problems of slums -A
Case Study of Belagavi City
53
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Study Area
Belagavi is referred to as “venugram” (bamboo village) in the early inscription
of 12th and 13th centuries . It is located in sourth western part of Belagavi
district and extended between 15 - 15’ north latitude to 74 -31’ east longitude
at an height of 710 mtrs above the mean sea level . the total geographical area
of the city is about 94.08 sq.kms , It is fifth biggest city among the cities of
Karnataka state in terms of area and population and also district and
divisional head quarters of the state
FIG NO 1 AREA UNDER STUDY
Objectives
The aim of the present investigation is to analyse the socio- economic status of
slums and suggest possible measure for the improvement of the quality of life
of slum dwellers in Belagavi city. The study has following objectives.
To assess the demographic pattern of slums of Belagavi city
54
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
To analyze amenities and infrastructure exist and also bring out the
Deficiency in them.
To study various problem associated with slum dwellers in the city.
To suggest the planning for the improvement of environmental condition
of slums of the city.
Methodology
Belagavi Municipal corporation is divided into 58 wards in which there are
36 slums are notified by the KS CB and Municipal Corporation. Hence Data
will be collected from both primary as well as secondary sources.
The parameters for demarcating the slums are water supply conditions,
sanitation amenities and infrastructure and housing conditions.
To study of demographic pattern and problems of slums ,a primary
survey was conducted through questionnaire , which was covered about
462 households in 36 different slums at Belagavi Municipal Corporation
limit. 10% of the households from each slum pocket were interviewed on
the basis of stratified random sample technique. This ten percent is
considered on the basis of information on the total number of household
collected from the leaders of each slum pocket.
The secondary sources of data related to population, existing amenities &
government policies and Programmes was collected from slums clearance
Board Belagavi Municipal Corporation and BUDA etc.
In the present investigation necessary statistical and cartographic
techniques will be employed for tabulation, analysis and mapping of
analyzed data.
55
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
56
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
total population of declared slums is about 38395 persons, which accounts for
about 10 per cent of the total population of the city. Out of the total population
the male population is 54: 10 per cent and rest are females.
Table No 1.2 Slums Classified According To Sex Ratio
Sl No Sex Ratio No Of Slums % To Total
(Females Per 1000 Males)
01 Less Than 950 02 5.12
02 950-960 17 43.58
03 Above 960 20 51.28
Total 39 100.00
57
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Caste Composition
Table No 1.5 Caste Composition Of Notified Slums
Sl No Social Category Total Popn Percentage
01 Others 20518 72.09
03 Schedule Caste 7286 25.60
04 Scheduled Tribe 656 2.30
Total 28460 100.00
Source –Office Of Ksdb And Percentage Is Computed By Researcher
58
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Occupational Structure
It is observed from the survey that a majority of the households are engaged
in low-income occupations such as daily wages, rickshaw pulling, household
industry, construction, wooden works furniture making and begging. About
28.16 per cent people are daily wagers. 8.10 per cent construction workers 12.0
per cent transport and communication 18.0 per cent wooden and furniture
makers, 6.08 per cent industrial labours, 5.23% Beggars and 20.31 per cent
other workers. (Table No. 1.6 )
Table No.1.6 Occupational Structure of slum dwellers in Belagavi city.
Occupation Percentage of households
Daily wagers 28.16%
Construction 8.10%
Rickshaw pullers 12.00%
Transport & Communication 2.07%
Wooden and Furniture 18.00%
Industrial Labors 6.08%
Begging 5.28%
Others 20.31%
Total 100.00%
Source: (Computed by researcher)
Problems of Slums:
Housing Condition : The basic frame of environment in which man lives in
his house, housing condition not only reflect the material status of population
but also the rate at which improvement or deterioration of general quality of
life takes place. If we compare the housing conditions of slums of Belagavi
city with either areas it can be considered as worst standard because about
70.18 per cent of houses are made up of roof with locally available materials
like, grasses, mud etc, and about 20.38 per cent houses are thatched, rest of
houses are asbestos or miscellaneous materials. The structure of wall and floor
59
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
are generally of almost mud and in general the conditions of houses are not
suitable for habitation.
Water Supply And Electricity: Slum areas are very poor in terms of water and
electricity supply In this regard the situation of slum are not satisfactory.
Spatial distribution of these facilities may at best be put as haphazard. Due to
low income a majority of the population cannot afford to these facilities. About
85per cent of the slum people getting their drinking water from municipality
tap and about 82 percent of the slum dwellers do not have electricity supply,
they are using kerosene and oil, wood as a fuel.
Sewerage and Sanitation: The sewerage and sanitation facilities one of the
vital element of the quality of the environment are very unsatisfactory.
Stagnant pools of water and flooding of low lying slum areas by rain water are
a common sight. Sewerage and sanitary conditions are extremely poor
especially in slum areas of Gandhinagar, Azadnagar, Zatpat, colony,
Gangawadi etc. The living conditions in these slums are unhygienic and
inadequate.
Amenities And Infrastructure : Amenities and infrastructural facilities
constitute an important part of the environment. These facilities in these slum
areas are very poor both in quality and quantity. About 78.32 percent the slum
dwellers do not have separate kitchen, separate bathroom separate latrine and
separate room to entertain their guest. Quality and size of the roads are not
good in slum areas. 98per cent of the total households in slum areas do not
have telephone facilities, but they use mobiles.
60
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Water Supply and Sanitation: The existing system of tap water supply is to
be augmented to meet the minimum requirement. The water supply system in
the slums. It is needed to be treated with integration of city supply system. To
meet the immediate requirements deep tube wells be installed in suitable
locations.The slums should be provided with drainage facilities i.e. integration
with the master plan drainage system of the city. All Kaccha drains should be
made pucca. During rainy season conditions of water logging is serious and
that deteriorates the environment, which needs a permanent pumping system.
It is very much necessary to extend the facilities of cleaning the slums daily
and to dispose of the garbage. It is desirable to provide Garbage pockets to
each slums which can dispose of waste at least twice in a week. Further public
toilets should be provided at suitable sites. The community organizers should
take special care to convince the people the implication of unhealthy
environment and insist on them to follow the practice of using toilets.
Electricity: It is observed from the study that, all slum pockets should be
supplied with electric connections street light. The tube lights which are not
functioning, properly they should be replaced immediately with new ones.
The slums have approaches by earthen roads. These roads are to be provided
with at least moron roads and the major roads should be provided with black
top road.
Education: In order to increase the standard of living of the slum dwellers the
expansion of educational facilities are very necessary Pre-primary education
for children in the age group of 3-6 should be encouraged. Informal education
facilities need to be extended to the adult members of the households. Specials
care should be taken to discourage the dropouts among the children.
Health: Improvement of health condition of the slum people is essential hence
preventive measures are to be taken to arrest the incidence of common
diseases in the slums than going for curative measures. Immunization
programmes should be organized to arrest specific disease like T.B. polio, etc.
Additional dispensaries and health center are required to be established at
various centrally located areas. Health education programme is required to be
conducted in slum so as to make the inhabitants understand the implications.
61
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
References
Abbot D and Barke M (1998):A review of slum housing policy in Mumbai Cities
– 269 – 283
Abrams Charles (1970):Slums. In (ed) Desai A R and S Devadas Pillai – Slums
and Urbanization Popular Prakashan Bombay
Agarwal S A Satyavada S Kousik & R Kumar(2007):Urbanization Urban
poverty and Health of Urban poor status, challenges and the way forward.
Demography India Vol 36 (1) 121-134
Bhandari L & K Basu (2000) :In Action plan for slum Auction & Relocation for
the state of Delhi New Delhi – National Council of Applied Economic Research
Bose M (1998):Women work and the built environment ; Lesson from the slum
of Calcutta – India habitat International 5-18
Desai A.R. and S. D. Pillai (1970):(eds) Slum and Urbanization Bombay Popular
Prakashan PP – 48
Davis M (2006):Planet of slums – Newyork : Verso
Grodzins Morton(1970):The New shames of the cities, In (ed) Desai A.R. and S.
Devdas Pillai – Slums & Urbanization – Popular Prakashan Bombay
Hans Schnk(2001):Living in India’s slums – A case study of Bangalore
H Afshar(2002):Age and Empowerment amongst slum dwelling women in
Hyderabad
Imparto IVO & Jeff Ruster (2003):Slum upgrading and participation : Lesson
from the Latin, America The World bank Washington DC
Kundu A (2007):Stigmatization of Urban processes in India; An Analysis of
Terminology with special reference to slum situation
Mohammad Akthar & Kavita Toran (2003):Migration, Slums, & Urban squator –
A case study of Gandhinagar
N. Rai (2009): Strategies issues in infrastructural development of slums in
Lucknow city
Nangia Parveen and Gupta Kamal (1994):Morphology of slums in Thane Report
series No. 6 International Institute for Pop Sciences – Mumbai – India
Operational Research Group (1989): Accessibility to Basic Services in
slums of five urban centres – Baroda
P. Gupta(2010):New born case pattern in Urban slums of Lucknow city
62
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
8
Problems and prospect of student migrants in Mysuru
city- A Sociological study.
Jessy C.A Sr.Prafula and Rekha Jadhav
Introduction
Migration is movement of people from one place to another for
education, work and for better living standards. Throughout the history of
humankind we find people migrating all over the world. Migration to cities
/towns and other developed areas and the places are rampant nowadays
where employment, education and other facilities are available. Human
migration is one of the most important aspects of society because migration
process has been an important factor in the area of development and changes
in the present day society. It has dominated human activities and it
contributes for the development of both individual and society. Migration is
also stressful and it demands emotional, social, cultural, educational and
economic adjustments. Those who migrate need time to adapt to the new
environment, new people and the culture. The students are not only migrating
to overseas for education these days, they migrate to different states for
education for the good quality of education and for their career development.
The student moves to different places within India for undergraduate
education as the students are unable to get educational institutions of their
choice or they move to different places as their option to go out of their native
place for education. Education empowers them and that urges them to learn
from the best possible sources so the students are craving for the best
opportunities where ever may it be.
Education was given only to Hindus before the advent of the European system
of education in Mysore, and Madrassas provided schooling for Muslims.
Modern education began in Mysore when a free English school was
established in 1833. In 1854 the East India Company promulgated the Halifax
Dispatch, which suggested organizing education based on the western model
in the princely state of Mysore. The Maharajas College, founded in 1864 was
the first College for higher education. The University of Mysore was
established in 1916. This was the sixth university to be established in India and
63
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
the first in Karnataka. Today Mysore owns large number of schools and
college
Objectives
To analyze the motivational factor in choosing Mysuru as their place of
destiny for under graduation.
To study the problems faced as a student migrant.
To study the academic progress and academic stress
To analyze their health and well being.
64
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
The above table reveals the age group of the respondents. Most of the
respondents belongs to age group of 19 (24.4%) and 20 (27.5%) while other
age group varies from 16 to 30 years of age which reveal that education is an
ongoing process and for some reasons few respondents have continued their
studies after certain age.
Table 2: Religious group of the respondents
Religious group Frequency Percentage Cumulative Percent
Hindu 37 20.6 20.6
Muslims 25 13.9 34.4
Christians 94 52.2 86.7
Buddhists 16 8.9 95.6
others 8 4.4 100
Total 180 100
65
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Education is open to all irrespective of all the religious groups. The above table
reveals that 52.2% of the students belong to Christians and 20.6% Hindus and
13.9% of them Muslims and 8.9% of them are Buddhists while others 4.4% of
them are Sikhs and Jains respectively. The study reveals that the students’ of
different religious group from different states study in Mysore.
Sources of information
Education is profit making organization and the Institutions attract the
students from various states by providing information all the facilities to make
the right choice. The top educational institutions keep up their standards and
thus for students to choose a College is becoming very difficult. The
educational institutions promote information about their courses through
College website, advertisement, friends, neighbors and lectures of the
previous institutions.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Change of climate: Due seasonal changes in the climate some students get
sick, while others who come from different places also fall ill due to change of
climate. Few students are able to adjust with the climatic conditions of the
place while others take time to adjust to the weather conditions. The study
revealed that 64% of them revealed that seasonal change in their climate was
occasionally difficult for them in the beginning and only 6.1% of them
indicated that climate was always difficult .while others 22.2% and 7.2% of
them revealed that sometimes difficult and frequently difficult respectively.
Food and accommodation: Food and Accommodation is the main issues that
the students face as they move to different places for study .Adjusting to food
and accommodation is tough job for the students from outstation. The
preparation and taste for food are different in different state and each state has
separate cuisine. Craving for home food is part of student’s life as they are
away from home.
The result showed that the students get easily adjusted to food and
accommodation. Only 16.7% of the respondents revealed that it was always
difficult and 27.8%, 13.9% and 22.8 % of them indicated that sometimes
difficult, frequently difficult and occasionally difficult respectively and 18.3%
of the respondents indicated that it was not at all difficult as they could adjust
due to the availability of food of their choice in Mysore.
Loneliness: Loneliness is a negative feeling that makes one depressed. It is a
feeling that no one is there to care and understand, it is lack of connectedness.
Loneliness is experienced by most of the people especially when loved ones
are not there with and when the person is alone. It can be experienced even if
we are in the crowds. The students who come from other states may
experience tremendous loneliness if they don’t socialize with their roommates
or friends easily. The study found that about 40% of them never felt lonely
and while others 23.3%, 9.4%, 17.8% and 9.4% of them indicated that loneliness
was occasionally difficult, frequently difficult, sometimes difficult and always
difficult respectively.
Homesickness
The students who are away from their parents feel homesickness. Some
students may discontinue their students as they are unable to stay away from
their parents. 37.8% of the respondents revealed that homesickness was not at
all difficult for them as they could feel at home with the place. While others
23.3%, 7.8%, 20% and 11.1% of them revealed that it is occasionally difficult,
67
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
frequently difficult and always difficult as the parents come to see them or
after going home it took time for them to overcome homesickness.
Communication: Communication is an important key to mingle with the
people of the locality. Kannada is spoken by majority of the local people.
27.8% of them indicated that occasionally the respondents find it difficult to
communicate as the respondents could not communicate the local language. In
the College all speak English and it was not a problem only going out was
issue.Some of them understands the language but was not able to converse
fluently.
Finance: The student’s education depends mostly on parent’s education and
their financial conditions. Educational expenses such as College fees, food and
accommodation expenses are met by their parents. The students too faces
financial problems because they have to manage with the money their parents
gives 7.2% of them indicated that they faced financial problem and it was
always difficult while 29.4% of them revealed it was not at all difficult.
Academic progress: Academic progress of the students includes overall
performance of the students. Academic progress of the students is also
depends on the quality of the faculty, the facilities like good and well
equipped library, internet facility, Laboratory, sports ground and suitable
environment . The study revealed that 51.1% of the respondents indicated that
the academic progress was satisfactory and 12.2% of them very satisfactory
and while others 3.9% and 0.6% of them indicated that their academic progress
was unsatisfactory and very unsatisfactory respectively. The mean value is
3.7056 and the std. deviation is 0.75263 respectively.
Academic stress
Academic stress is frustration that faced by the students in their academic life.
The students feel that they are frustrated once they know that they are not
performing well in their studies. The students are faced with many demands,
they have to perform well in their examinations, class exams, fulfill their
teachers and parents expectations etc. Academic stress were mainly due to
various reasons such as bunking classes, falling ill often, lack of interest in
studies, dislike towards teachers etc.
25.66% of them revealed that the respondents were not able to focus on their
studies as they used to fall ill and it had negative impact on their life academic
life. Language difficult was another problem as they could not cope up with
their studies 25.6% of them indicated that the respondents are not able to
68
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
perform well as language difficult was the main problem. Too many
assignments made them to focus on the assignment than their studies and
35.6% of them indicated that it has helped them to perform well and only
17.8% of them revealed that the respondents could not concentrate on their
studies.
Table 4: social and Institutional support
Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
Don’t know 65 36.1 36.1
No 23 12.8 48.9
yes 92 51.1 100
Total 180 100
26%
48%
26%
Social and Institutional support is very essential for the student’s academic
progress and the majority of the respondents 51.1% of them indicated that the
respondents expressed they received social and institutional support and
12.8% of them expressed did not receive any institutional and social support .
The mean value is 2.1500 and std. deviation is 1.12545 respectively.
Health conditions: The young people in general are very healthy. The quest
for independence and acceptance by peers, increased mobility, and greater
time spent at College and/or work activities, and preoccupation with self-
image, contribute to the erratic and unhealthy eating behaviors. Eating habits
vary widely between individuals and in absence of their parents the
respondents neglected their food and there is also shortage of food availability
and nutritional goals.The graph below shows that 49.4% health in general is
good and 24.4% of them revealed very good and only 3.3% of them indicated
poor 1.1% of them very poor respectively. The respondents are healthy and
happy if they go home to take of nutritious food that is prepared by their
parents. The mean value is 3.9278 and Std. Deviation is 0.83251 respectively.
69
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Frequency Percent
70
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
The students who stayed more years are more comfortable than the
students, who are just joined for the course, felt home sick more and
gradually they got adjusted to the place.
49.4% of the respondents revealed that health in general is good.
Though Food and accommodation was problem only 16.7% of the
respondents revealed that it was always difficult.
The respondents are happy with the Institutions and Mysuru city it a
safe place for the study.
The campus placement should be given more importance in the college
especially for arts students. Job placements in most of the companies are
given preference for commerce students.
Conclusions
Education for migration is a common phenomenon. Students move to
different states for better career development. Karnataka is known for its good
and renowned educational institutions which attracts students from various
states. Considerable progress has been made in Karnataka with the
establishment of more than twenty universities and a large number of
undergraduate Colleges. Migration has a considerable impact on both the
individual and the family. The Impact is profound on the social and cultural
aspects of life than on the economic and political. The problems that the
students face here are temporary and they don’t take it very seriously as they
know that their goal is more important than all the other problems in their life.
The student migration has positive outlook on the institutions as they are an
asset to the institutions.
Reference
Rumberger, Russell W. “The Causes and Consequences of Student Mobility.” The
Journal of Negro Education, vol. 72, no. 1, 2003,
http://www.dailyvedas.com/student-migration-within-india
census of India 2011
"District wise and University wise degree college statistics for 2006-07"
http://digitallearning.eletsonline.com/2016/08/karnataka-in-focus-as-higher-education-hub/
http://articlesng.com/problems-prospects-student-hostel-accommodation-
problem
https://www.studyinternational.com/help-and-advice/why-student-
accommodation-is-more-important-than-you-thought
http://www.studyabroad.com/student-guide-home-sickness
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_support
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
9
Equality of Educational Opportunity in the Present
Context-Issues and Challenges
Sharmista
Introduction
The concept of equality of educational opportunity has passed through
various stages of evolution in history .At present equality of educational
opportunity has been interpreted as the opportunity to start together,to benefit
from staggered starts,to run on the same track and run or progress
together.According to national policy of education( 1986),equality of education
means to provide for equal opportunity to all not only in access but also in
success .Equality of educational opportunity has been taken as equalization of
access by a suitable manipulation of educational inputs like physical facilities
and equipment in schools,quality of teachers, curriculum and financial
assistance for the poor.To others,it means an equalization of results of
education ,achievement and benefits accruing from it.The new education
policy(1986) ,proposes to lay emphasis on the removal of disparities and to
equalize educational opportunities by attending to the special needs of those
who have been deprived of equality so far. One of the important social
objectives of education is to equalize opportunity, enabling the backward or
underprivileged classes and individuals to use education as a lever for the
improvement of their condition. Every society that values social justice and is
anxious to improve the lot of the common man and cultivate all available
talent, must ensure progressive equality of opportunity to all sections of the
population. This is the only guarantee for the building up of an egalitarian and
human society in which the exploitation of the weak will be minimized.
Inequalities of educational opportunities anise in various ways. In places
where no primary, secondary, or collegiate institutions exist, children do not
have the same opportunity as those who have these facilities in the
neighbourhood. This handicap should be overcome by the widest dispersal of
educational institutions, consistent with economy and efficiency, by
instituting, an adequate scholarship programme, by providing the needed
hostel facilities or 'by making suitable transport arrangements. It is sometimes
72
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
73
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
74
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
75
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Causes of Inequality
Inequality of educational opportunities in India prevails between the different
sections of society, advanced castes vs scheduled castes and scheduled tribes,
upper and middle classes vs lower classes, economically better off classes vs
poor sections etc. The following causes of inequality maybe listed:
Some states are economically advanced while others are lagging behind.
Consequently the income per head of population in different states varies
considerably. The same is true of local, block and district level.
Social and psychological reasons, eg.apathy towards girls’ education,
particularly in socially backward groups of people.
Varying literacy in states, districts and localities.
Existence of inaccessible and isolated small habitations particularly in hilly
and forest areas.
Varying occupational opportunities prevailing in different areas.
Lack of suitable and adequate accommodation for running schools.
Dearth of suitably qualified teachers particularly women teachers and
teachers for tribal areas.
The following major problems are seen:
Uneven spread of education
Low enrolment of the backward section of society
Stagnation
Wastage
Low enrolment of girls
Apathy and poverty of parents
Defective curriculum
Uninspiring methods of teaching
Lack of reading and writing material
Lack of qualified teachers
Frequent transfer of teachers
Lack of effective instruction and and academic guidance by the inspecting
staff
Failure to enforce compulsory attendance
Lack of suitable admission policy
Conservation attitude towards co-education
Inadequate and unattractive school building
Poor nutrition
Lack of part-time facilities
Meagre financial outlay
Overpopulation
76
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
77
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Provision of free ship6 and scholarships are being made for the backward and
disadvantaged groups.
6. Special treatment for S.C., S. T. and Other Backward Communities:
Special treatment as being made for S.C., S.T and Other Backward
Communities in relation to reservation of seats, provision of different types of
scholarships to ensure equality in education.
7. Residential School:
In tribal areas, residential schools or Ashram schools have been set up.
Kanyashram schools have been commissioned in the tribal areas to facilitate
education of girls.
8. Special education of the handicapped:
Steps have been taken for the education and training of blind, deaf,
orthopaedically handicapped and educable sub-normal children by the
government and voluntary organisations.
The New Education Policy, 1986 lays special emphasis on removing disparities
and equalizing educational opportunity. To promote equality, it will be
necessary to provide for opportunity to all not only in access but also in the
conditions for success.
1. Major emphasis will be laid on women’s participation in vocational,
technical and professional education at different levels.
2. Numerous incentives, helps, benefits, facilities will be provided to SC and
ST population to equalize them with other developed communities.
3. People of educational backward areas like rural areas, hill tracks and desert
areas will be given adequate institutional and infrastructural facilities.
4. Minority community will be allowed to set up and administer their own
educational institutions.
5. Education for physically and mentally handicapped children should be
integrated with the general community as equal partner to prepare them for
normal growth and to enable them to face with courage and confidence.
Truly speaking in-spite of all attempts in the direction of the national goal-
quality of opportunity, the result is not satisfactory. Hence in order to
accelerate in the progress of providing equality of opportunity, incentive
measures are to be properly implemented and administrative structure has to
be properly streamlined with a strong will and determination. Various media,
methods and materials are to be utilized to fulfil the special needs of the
deprived children of the country.
78
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
References:
UNESCO,(1960)Results of the Seventh Consultation of Member States on the
measures taken for implementation
of UNESCO’s Convention and the Recommendation (1960)”, Document 177
EX/36
UNESCO. (2008). Inclusive Dimensions of the Right to Education: Normative
Bases–concept
paper for the eighth and ninth meetings of the Joint Expert Group UNESCO
(CR)/ECOSOC
(CESCR) on the Monitoring of the Right to Education. Paris.
UNESCO. (2013). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013-14: Teaching and
Learning: Achieving
Quality for All. UNESCO Publishing
Human Rights Council. (2011, July 6). Resolution on the Right to Education
(A/HRC/
RES/17/3).
79
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
10
Housing Problems in Slums: A Case Study in Mangalore
City
B M Kumara
Introduction:
The problem of housing does not mean simply the shortage of housing
units. There is another problem of demolished or dilapidated houses.
According to N.S.S report on housing conditions, 18.46 per cent of the
households in urban areas were living in bad and dilapidated and improvised
houses. In general the range of dilapidated houses varies between 10 per cent
to 18 per cent in urban areas, with speedy urbanization, the number of
available pucca residential buildings falls short of requirements. In one of the
city like Bombay alone, according to the expert committee on housing report
there are only 4.6 lakh pucca residential buildings against a requirement of
10.3 lakh buildings. The position in other major cities like Calcutta, Delhi,
Chennai, Kanpur and Ahmadabad is not any different.
Due to lack of space, there is over-crowding in urban tenements.
According to a survey in Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and madras about 76per
cent of the household lived in tenements. Total areas of a tenement did not
exceed 200 sq.ft in which, on an average 4.7 persons lived in slum if 40 sq.ft of
space per person is considered a must about 70 per cent of the households
with 2 to 5 members and more than 75 per cent of the larger households live in
conditions of overcrowdings. The intolerable housing conditions have led to
certain evil consequences. The bustees, ahatas, chawls, cherries, etc, that have
been developed to house the labourers, near the industrial centres, have
become the mainstay of squalor and disease. The working class families
usually remain the victims of epidemics like cholera, small pox, etc. Diarrhoea,
dysentery, influenza are rampant in these bustees. In fact mortality is also
high. The unhealthy state of affairs is due to over crowdedness in the urban
areas.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Mangalore city. The paper mainly based on primary and secondary data
sources collected from respondents through structured research schedule in
slums of Mangalore city, Mangalore City Corporation, Karnataka Slum
Development Board, books and journals and so on.
81
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
It is seen that about 37per cent of the houses are having 2 rooms in their
houses 54per cent of the houses having 3 rooms and 7per cent of the houses
having 4 rooms and 2per cent of the house having 5 rooms in their houses.
Rooms in houses shown in table 2.
82
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
83
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
84
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
85
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
86
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
87
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
slums within Mangalore city corporation limits. These slums are growing even
as new one sprout in other parts of the city.
Table-12: Notified slums:
Sl Slum Slum BPL
No. Land Area in Populat Populatio
Slum Name Ownership sq.kms. ion n
1 Urva near
Urva Market Government 0.50 175 8
2 Matadakani Government 1.25 125 136
3 Kodiyalaguttu
(viveknagara) Private 2.4 340 8
4 Dongarakeri Private 1.25 25 75
5 Kanduka Private 2.00 445 96
6 Gatti Hittalu
(bavanthi street) Private 2.00 157 33
7 Hoige Bazzar
SC/ST Colony Private 0.75 63 -
8 Jyothinagara(kavoor) Private 0.5 2294 260
Source: Same as table 1
Table-13: Un-notified Slums:
Sl Land Slum Area Slum BPL
No. Slum Name Ownership in sq.kms. Population Population
Pandeshwara
1 Government 1.3 197 -
Sc\St colony
Hampanakatta
2 Private 0.3 58 12
Behind BNS Bar
Kudukorigudda
3 North(SC/ST Private 0.25 65 -
colony)
Kudukorigudda
4 South(SC/ST Private 0.3 35 -
colony)
Kodical
5 Private 0.35 490 140
(SC/ST colony)
Shantha Alva
6 compd(SC/ST Private 0.2 212 40
colony)
Kudkorigudda
7 Private 0.25 280 -
Bypass A block
8 Kudkorigudda Private 0.25 195 50
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Bypass B block
CPC compound
9 Private 0.4 535 45
kudroli
10 Arekerebailu Private 0.2 78 90
11 Urundadigudde Private 0.3 525 370
Boloor (SC\ST
colony ,Near
12 Government - 98 -
Cremation
Ground)
Shakthinagara
13 Government - 376 -
(Neethinagara)
Source: Same as table 1
Corporation officials refer to these slums as “workers camp”, but
according to the Karnataka slum clearance board standards, they are slums.
The board clarifies the any temporary settlement of workers should have basic
amenities such as clean drinking water, adequate number of toilets, a washing
area and proper dwellings. There is also a ceiling on the number of persons
who can occupy a given area, apart from stipulations on the roofing, which
should not be asbestos sheet. However, builders in Mangalore make their
workers live in conditions that do not satisfy the board’s stipulations.
Conclusion:
It may be concluded that the effects of urbanization and urbanism and
problems of cities can never be solved until urban planning is modified and
radical measures are taken. These should not be based on the profit motive
which would benefit a few vested interests. The use of land, technology, and
taxes should be for the benefit of the people and not for the benefit of a few
powerful interest groups. City-dwellers have to become politically active
organize themselves and agitate to change the existing economic and social
systems in the cities. The detailed study is useful to understand problems of
slums of Mangalore city, this study would be used for the development of the
slums of the Mangalore and to understand problems of the slums.
References:
Report on Karnataka Slum Development Board (2012), Government of Karnataka
Mangalore City Corporation (2014), Statistical Abstract, Government of Karnataka
89
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
11
Migration and Growth of Urban Population in Karnataka
Nagaraj M Muggur
I. Introduction:
Migration has long been associated with economic development and
growth in the economic literature. In particular, Todaro and Harris-Todaro-
type probabilistic models that examine migration have concentrated on the
expected wage disparities between rural and urban (formal) labour markets as
a driving force behind migration decision. Traditional human society was
divided into two parts it has one rural and another urban, from as urban
centre has had distinct lifestyle in comparison to the rural way of life. In the
modern way of life the urbanization is considered to be associated with the
process of economic development and good quality of life because of the types
of facilities and opportunities it offer to its inhabitants and it is an economic
and geographic necessity of today despite the massive environmental and
ecological problems. Nowadays to looking towards the urbanization and its
growth of population has been rapidly increasing decade to decade in country
as well as Karnataka. In the present situation, urban population has facing so
many problems in day today life and it’s mainly affecting their social life. In
this backdrop the present study has been made an attempt to know the
migration and growth of urban population and its impact on urban social life
were discussed in this paper as per availability of secondary level information
like census data, research papers, books, Government reports, and
documents were used for related to Karnataka state.
II. Urbanization and Population Growth in India 1951-2011:
After independence of India the population growth was rapidly
increased from 1981 to 2011. During the period of 1981-91, the population of
India increased by 23.86 percent and the average annual exponential growth
rate was 2.14 percent per annum.
It was lower than that observed during 1971-81 and it can further noticed that
the lowering of the population growth has continued during 1991-2001, with
the average annual exponential growth rate being 1.93 percent per annum
(Mohanty.2008). It is evident from figure 1 that the population of rural India
90
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
increased around two and half times from 298.7 million in 1951 to 833.1
million in 2011. Whereas the urban population has grown more than fourfold
during the same period, it is from only 62.4 million in 1951 to 377.1 million in
2011.
285.3
2001 741.7 1028.6
215.7 628.7
1991 838.5
159.7
1981 523.9 685.1
109
439.1
1971 547.9
77.8
1961 360.3
436.4
62.4
1951 298.7
361.1
The density of population has increased from 117 in 1951 to 382 persons in
2011. Despite the fall in the growth rate, the absolute addition to the
population is quite high over the decades, because of the age structure of the
population, which is still young.
Urbanization in India:
The degree of urbanization in India varied considerably over the
decades and the urban population was 62.4 million in 1951, it number has
increased to 377.1 million in 2011. In other words, its urban population has
increased to almost five times during the last fifty years. In recent years,
approximately 6-7 million persons have added every year to the country’s
total population. The states like Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra were the most
urbanized major states in 2011 followed by Gujarat, Karnataka and Punjab. It
is clear that the southern and western states of India are more urbanised.
Levels of urbanization are particularly low in Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and, to a
91
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
lesser extent Uttar Pradesh. During 1991 to 2011 most states experienced only
modest gain in percent urban. States like Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Punjab
and Maharashtra all experienced strong rises due to the comparative socio-
economic advancement of these states (Dyson, 2004). The trends of
urbanisation over period of time 1951 to 2011 considerably increased as
cleared in the following figure 2.
45.27
46.14
50 41.42
33.99
38.23 36.19
40 31.8
25.72
31.74
23.34
19.91
26.41
30
17.29
17.97
20
10
0
1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
50.7
60
50
35.2
38.6
40 30.9 34.0
23.0
28.3
21.7
30
17.7
23.0 22.3
31.3
28.9
29.1
20 24.3
13.8 15.3 16.9
18.3
10
0
1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
100.0
80.0
56.8
47.6
60.0
41.4
36.3
35.7
35.5
32.5
32.3
31.7
31.4
29.1
28.4
27.1
25.3
25.3
24.9
40.0
23.0
22.5
22.3
21.2
21.1
19.8
17.2
17.1
16.8
14.6
9.8
9.2
20.0
6.6
5.4
5.4
4.4
3.5
2.7
2.9
2.8
1.2
1.4
2.0
0.7
2.0
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.1
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.1
Belgaum
Davangere
Gulburga
Kodagu
Koppal
Mandya
Dharwad
Raichur
Bellary
Hassan
Bidar
Mysore
Udupi
Bagalkot
Gadag
Chitradurga
Kolar
Bijapur
Shimoga
Chamarajnagar
Tumkur
Haveri
Bangalore (U)
Bangalore ®
Chikkamagalur
Dhakshina Kannada
Uttara Kannada
-20.0
growth in Karnataka
Source: GOK (2007) ‘KDR’ Pp. 173, Census of India 2011(Karnataka)
The very lowest urban population percentages recorded in Kodagu, Koppala
and Mandya district were 14.6, 16.8 and 17.1 percent respectively. Other than,
these districts were recorded in-between from 17.2 up to 36.3 percent in the
state.
In the other hand decade wise growth rate from 2001 to 2011 urban
population is also clear from figure 4 that the highest growth rate is 9.8 percent
recorded Udupi district, very next position Dhakshina Kannada and Kolar is
9.2, 6.6 percent respectively. In addition, very lowest growth rate constituted -
0.1 percent Raichur district. Koppal, Uttara Kannada, Gadag, Shimog and
Kodagu district were not crossed even 1 percent urban population growth in
the same period.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
45.62
47.3
41.8
42.6
50
39.6
40.1
39.8
38.2
36.6
35.1
40
26.8
25.9
25.8
27
23.9
30
20
7.4
7.2
5.42
6.9
6.5
10
0
38th (1983) 43th (1987/88) 49th (1993) 55th (1999/00) 64 th (2007/08
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In the other hand, the urban male migration rate has been in stating
round of 38th (1983) 27 and it is drastically decreased 26.8, 23.9, 25.8 and 25.9
after rounds from 43th to 64th period respectively. However, in case of female
migration rates by place of residence, on NSS rounds from 1983-2008
increased. It shows that over period of NSS rounds male migration has been
decreased both rural and urban side, it is simultaneously increased both rural
and urban female in the country. Further we it may conclude that the respect
of migration more significant favour of female side it because of more
migrating for marriage.
0
1981 1991 2001
Share of Urban Population Share of Rural Population
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opportunity in the native origin. It shows that the total 28.3 percent population
has migrating for due to employment, 23 percent moved with household, 19.7
percent were migrating for marriage, 11.9 percent were migrated for education
purpose, 9.7 percent were migrated in other reason and other than these were
migrated moved after birth, Business as 5.8, 1.6 percent respectively in the
state. In employment concerned, more percent of male were migrated and
female more are migrated in marriage concern and household shift except
these reason male are dominated all other concern affects in the state.
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crowd of vehicles has been disturbing urban environment as well as the over
air and noise pollution.
In the other side the urbanization over crowd has created major problem of
solid waste. According to 2004 government report of Karnataka has declared
that the Municipal solid waste generation per day in the six city corporation is
clear on table 5. It is reveals that the major cities like Bangalore city has highest
solid waste generated comparing to other cities in the state and other cities city
were recorded very next position is details in following table.
Table 3: Municipal Solid Waste Generation per Day in Karnataka for 2002
Per capita
Waste Waste
Population Waste*
City Generated collected
(2002) Generated
(tonnes/day) (tonnes/day)
(Grams/Day**)
Bangalore 5882162 2500 1400 425.0
Mangalore 551701 250 200 453.1
Hubli/Dharwad 801442 250 200 311.9
Mysore 794677 230 183 289.4
Belgaum 516155 120 100 232.5
Gulbarga 452944 120 100 264.9
Total 8999081 3470 2183 386
Source: Government of Karnataka, 2004.
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Reference:
Census of India (1991): Series-1, India, Paper 2 of 1991, ‘Provisional Population
Totals: Rural-Urban Distribution’, Registrar General and Census Commissioner,
India.
Census of India (2001): ‘Final Population Totals, Series 1: India’, Registrar General
and Census Commissioner, India.
Denis Eric, Partha Mukhopadhyay, Marie-Helene Zerah (2012) “Subaltern
Urbanization In India” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol, XLVII No 30 July
28.2012, Pp.53
Dyson, T. (2004): “India's Population – The Future”, in Twenty First Century India
Population, Economy,Human Development, and the Environment, (eds.) Tim Dyson,
Robert Cassen and Leela Visaria, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, India.
GOK (2007) - ‘Karnataka Development Report’, Planning Commission, Government
of India, Published by Academic Foundation, New Delhi, Pp: 173, 508
GOK (2009) ‘Urban Development Policy for Karnataka’ Urban Development
Department, Bangalore (Draft) (Nov 2009), Pp.79
Mohanty, Soumya (2008) “Population Growth, Changes in Land Use and
Environmental Degradation in India”
WHO (1993) “The Urban Health Crisis: Strategies for health for all in the face of rapid
urbanization”, Report of the technical discussions at 44Ih World Health Assembly,
World Health Organization, Geneva.
Mahapatro Sandhya Rani (2011) ‘The Changing Pattern of Internal Migration in
India Issues and Challenges’ Working paper, Institute for Social and Economic
Change (ISEC), Bangalore. Pp-3, http://epc2012.princeton.edu/papers/121017
Calì Massimiliano (2009) ‘Urbanisation, inequality and economic growth:
Evidence from Indian states’ world Development report, Reshaping Economic
geography, Background paper, Overseas Development Institute, November
2007,Pp-12
GOI (2003) ‘Urban Planning’ State of the Environment Report, 2003, Pp-206
Khan Jabir Hasan, Tarique Shamshad (2011) ‘Socio- Economic Census of Rural
Urban Migration in India’ Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. III (2), July
– Dec 2011, Pp.151-154
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12
Public-Private Partnership in Karnataka
J. L. Banashankari
Introduction:
In a competitive global environment, governments around the
world are focusing on new ways to finance projects, building infrastructure
and deliver services. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are becoming a
common tool to bring together the strengths of both sectors. Many advanced
economies and fiscal constrained developing countries have developed their
physical infrastructure successfully through private participation or through
public-private partnership model.
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102
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Conclusion:
The future of PPP in Karnataka looks bright as the state aims for a
higher growth trajectory through strong infrastructure investments. In order
to drive economic growth it is essential to welcome PPP with right set of
policies that would create economic prosperity and expansion.
References:
Gourav Datt and Ashwini Mahajan Datt and Sundharam, (2011), Indian
Economy, sixty third edition, S. chand and company ltd.,New Delhi.
Ramesh singh, (2015), Indian Economy for civil services examination, seventh
edition, Mc Graw Hill Education (India) private limited, New Delhi.
Puri, V. K. and Misra, S. K. (2013), Indian Economy, 31st revised edition, Himalaya
publishing house, Mumbai.
www.business-standard.com
Om parkash, (2008), Public Economics, Theory and Practice, vishal publishing co.
Delhi.
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13
NGO and Its Impact on Poverty Reduction in Karnataka:
An Analysis
Ramesha H. C. and K.C. Basavaraju
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NGOs in Karnataka are functioning for child education, child welfare, child
rights, women development, women empowerment, old age homes for old
age persons, physically and mentally handicap persons, and upliftment of
slum children women. NGOs are well organizing education, health, social
justice, disaster management, natural resource management, agriculture
development, social awareness, betterment of backward and deprived
communities, poverty and distress relief programmes. NGO has been
implementing the programmes related to employment, female feticides, rain
water harvesting, animal welfare, ect.
Sl. No. Name of the State NGOs
1 Uttar Pradesh 13204
2 Maharashtra 9567
3 Andhra Pradesh 5048
4 Tamil Nadu 5048
5 Karnataka 3861
6 Kerala 1804
7 Sikkim 101
8 Goa 98
9 Lakshadweep 13
Source: Government of India
The above table shows that, the functioning of NGOs in different states in
India. As identified by the Government of India, there are 84,200 NGOs are
working across the India to create awareness about social, economic, physical,
cultural and other issues. These NGOs are focusing on reduction of poverty
ration through creation of employment opportunities to the people in urban as
well as in rural area as it explained in the previous part of that role of NGOs.
Few states are mentioned in the table which are functioning NGOs in across
the country. Karnataka NGOs are playing very significant role in these
activities.
NGO’s play a significant role in offering relief and other basic amenities
to individuals who are suffering from extreme poverty.
These non-governmental organizations have initiated some
empowerment programs. These programs empower both men and
women, thereby offering some commendable benefits in their lifestyle.
NGO’s have brought about some viable and effective, skill based
livelihood programs.
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Various public services are provided by the NGO’s both at Macro and
Micro levels.
NGO’s have also implemented some viable development programs
which are extremely handy for the poverty stricken individuals.
VI. Problems of NGOs: It is found that while NGO projects reach the poor
people, they tend not to reach down to the very poorest. NGO projects also
tend to be small scale. The total numbers assisted are also small. Furthermore,
it is also rare for NGO projects to be financially self sufficient. Finally,
although NGOs execute a number of very imaginative projects, many of them
appear to be unwilling to innovate in certain areas or activities.
Lack of funds
Lack of Dedicated Leadership
Misuse of Funds
Inadequate trained personnel
Monopolization of leadership
Lack of Public Participation
Centralization in Urban Areas
Lack of Coordination
Lack of Volunteerism/Social work among Youth
Modernization
Target orientated and time-bound Programmes
Area of Interest
Therefore, because of these limitations, the roles of NGOs in alleviating
poverty cannot be exaggerated.
VII. Conclusion: On the basis of these explanations, NGOs are developed the
capacities of community such as skills, abilities, knowledge, assets and
motivates the community to participate in the project to improve the quality of
their lives. The literature established the important roles played by of NGOs in
the fight against poverty through micro- finance, capacity building, self-
reliance, peace building, sustainable community development, and
empowerment especially women’s empowerment all aiming at poverty
alleviation. NGOs through the micro- finance help members of community to
access jobs, income-generation and improve economic situation there by
alleviating poverty from the poor. And then they would become empowered
economically. NGOs act as capacity builders that help the community to
achieve the empowerment particularly individual empowerment.
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References:
Baruah, B. (2007). Assessment of public–private–NGO partnerships: water and
sanitation services in slums. Natural Resources Forum 31, pp. 226–237.
Davis, M. (2002) How can we Explain the Formulation of Northern NGOs
Approaches to Poverty. Informed No. 7, September. Oxford: INTRAC.
Gurulingaiah, M. (2002). Role of NGO in Empowerment of Tribal Women in
Karnataka, Kurukshetra, Vol.51, No.2, Dec.Pp.30-33.
Kakumani Lavanyalatha & Prabhakar (2011). Non Government Organisations:
Problems and Remedies in India. Serbian Journal of Management, Vol. 6(11),
pp.109-121.
Mehta, D.,Sharma, J. K., Mehta, N. K., and Jain A. (2010). An empirical study
on young executives' response towards pop-up and banner advertisements,
Serbian Journal of Management, Vol. 5, No. 1., pp 1-188.
Rukhsana & Taseer (2011). Micro-financing of NGOs & Government:
Collaborative impact on poverty eradication. Information Management &
Business Review, Vol.2 (2), pp.81-91.
Stefanovic,I.,Damnjanovic, P. & Jasko, O. (2010). The analysis of the
contemporary environment impact upon organizational operations, Serbian
Journal of Management 5 (1): 97 - 109.
Suharko (2007). The Roles of NGOs play in rural poverty reduction: the case of
Indonesia and India. GSID, Discussion Paper 160, October.
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14
Meeting Urban Environmental Challenges: A Case
with Solid Waste Management
Abhay M. Patil, Prasanna B. Joshi, M.S.Kurani
Introduction:
Rapid urbanization, increasing industrialization rising incomes and a
more sophisticated form of consumerism in developing countries are leading
to an increase in the amount and toxicity of waste in middle-income Asian
countries, especially in the cities. According to the World Bank, urban areas in
Asia generate about 760,000 tons of municipal solid waste (MSW), or
approximately 2.7 million cubic meters, per day. In 2025, this figure will
increase to 1.8 million tons of waste per day, or 5.2 million cubic meters of
waste. Municipal solid waste generation shows a positive correlation with the
economic growth of people in terms if kg/capita/day as a consequence of
improved life style and social status (Pradeep Kumar and Rajender Kumar
Kaushal, 2015). Being the world’s second most populous county the level of
urbanization in India, has increased from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16% in 2011.
Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) is one of the most overlooked
basic services provided by the Government of India. MSW generation rates
range between 0.3 and 0.6 kg/capita/day in Indian cities and annual increase
in MSW generation (volume) is estimated as 1.33 % per capita (Pattnaik and
Reddy 2010). Municipalities, usually responsible for managing MSW in
developing countries like India are facing a challenge in providing an effective
and dynamic system to the society. They usually fail to attain this due to lack
of appropriate collection system, lack of technical expertise and insufficient
financial resources (Sujauddin et al. 2008; Guerrero et al. 2013). In developing
countries, the cities barely spend 0.5 % of their per capita gross national
productivity (GNP) on services for managing MSW (What a waste 1999).
Research Problem and Objective:
Belagavi City is situated in the northwest part of Karnataka state (150 51’ North
Latitudes and 740 51’ East Longitude), which is well known for industries,
commerce, medical, hospital, education, administration, and pleasant climate,
it has attracted a huge number of the people from its hinterland and
surrounding regions. The population of Belagavi city has increased sharply
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from 83,483 in 1951 to 4,88,292 in 2011 with this the solid waste in the city has
also greatly increased. It is projected that waste to be handled in 2020 would
be 250 tons per day and which will continue to only increase in the days to
come, which has become a great threat to the City Corporation and
Cantonment board as well as to the city dwellers. Thus, the focus of this
research paper is to analyze the present situation of solid waste and to
evaluate the existing solid waste management in the City and to understand
the level of success in these initiatives, it is necessary to carry out an audit or
study.
Data Base
The present work has been carried out for Belagavi city through the
collection of data (i.e. both primary and secondary data), which has been
collected mainly from two departments, the City Municipal Corporation (MC)
and Public Works Department (PWD) and interviewing stake holders and by
field surveys. In addition, the researcher undertakes review of published
materials and reports that also includes literature study of some examples for
waste management in Indian situations, key informant interviews, applicable
policies, laws (if any) pertaining to the research purpose.
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etc. The following Table No. 6 shows the specific data on physical and
chemical composition of municipal solid waste in Belagavi City.
The Growth Of Population And Solid Waste Generation (1995-2015)
Table No. 01
Year Population Solid Per Year Population Solid Per
In Lakh waste Capita In Lakh waste Capita
(in waste (in waste
Kgs.) generate Kgs.) generate
(Kg/day) (Kg/day)
1995 3.20 83456 0.260 2006 4.16 117210 0.281
1996 3.23 84686 0.262 2007 4.18 124091 0.296
1997 3.33 87866 0.263 2008 4.25 130575 0.307
1998 3.43 91047 0.265 2009 4.31 137289 0.318
1999 3.54 93227 0.263 2010 4.43 143985 0.325
2000 3.65 95407 0.261 2011 4.51 149987 0.332
2001 3.70 97568 0.263 2012 4.63 155954 0.336
2002 3.87 99898 0.258 2013 4.71 162154 0.344
2003 3.90 101948 0.261 2014 4.82 175458 0.364
2004 3.95 104129 0.263 2015 4.88 180454 0.369
2005 4.06 109841 0.270
* Source: Belagavi City Corporation
Average Waste Generation From Sample Ward - 2015 (Table No. 02)
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following table shows the length of the roads for the street sweeping and the
waste collected from it.
II. Secondary Collection.
The waste from primary collection is transferred to secondary collection i.e.
metal containers. The collection of waste from D2D and corporation has given
11 auto tipper, 30 tricycles and 128 push carts for various SHG’s & RWA’s. At
present Belagavi City Corporation has 309 pourakarmikas for sanitation work.
For regular monitoring of secondary transportation corporation also has
installed GPRS system in all CCB vehicles.
III. Waste Transported Per Trip
It is estimated that Belagavi generates about 180 tons of wastes per day. Out of
this about 77 per cent is collected and transported out daily. A weighing of
the waste carried per trip is made for each of the vehicles, the approximate
weight carried by each vehicle is about 4.15 to 4.25 tons. The waste
transported per day is estimated to be 140 - 160 tons. The entire garbage of the
city is transported to the landfill site with the help of 10 twin dumper placer, 2
compactors, 12 trippers and 8 tractors.
D. Waste bin description
There are about 1237 bins and 87 containers in Belagavi city. The average
quantity of waste generated in a bin comes to be around 145 kg/bin, and the
waste carrying capacity of a bin is 375 kg. So the waste generated is nearly half
of the waste carrying capacity of the bin, but as there is an uneven waste
generation in the city the collection of waste in the bins may vary from one bin
to another. There might be some bins which get filled on a daily basis whereas
some bins may take even less time. To avoid open dumping of garbage on the
street corners and other places as per the MSW rules, the City Corporation of
Belagavi has procured closed metal containers of size 4.5 cum and 3.00 cum.
The Bin-Population Ratio for Belagavi city is 1 : 318. This shows that only 1
bin serves 318 people in Belagavi city. It is a clear indication that the Bin-
Population ratio is very low, the people have been demanding more bins to be
installed for effective disposal of waste into the bins.
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provision for these waste segregation plants. However, a lot of recyclable dry
waste is not segregated and is thrown on the streets by the people along with
domestic, trade or other wastes. Such waste is usually picked up by the poor
waste pickers for their livelihood.
F. Manual handling of the waste
The waste is collected from the municipal bins manually with the help of
shovel, basket and handcart. The workers use these equipments to collect and
throw the waste from the municipal waste bins into the trucks manually. The
workers are also required to collect the waste that is littered round the bins.
G. Support of NGO’s
City Corporation Board also takes help of NGOs to educate people on
cleanliness and hygiene. These NGOs go door to door distributing pamphlets
and explaining about the importance of keeping the city clean.
H. Sewer cleaning machines
The Corporation has also procured two sweepers from Kam-Avida for
cleaning the main roads and highways. For cleaning the sewer, the corporation
has JCB’s gutter/sewer cleaning machine.
SATISFACTION WITH SWM SYSTEM
a. Service Level Benchmarking Indicators
Primary surveys indicate that majority of both slum and non-slum households
rate the collection system as bad. This clearly indicates the inefficient methods
of SWM practices. About 23 per cent of the slum HHs and 50 per cent of the
non-slum HHs rate the system as “Average”, only a very minor percentage of
the remaining HHs rate the system as “Good”.
Service Level Indicators And Benchmarks (2015) Table No.8
Sl.No. Indicators Benchmarks Status
1 Household level coverage of Solid Waste 100 % 90 %
Management Services
2 Efficiency of Collection of Municipal Solid 100 % 80 %
Waste
3 Extent of Segregation of Municipal Solid Waste 0 % 0%
4 Extent of Municipal Solid Waste 60 % 60 %
recovered/recycled
5 Extent of Scientific Disposal of Municipal Solid 100 % 100 %
Waste
6 Extent of Cost Recovery in Solid Waste 100 % 0%
Management Services
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REFERENCES:
Ahsan, N., 1999. Solid Waste Management Plan For Indian Megacities. Indian
Journal Of Environmental Protection 19 (2), 90–95).
Akolkar, A. B., (2005). Status Of Solid Waste Management In India,
Implementation Status Of Municipal Solid Wastes, Management And Handling
Rules 2000, Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi.
CPCB. 2001. State Of The Environment Report. India
CPCB. 2002. Management Of Municipal Solid Wastes. New Delhi. India. CPCB.
2006. Project On Monitoring And Inventory Of Emissions Of Volatile
Compounds.
CPCB. 2009. National Summary Report.
6. CPHEEO (2000) Manual On Municipal Solid Waste Management, Pp.219 -
227. Central Public Health And Environmental Engineering, New Delhi, India.
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15
Civil Society and Urban Governance Problems In India
Ishwarya.R and Ramya.S
Introduction:
In 2011, about 357 millions persons were living in urban areas of India
and it was the second largest urban population in the world. The 74th
Constitution Amendment Act came into force in June, 1993 which sought to
improve strengthen urban governance and management of services. The
urban population is expected to rise to around 38 percent by 2026 In urban
areas, people are differentiated on the basis of occupations, religion, class,
living standards and social beliefs. Architects and town planners have tried to
control disorganization so that cities today are properly planned. The basic
needs of the people with regard to safe drinking water, housing, maintenance
of public places, toilets, transport etc. Town planning has become an
important aspects of urban governance.
Urban local governments are governed by the provisions of the State
municipal Acts. Every State has its own municipal Act. The State legislature is
stronger by the central government to decide on the structure, functions and
powers to be entrusted to the local governments. Although the content and
format of various State municipal Acts is more or less uniform, there are
important differences in the provisions for devolution of powers, functions
and funds to local governments since this is determined by the condition of
both the State and the local government. The 74th Constitutional Amendment
Act 1993 facilitated state-civil society partnership in provisioning of services
(Subha and Bhargava 1999; Sekhar, 2005). This arrangement has given
legitimacy to the civic groups and improved the credibility urban areas. This
has facilitated efficient delivery of services and empowered the urban local
bodies. Civic groups like ‘Jaanagraha’, ‘Civic’ and ‘Proof’ are involved in
participatory budgeting practices at grassroots level.
The term urban government in India signifies the governance of an area
by the people Though their elected representatives. There are eight types of
urban governments in India, municipal Corporation, Municipality, notified
area committee, town area committee, cantonment board, township, port trust
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and special purpose agency at the central level of urban government is deals
with three ministries of urban, there are Ministry of urban development ,
Ministry of defense , Ministry of home affairs.
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waste. Problems of slums- Slums are the most important and severe problem
of urban settlements. At the same time these are universal found in every
urban center both in the development as well as developing countries.
Most municipalities in India do not have sufficient resources and
technology to collect desegregated town-level data and maintain a database.
Hence, data on various municipal aspects and performance parameters is
difficult to collect. For example, reliable data on the proportion of population
served by water supply, maintenance of public places, houses connected
with underground sewer facility; proportion of solid waste collected and
disposed daily; etc., are generally not maintained.
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free legal aid to the poor (Article 39A), to take steps to secure the participation
of workers in the management of industries (Article 43A). The challenges of
growing urbanization and to enable Indian cities to develop to the level of
global standards, a comprehensive programme the Government was launched
a JNNURM in December, 2005.
JNNURM Projects – Sector wise sanction (Urban Infrastructure and
Governance)
S. Sector Number of Projects Cost of Projects
No. Sanctioned Sanctioned (Million)
1 Water Supply 140 1,82,346
2 Sewerage 99 1,21,167
3 Drainage/ Storm Water 59 72,888
Drainage
4 Solid Waste Management 40 40 21,861
5 Roads/ Flyovers 75 33,822
6 Public Transport System 19 47,709
7 Other Urban Transport 13 6,860
8 Urban Renewal 9 4,451
9 Development of Heritage 2 492
Areas
10 Preservation of Water Bodies 4 1,167
11 Parking 1 560
Total 461 4,94,224
Source: JNNURM, Progress Review, April 24, 2009.
Municipal institutions in India have a history of over 300 years. These
refer to ULBs comprising municipal corporations, municipalities and nagar
panchayats. Study of implementation of 74th CAA in various states showed
that some states have performed better than others. An important observation
is that while there has been full compliance in respect of provisions, such as
constitution of three types of Urban Local Bodies, reservation of seats, and the
same cannot be said for other provisions, namely constitution of Wards
Committees, District Planning Committees and Metropolitan Planning
Committees.
Suggestions:
Some measures have to be adopted if we want to remedy of civil society and
urban governance problems.
Municipalities to find own financial resources.
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16
Socio-Legal Issues of Female Migrants in India
Sridevi Krishna
“Migration is an expression of the human aspiration for dignity, safety and a better future. It
is a part of social fabric, part of our very make-up as a human family”
**Ban Ki Moon
Introduction
Work is one of the few experiences common to most of humanity. It not
only plays an obvious and crucial role in the well-being of workers and their
families but paves the way to broader and social- economic development of
individuals, their communities and societies. Availability of work with quality
is the key for progress of any country. Work that traps people in bondage or
poverty or expose them hazards, insecurity or any kind of discrimination, does
not allow individuals or the economies of which they are part to advance and
fulfill their potential. Decent work covers all aspirations of people for their
working lives; for work that is productive, delivers a fair income with security
and social protection, safeguard basic rights, offers equality of opportunity
and treatment. Prospects for personal development and the chance for
recognition and to have their voice heard. It underpins peace and security in
communities and societies.
With the growth of labour migration in India, the concept of decent
work has changed its form in ensuring full protection and support social-
economic development of the migrants. Migration help to improve income,
skill development and provide greater access to service like health care and
education. In a country like India internal migration is more whether it is intra
district, inter district or interstate migration. It can also be rural -urban, urban -
rural, rural - rural and urban -urban. Nearly one-third of India’s population is
migrant population. Almost half of this population has migrated from rural
areas to cities in search of work. Lack of alternative livelihoods and skill
development in source areas, locations from where migration originate are the
primary causes of migration from rural areas. Workers migrate seasonally,
temporarily, or for a longer period, either within a state or across states. More
often than not, they are vulnerable, exploited and work in conditions where
their rights are not protected. Female workers face different issues in respect of
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maintenance of their family especially when they migrate from rural region to
urban region.
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Social security systems provide nine types of benefits as defined in the in the
Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952(102) namely, medical
care, sickness and maternity, medical care, sickness and maternity benefits,
family, benefits, unemployment benefits, employment injury, invalidity and
survivor’s benefits, old age benefits. Therefore, social security is the very
foundation of a decent society and it is the primary source of social legitimacy.
Migrant workers as such do not enjoy the benefits of social security
schemes in the countries to which they have migrated. The ILO estimates
suggest that 150 million people are fully unemployed. Many more are forced
to eke out a living in casual or occasional jobs, low productivity self, self
employment or other forms of unemployment. Unemployment has growing
millions as a result of the financial crisis in Asia and other parts of the world;
more than 50 percent of the world’s population is excluded today from any
form of social security. The employers are only interested in maximizing their
material profits, which they do by paying low and piece- rated wages without
accepting any responsibility for the basic security. Most of the migrant
workers do not have adequate shelter, drinking water or toilet facilities.
It has been observed that seasonal migrant workers in sugar factories in
the Maharashtra and other states, they have to stay in make shift shacks, huts
or in the open and have no access to safe drinking water. The Factories Act
of1948 makes it obligatory on the employers to provide drinking water,
washing, bathing facilities for workers and latrines and urinals for workers
etc. It was found from the surveyed sugar factories that drinking water,
washing and bathing facilities, other facilities were totally absent for contract
basis seasonal migrant workers in the premises of the sugar factories. Health
hazards are a serious problem for the migrant workers in various sectors.
Construction and brick kiln migrant workers suffer from a number of diseases
which are a result of their occupation or working conditions. Accidents and
lung diseases are common among construction workers. The ILO estimates
suggest that only 10 percent of the world’s workers have truly adequate social
protection.
More than 90 percent of the total workforce of the country is
engaged in the unorganized sector. Of the total employment of women, they
comprise only 4 percent of the organized sector, and 96 percent women are
employed in the so called unorganized or informal sector, which is
unorganized, non-unionized, low waged and with unhealthy almost inhuman
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Conclusion
Thus decent work is central to the efforts to reduce poverty and is a path to
achieving equitable, inclusive and sustainable development. Ultimately decent
work underpins peace and security in communities and societies. It sums up
the aspirations all people have for their working lives; for work that is
productive, delivers a fair income with security and social protection,
safeguards basic rights, offers equality of opportunity and treatment,
prospects for personal development and the chance for recognition and to
have your voice heard. The primary goal of ILO i.e. to promote opportunities
for women and men to obtain decent and productive work, in conditions of
freedom, equity, security and human dignity, should also be concerned with
migrant workers generally and female migrant workers specifically.
References:
Das Gupta, “Migration from Rural Areas”, (OUP Pub), Delhi. (1979)
Dr. W.N. Salve , “Labour Rights and Labour Standards for Migrant Labour in
India”, available @ (www.rdwpaper22.in)
Miriam Temin, Mark.R, “Girls on the Move”, Girls Count Report,The
Population council, 2013 (available @ www.popcouncil.org)
Rameez Abbas and Divya Varma, “Internal Labor Migration in India Raises
Integration Challenges for Migrants”, (Available@www.migrationpolicy.org)
Vipul Kant Singh, Alok Kumar, “Changing pattern of Internal Migration in
India”, (International Journal of Current Research), Vol 3, April 2011.
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17
An Analysis of Socio Economic Condition of Women In
Slum Area – With Special Reference to Hebbal Extension
Area of Mysore City
R.H.Pavithra
Introduction
Presently, Indian Population is 1/6th of the world population.
Accelerating urbanization is forcefully effecting the transformation of Indian
society. Slightly more than 28 percent of the country's population is urbanized,
but unfortunately 21.68 percent (61.8 million) of the urban population live in
slum area. As per Last NBO report total housing shortage was 19.4 million
units. In urban are the shortage is 6.6 million unit and 90% of these shortage
hits poor and LIG people. It’s become a very common urban scenario that
thousands of dwellings made of straw, mud, tin, and cardboard are squeezed
into areas of a small city block. In these cramped dwellings, often only an arm-
span in width, entire families live without running water, electricity. Few have
beds; they sleep on scraps of cloth padding on the dirty floor. Rapid growth of
industrialization creates enormous employment opportunity. It attracts the
lower income peoples and the unskilled labours from the rural area. The high
rate of migration from rural area to the urban sector formulated slum area,
because these men are unskilled labours to industries.
More than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas and by 2030 it is
projected that over half of residents in low- and middle-income countries
(LMICs) will reside in cities). As rural residents move to urban areas in search
of jobs and villages are overtaken by expanding urban agglomerations, many
low- and middle-income countries are increasingly concerned with the
urbanization of poverty. The rapid and large scale of urban growth has raced
far ahead of the provision of services and has precipitated a proliferation of
informal settlements – and the development of new, smaller cities – without
access to water and sanitation, garbage collection or security of tenure.
Definition of Slum
The UN operationally defines a slum as “one or a group of individuals living
under the same roof in an urban area, lacking in one or more of the following
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Literature Review
Slums are usually located near railway tracks, factories and busy roadsides
thus rendering their inhabitants vulnerable to high burden of diseases. They
are exposed to vehicular and industrial pollution. The environment of such
areas is not good for health; it causes a number of diseases among which
respiratory diseases are very common(Gulis, Mulumba et al. 2004).
One of the most important characteristics of slums is lack of ownership of
land where they are living. Usually they make their houses on vacant
government or public land, or marginal land parcels like railway setbacks or
undesirable marshy land. When the land is not in productive use they get it as
an opportunity and settle there. They are vulnerable to landslide, flood prone
areas and unsafe environment (Unger and Riley 2007).
Education is basic right of every human being. Unfortunately very few slum
dwellers can get this right. Literacy rate in slums is very low, especially;
women have to suffer more than men. This condition is not similar in all the
slums of the world but developing counties explore this phenomenon more.
Generally authorities are reluctant to provide this opportunity to dwellers
(ROBERTS 2000).
Living conditions in slum are very poor. People have to live in adverse
conditions in slum areas. Slums are generally dirty and unclean; there is not a
proper way of cleanliness. Shortage of water supply and inadequate sanitation
creates issues for households (Bandyopadhyay and Agrawal 2013).
Generally slum dwellers do not have access to safe water it is a major cause of
diseases in slums. They face difficult to obtain water, the water which they get
is not of good quality; it makes them vulnerable to diseases. About 2 million
people die every year due to diarrheal diseases; most of them are children less
than 5 years of age. The main cause of children death is diarrhea (Graf,
Meierhofer et al. 2008).
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Objectives
1. To examine the socio economic condition of women dwellers of slum in
case study area
2. To suggest suitable measures to improve the living condition of women
of slum in case study area.
Methodology
The present study is on empirical investigation based on sample interview of
women dwellers of slum in Mysore city..Mysore is a mid sized south Indian
city with a population of about 7.8 lakh and spanning an area of 128 sq kms.
This is second largest city in Karnataka after Bangalore, the capital city of
Karnataka. This City is 140 kms away from state capital Bengaluru. The
present study is based on both primary and secondary data and a systematic
random sampling method has been adopted for survey. The primary data has
collected from slum situated in Hebbal extension area which is near to the
Industrial area and is approximately 7 kms away from central bus stand and
railway station of the city and this slum is near to the posh locality of mysore
city such as Brindavan extension, Vijayanagar and Metagally. The survey has
been conducted by taking 50 women dwellers of slum of case study on
random basis. Simple table percentage method used to analyse the results and
the results have been depicted by simple bar graph and pie chart.
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Table 7 shows that 70 percent of the respondents have access to either Radio or
T.V. But hardly 30 percent don’t have access to these entertainment or the
media sources.
Table 8: Nature Of Occupation
Sl No Nature of Occupation No of Respondents Percentage
1 Waste Pickers 4 8
2 Cobblers 5 10
3 Drainage cleaners 5 10
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
4 Street Sweepers 6 12
5 Working in 10 20
Hotels/Institution
6 Industies/ factories 13 26
7 Designing coconut 7 14
leaves for ceromonies
Total 50 100
Source: Field Survey
Table 8 reveals that majority of 13 respondents (26 percent) work for industries
and factories, around 10 respondents work for hotels and educational
institutions in house keeping departments. Around 7 respondents engage in
thaching of roofs and designing it for some auspicious occasions, 6
respondents work as sweepers, 5 each respondents work as drainage cleaners
and cobblers and 4 respondents roam around as waste pickers.
Table 9 explains that only 6 percent of them have above 10000 rupees income
as their monthly income and 24 percent have monthly income between 5000 to
10000 and majority of them around 60 percent have income ranging between
1000 to 5000 rupees and hardly of 10 percent lies in the montly income group
of 1000 rupees.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Table 10 depicts that only 6 percent of the respondents have their monthly
savings above 5000 rupees and 40 percent of them have their savings between
1000 to 5000 rupees around 34 percent have savings upto 1000 rupees and 20
percent have no savings at all.
Research Findings
Case Study Slum area has listed some facility needs urgent attention.
For instance, water supply and drainage access in the area. All most all
households reported lack of drainage, Potable water and toilet facilities.
Most of the residents of slums do not constitute a skilled working class.
They engage themselves in housekeeping department in hotels,
factories, drainage cleaning etc., These jobs are low income generating
activities.
The housing condition in the slum presents a grim scenario.About 20
percent of houses are pucca and 50 percent were semi pucca. The largest
household had a semi puccahouse.Most of the household have only one
room.The most crowded household had seven person to a room. As
regard other amenities, it has been observed that 60 percent of
household have no latrines. Thus the slum dwellers suffer from
tremendous deprivation of sanitation, , cooking bathing ,defecating and
washing space.
60 percent of women in study area have education up to 7th standard
due to compulsory and free education of the government.
It was observed that TV sets were commonly found in slum household,
no one was subscribing any news paper.
30 respondents suffer from dehydration due to lack of potable drinking
water facalities and 20 respondents were prone to Urinary Track
Infections since there is lacking separate latrines and proper drainage
facilities. And due to bad environmental contaminated condition 25
respondents are subjected to suffer from frequent common cold and
cough.
60 percent have their monthly income between 1000 to 5000 rupees
because majority of women in case study slum area are engaged in jobs
like working as house keepers in some posh shoping complex, factories,
who quiet obviously get 6000 to 8000 rupees as their monthly salary.
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Conclusion
Generally the social status of the women slum dwellers is very poor. They
belong to poor build-up households, lack of basic amenities like drinking
water, lighting, electricity, latrine facility, sewerage facility. The social profile
of the slums is not good. They are poor and marginalized section of the
society. The economic conditions of the women slum dwellers are very low.
Generally, women slum dwellers are engaged in low level of economic
activities like rag keeping, cleaning of houses, labourers in factories, malls
etc.Women Slum dwellers are basically illiterate and they do not read and
write. Due to lack of the literacy they are unable to do good job. Thus the
economic conditions of the women slum dwellers are not good and they earn
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
less amount of money. Due to less income slum dwellers are unable to
purchase the basic needs of daily lives. Socio-economic status of women slum
dwellers can be characterized as mainly low income group with inadequate
education. Realizing the gravity of the situation governments have
implemented a number of schemes and programmes to improve the living
conditions of people living in slums. In short, multiprolonged strategy
required not only to address the needs of women slum dwellers for shelter
but also the problems of urban poverty, unemployment, low incomes and
lack of access to basic urban services.
References
Alamgir et al. (2009). "Assessing the livelihood of slum ewellers in Dhaka
city." J. Bangladesh Agril. University
Ameratunga et al. (2006). "Road-traffic injuries: confronting disparities to
address a global-health problem. The LANCET
Awadall, H. I. (2013). "Health effect of slums: A consequence of urbanization."
Scholarly Journal of Medicine.
Awasthi, S., & S. Agarwal (2003). "Determinants of childhood mortality and
morbidity in urban slums in India." Journal Article - Indian pediatrics,
Charles J. Stokes, A Theory of Slum, Land Economics ,Vol. 38, No. 3 , PP. 187-
197
Das. B, (1997), Slum Dwellers in Surat City: A Socio Demographic Profile,
Indian Journal of Social Work, New Delhi, Sage Publications
Gangadharan K (2005), Utilization of Health Services in Urban Kerala: A Socio
Economic Study Serials publications, New Delhi
Gurumukhi K.T (2000), slum Related Policies and Programmes, shelter, Vol 3
No.3, pp 57.
HatekarNeeraj and Rode Sanjay (2003),Truth about Hunger and Disease in
Mumbai, Malnourishment among slum children Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol 38, No 43, PP 4604-4610..
Joshi Seema (2005),Marriage, Migration and Labour market in slum areas ,
Nagarlok, vol 37,No 3,PP 34-49.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
18
Urbanization and Rising Urban Poverty With Reference
To Kodagu District
Girish.H.R.
1.0 Introduction:-
Kodagu is an administrative district in Karnataka, India. It occupies an
area of 4,102 square kilometers (1,584 sq mi) in the Western Ghats of
southwestern Karnataka. Agriculture is the most important factor that
upholds the economy of the district and rich in natural resources.
Urbanisation brings with it unique opportunities like increased avenues for
economic growth, diversified livelihood options, access to better infrastructure
services and hence, better chances for overall human development. However,
Erratic urbanization may also lead to erosion of safety nets, unsafe living
conditions leading to poor quality of life, environmental pollution, health
hazards, inequality and exclusion;. Thus, the impact of urbanization on human
development cannot be conclusive unless issues related to health, education;
livelihoods and standard of living in the urban context are understood. The
study has projected that the district’s urban population may increase by an
astounding 1.7 percent compared to a relatively moderate growth of rural
population. The rapid growth of urbanization may pose a great threat to the
increase of urban poverty, inequality and exclusion.
2.0 Statement:-
“A study on the extent of changing life styles with respect to
Urbanization, leading to urban poverty, inequality and exclusion in Kodagu
district.”
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to house sites. It symbolises the movement of people from rural to urban areas.
Today in Kodagu, due to uncontrolled urbanisation, leads too many problems
like, worsening water quality, excessive air pollution, noise and the problems
of waste disposal, unsafe living conditions leading to poor quality of life,
inequality and exclusion.
“Development can be seen… as a process of expanding the real
freedoms that people enjoy.” -Amartya Sen.
5.0 Methodology: -
A case study research method was used for blending qualitative data-
collection methods to obtain a detailed and reliable picture of the Kodagu
district. I recognized members of the experts capable of analyzing their own
experiences. I involved them in exploring and analyzing their experiences of
impact of Urbanization on urban poverty, inequality and exclusion. 10 key-
informant interviews were conducted. Key-informants included Journalists,
Assistant director, Dept. of statistics-Kodagu district. Extensive field
observations were conducted to understand the impact of Urbanization on
urban poverty, inequality and exclusion in the district; I ensured active
involvement of the Key-informants in all phases of the study.
7.0 Tools used for the study: - The following tools were used for the study,
1. A data sheet prepared by the investigator to collect information in different
variables of the objectives.
2. Interview schedule for key-informants to collect the information about
impact of Urbanization, on urban poverty, inequality and exclusion in
Kodagu district.
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7.1 Analysis of the data: - Statistical techniques used, the data was analyzed in
terms of percentage.
8.0 Urbanisation:-
Urbanization refers to general increase in population and it includes
increase in the number and extent of cities. Urbanization happens because of
the increase in the extent and density of urban areas. It symbolizes the
movement of people from rural to urban areas. While natural population
growth has been the major contributor to urbanisation, rural-urban migration
continues to be an important factor. For the first time in history, the world is
now more urban than rural (UN-DESA, 2014). Urbanisation is happening
much faster in developing countries than elsewhere – population growth rates
are higher and widespread internal migration is occurring. Urbanisation is an
inevitable end product of economic growth and modernization. It results from
three simultaneous processes: population growth in urban areas, migration of
population from rural to urban areas and the conversion of rural to urban
areas. The world has been witnessing increasing rates of Urbanisation With
this increase, the number of poor in urban areas is also likely to rise and
according to United Nations, since 2008, more people are living in urban than
rural areas.
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worsening water quality, excessive air pollution, noise and the problems of
waste disposal.
Table showing the Population of cities / towns of Kodagu district in the six
decades (As per population census )
Sl.no Urban area 1961 census 1981 census 2001 census 2011 census
1 Madikeri 14,453 24,724 32,496 33,381
3 Somvarpet 08,039 13,872 20,406 22,055
5 Virajpet 10,887 17,067 22,480 25,552
6 Total 33,379 55,663 75,382 80,988
7 District total 3,22,829 4,61,888 5,48,561 5,54,519
500000
urban
400000 popln
300000
200000 dist
popln
100000
0
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
8.2 Analysis:-
The pattern and trend of urban population in Kodagu during 1961 to
2011, shows that total urban population has been increased 2.5 times from
33,379 to 80,988. Whereas urban population may increase by an astounding
1.7 percent compared to a relatively moderate growth of rural population
since 1961 to 2011.
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than income because incomes tend to fluctuate over time; there are problems
of under-reporting (particularly income derived from the private and informal
sectors). Money metric measures can be adjusted to account for the higher cost
of living in urban areas when measuring poverty.
Unsatisfied Basic Needs Index:
This approach defines a minimum threshold for several dimensions of
poverty classifying those households who do not have access to these basic
needs. They include characteristics such as literacy, school attendance, piped
water, sewage, overcrowding, adequate housing, and some kind of caloric and
protein requirement. If a household is deficient in one of the categories, they
are classified as having unsatisfied basic needs.
Asset Indicators:
This has been used increasingly with the Demographic and Health
Surveys (DHS), A range of variables on the ownership of household assets are
used to construct an indicator of household’s socio-economic status. These
assets include: a car, refrigerator, television, dwelling characteristics (flooring,
type of roof, toilet), and access to basic services including clean water and
electricity.
Vulnerability:
This approach defines vulnerability as a dynamic concept referring to
the risk that a house hold or individual will experience an episode of income
or health poverty over time, and the probability of being exposed to a number
of other risks (crime, violence, natural disasters, being pulled out of school).
Vulnerability is measured by indicators that make it possible to assess a
household’s risk exposure over time through panel data. These indicators
include measures of: human capital, physical assets, income diversification,
links to networks, participation in the formal safety net, and access to credit
markets. This kind of analysis can be quite complex, requiring a specially
designed survey.
Participatory methods:
This typically relies on qualitative approaches to capture aspects of
urban poverty that may not be identified through pre-coded surveys. Through
tools such as focus group discussions, case studies, and individual open-ended
interviews, it is possible to determine the perceptions of poverty, identify
priority needs and concerns, and gain insight on the effectiveness of programs
and policies from the perspective of the beneficiaries.
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8.2 Analysis:-
The pattern and trend of urban BPL & APL card holders shows that, in
Madikeri 61.32 %, Virajpet 85.78% and in Somvarpet 76 % are holding BPL
cards out of total card holders. Only 38.68 % in Madikeri, 14.22% in Virajpet
and 24% in Somvarpet are holding APL cards out of total card holders.
Maximum of the population are not holding any type of ration cards are
migrants and labourers,
Specific issues to urban poverty are: -
While the dimensions of poverty are many, there is a subset of
characteristics that are more pronounced for the poor in urban areas and may
require specific analysis.
Commoditization (reliance on the cash economy);
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
9.2 Analysis of Urban Poverty in Kodagu district: - Data used for Urban
Poverty Analysis are,
Population census: - The population census contains basic information
about all citizens in a country. The census may provide valuable
information about housing and basic service access, education levels,
and employment. While the data do not include indicators of income or
consumption,
Administrative data:- Such data are, 1. Information on location of
facilities such as schools, hospitals, public standpipes, etc. 2. Costs and
expenditures by sector and function,
Household surveys: - Household surveys offer a more in-depth
understanding of living conditions by expanding the amount of
information gathered from households
Participatory assessments: - Participatory assessments go beyond
household surveys to gather more qualitative data on individual and
community perceptions.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS): - GIS data are very powerful
within cities for identifying spatial growth patterns, slum locations,
access to public infrastructure, and land use patterns. This information
can be combined with census and other data to determine the spatial
dimensions of poverty and access within a city.
9.4 Interpretation: -
The cities of the district has got considerable population of migrants,
labourers, petty businessmen and marginalized communities, such as SC and
ST communities, who lack access to basic necessities like education, health,
nutrition, proper housing and sustainable livelihoods. This resource poor
population should be considered in the vision while framing the policy and
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
12.0 References:-
Baharaoglu and Kessides, 2002, “Urban Poverty” in World Bank, 2002, A
Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies, Chapter 16.
Census of India 2001&2011, Population Projections for India and States 2001&
2011, Report of the Technical Group on Population Projections Constituted by
the National Commission on Population.
Coudel, Hentschel, and Wodon, 2002, “Poverty Measurement and Analysis”
in World Bank,
2002, A Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies, Chapter 1.
District Human Development Report, Kodagu Draft Reports-
2009,2010,2012,2013,2014
John W. Best, James V. Kahn: research in education, Prentice- Hall of India
New Delhi, 1989.
Mahadevan. K. ecology, developmental and population problems; B.R
publishing corporation, New Delhi 1992.
Mohan R.: Urbanisation in India: Patterns and Emerging Policy Issues in the
Urban Transformation of the Developing World. Josef Gugler (Ed.). Oxford
University Press, Oxford (1996).
Morth, 2000. Motor Transport Statistics of India. Transport Research Wing,
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India, New Delhi.
Sunil Kumar, J.K. Bhattacharyya, A.N. Vaidya, Tapan Chakrabarti,
Sukumar Devotta, A.B. Akolkar , Assessment of the status of municipal
solid waste management in metro cities, state capitals, class I cities, and class
II towns in India: An insight , Waste Management 29 (2009) 883–895.
Trivedi.PR, India’s environment, APH Publishing Corporation, new delhi-
2004.
World Resources, A guide to the global environment, the urban environment,
1996-97.
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19
A Study of Economic Condition of Slum Dwellers
- With Special Reference to Slum of South of
Kumbarkoppal
Prakasha.N
Introduction
Slums are an unhappy reality for our country and many others across
the world. Over one billion world inhabitants live in slums today and the
numbers are climbing. The UN estimates that 1.4 billion people will be
occupying slums by the year 2020. In India the total number of slum dweller
totals about 65 million, of which Maharashtra alone account for 11 million.
The lanes are narrow and the houses are nothing but a single room
treatment without the facilities of an open courtyard or an enclosure, thus
depriving the people of natural gifts like sunshine and air. In such areas,
people use common latrines and water taps. Some of slum areas do not even
have singe rooms, they are thick clusters of small, dilapidated mud huts, the
roofs and ceilings of which are made of scraps of wood, gunny sacks, metal or
some sort of waste material. The streets are narrow and the sewage water
stagnates in open surface drains, which emit bad smell. There is no regular
supply of water, electricity or proper sanitation facility. Slums are generally
built on government land that is lying unclaimed or vacant.
Objectives of this paper
This paper has developed on the basis of some objectives:
1. To know the living condition of slum dwellers in general.
2. To analyse the economic condition of slum dwellers in particular.
Methodology
This paper has developed by both primary and secondary data. The
primary data has been collected through questionnaire. 50 slum dwellers
are selected for case study. Similarly, the secondary data has derived by
reports, research journals, reference books, thesis, news papers and internet
sources. The paper is in descriptive in nature and table data has analysed
by percentage method. In this study only economic variables relating to
slum dwellers are considered. Economic variables like occupation, income
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
level, savings, loan, bank facility, and expenditure pattern are considered
for study.
Concept of Slum area
A slum can be defined as a “compact settlement with a collection of
poorly built tenements, mostly temporary nature, crowded together unusually
with inadequate sanitary and drinking water facilities in unhygienic
conditions.
A Case study
South of Kumbarkoppal is one of the places of Mysore city of Karnataka State
in South India. More than 800 people are situated in this area. Out of total
population 450 are male and 350 are female. Lack of basic infrastructure is min
problem in this area.
Gender-wise Respondents
Gender Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
Male 15 60
Female 10 40
Total 25 100
Source: Field data
Gender-wise Respondents
Male
Female
Total
This table and pie chart shows that the gender of selected respondents. Out of
total 15 respondents, 60 percent are male respondents and 40 percent are
female respondents. More male people are indulging in different occupation.
Occupation leads to economic condition of people.
Age-wise Respondents
Age ( in years) Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
18-25 06 24
25-40 14 56
40-60 04 16
Above 60 01 04
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Total 25 100
Source: Field data
100
Age-wise Respondents
Number of
50 Respondents
Age-wise Respondents
0 Percentage (%)
18-25 25-40 40-60 Above
60 Total
The table and bar diagram shows that the age level of respondents. Out of
total respondents 56 percent of respondents are belongs to age group of 25
years to 40 years. Similarly, 24 percent of respondents are from age group of 18
years to 25 years. The 16 percent and 4 percent of respondents are belongs to
age level of 40 years and above 60 years respectively.
Nature of Occupation
Occupation Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
Sweepers 12 48
Sanitation work 06 24
Small Retail Shop 02 08
Leather work 05 20
Total 25 100
Source: Field data
Nature of Occupation
Sweepers
Sanitation work
Small Retail Shop
Leather work
Total
From above table and pie chart states that the different occupation of
respondents. Out of total respondents 48 percent of respondents are engaging
in sweeping work. The 24 percent of respondents are involving in sanitation
and drainage work. The 20 percent of respondents are working in leather work
in open areas. Only 8 percent of respondents are established a small retail shop
in their living area.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
50
40 Income Level of
30
20 Respondents Number of
10 Respondents
0
Income Level of
Respondents
Percentage (%)
From above table and multiple bar diagram, we can understand the income
status of respondents. Out of total respondents 44 percent of respondents are
obtaining income between Rs 1500 to Rs 3000 per month. The 28 percent of
respondents are receiving income Rs 3000 to Rs 6000 monthly. The 20 percent
of respondents are earning of income between Rs 500 to Rs 1500 every month.
Only 8 percent of respondents are obtaining income Rs 6000 to Rs 10,000
monthly. Nobody not reached to income of above Rs 10,000 monthly.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Below 500
500 to 1000
This table and pie chart are shows that the saving level of respondents. Out of
total respondents 88 percent of respondents are save their amount of below Rs
500 every month. The remaining respondents are like 12 percent of them are
saving amount of between Rs 500 to Rs 100 monthly. No one respondent is
failure to save amount more than Rs 1000 per month.
Sources of Loan Borrowings of Respondents
Sources of Loan Number of Percentage
Respondents (%)
Loan from friends, relatives and neighbors 21 84
Loan from Banks ( formal institutions) 04 16
Total 25 100
Source: Field data
The table and pie chart has states that the sources of loan of respondents. The
84 percent of respondents are obtaining loan from informal sources like
friends, relatives and neighbors. The remaining respondents of 16 per cent are
getting loan from formal financial institutions like Nationalized banks, private
bankers.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Up to 5000 00 00
5000 to 10,000 08 32
10,000 to 30,000 12 48
Above 30,000 05 20
Total 25 100
Source: Field data
100
50
0 Number of
Number of… Respondents
Percentage (%)
The table and bar diagram has explained that the loan amount of respondents.
Out of total respondents 48 percent of respondents are obtaining loan Rs
10,000 to 30,000 from different sources. Similarly, the 32 percent of
respondents are getting loan of between Rs 5000 to Rs 10,000. Only 20 percent
of respondents are having loan more than Rs 30,000 from different sources.
Bank Facilities
Do you have bank facilities? Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
Yes 20 80
No 05 20
Total 25 100
Source: Field data
Bank Facilities
Yes
80 %
Total
100%
No
20 %
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
The table and Pie chart shows that availability of bank facilities. Out of 80
percent of respondents are having bank facilities. But 20 percent of
respondents are not keeping even a single pace to bank branches.
Expenditure Pattern
Food
Transportation
Entertainment
Religious activities
Others
The above table and diagram have described that the expenditure
pattern of respondents in daily life. Out of total, 55 percent of respondent’s
income going to food expenditure. This is the major expenditure among other
expenditure. The 30 percent of income has spending on daily entertainment.
The 5 percent on transportation cost, 2 percent on religious activities and the
remaining 8 percent of income spending on other activities like health, shelter,
cloth, etc.
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20
Corporate Social Responsibility and Urban Development
– A Conceptual Framework
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Evolution of CSR
The evolution of CSR By the late 1960s, CSR had begun to move beyond
Bowen’s and others focus on the responsibilities of the individual business
owner/manager towards the social and environmental accountability of the
company as an entity (Davis, 1967; Falck and Heblich, 2007). Growing public
environmental awareness and the emergence of environmental movements in
many Western countries were key drivers that prompted various companies
and industries to begin to respond to environmental challenges (Murphy and
Bendell, 1997). The Royal Dutch Shell Group was one of the first major
companies to introduce formal CSR policies and procedures. Internal Shell
management information brief dated September 1969 demonstrates that the
company recognized early on the growing significance of the environment as a
social responsibility issue for large corporations.
India has the world’s richest tradition of corporate social responsibility.
Though the term CSR is comparatively new, the concept itself dates back to
over a hundred years. CSR in India has evolved through different phases, like
community engagement, socially responsible production and socially
responsible employee relations. Its history and evolution can be divided into
four major phases.
Figure 1: Phases of Evolution of CSR
(Fourth Phase
1980)
CSR in globalised
world is in a
confused State
(Third Phase 1950-1990)
CSR under the Mixed
economy paradigm
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
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education. While keeping this issue the Infosys foundation has provided
computer labs to various education institutions to create awareness about
computer in the rural children’s.
Environment: Towards sustainable development and management of natural
resources, many companies have been working on tree plantation,
construction water shed and waste management and wind firms etc., MPM in
Badravathi has created many acres of plantation, this show the concern of
MPM towards environment protection and conservation.
Infrastructure: Most of the companies come forward to provide and create
basic infrastructure amenities to the rural and urban poor by providing
following facilities like construction of dams for irrigation and drinking water,
construction of roads to help the agricultural marketing, construction school
and providing healthcare facilities.
Conclusion
From the above study it is very clear that, CSR as an important activity
issue of Indian companies, regardless of their size, sector, objective of the
company and the location of the company. Indian corporate is realizing that
without CSR, the stability and sustainability of the company cannot be
compete with global market. Many studies have proved that CSR has become
an integral part of every corporate enterprise. However, most of the
companies design and implement CSR initiatives in the area of rural and
urban development. CSR initiatives undertaken by the Indian companies for
the rural and urban poor development have a positive effect and impact on
overall development of society and business.
Reference
Choudhri and Wang, 2007. Communicating CSR on the Internet A case study
of Top 100 information technology companies in India, Management
Communication quarterly, 21(2)-232-247.
Responsibility - DR-CAFTA, Responsibility Competitiveness. N. P. August
2009 web.
Maon, F. Lindgreen and e.Swaen, 2009- designing and implementing CSR.
www.developmentinpractice.org/.../corporate-social-responsibility-and-
urban-develop...
https://www.nttud.co.jp/english/csr/
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21
Regional Disparities, And Social Development In Urban
India A Study
G.H.Nagaraju
Introduction
Human progress is conditioned by the conception of development. Until
the end of 1980's, development is often viewed as growth in income. The rapid
growth of the economy has resulted in massive industrialization. In most
nations this was unplanned and unsystematic. Consequently, migration to
towns and cities, unplanned urbanization with unhygienic and slum
conditions of living, pollution, overpopulation, poverty and unemployment
were the common features characterizing the lives of the masses, resulting in a
deterioration in the quality of life.
As such in the last few decades, there has been a shift in development
paradigm from economic growth approach to human development approach.
Now it is realized that the purpose of development is to create an atmosphere
to develop people's capabilities and opportunities for both present and future
generations. Sen (1997) argues that, "Economic growth cannot be sensibly
treated as an end in itself. Development has to be more concerned with
enhancing the life we need and the freedoms we enjoy. In this sense, economic
growth is considered as a means to .achieve human development. The purpose
of development is human development and enhancing the freedoms of the
people."
According to Dr. Mahbub-UI-Haq, "defining difference between the
economic growth and the human .development is that of the first focuses
exclusively on the expansion of only one choice - income, while the second
embraces the enlargement of all human choices -whether economic, social,
cultural or political." Paul Streeten (1996), says that human development is a
means to higher productivity. A well-nourished, healthy, educated, skilled,
alert labour force is the most important productive asset, it helps in lowering
the family size by slowing human reproduction. It is the experience of all
developed countries that improvement in education levels (particularly of
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
girls), better health facilities and reduction in infant mortality rates leads to a
lowering of the birth rates,
The Human Development Report (HDR) was first launched in 1990
with the single goal of putting people back at the center of the development
process in terms of economic debate, policy and advocacy." It states, "Human
development is a process of enlarging people's choices. In principle, these
choices can be infinite and change overtime. But at all levels of development,
the essential ones are for people to lead a long and healthy life, to acquire
knowledge and to have access to resources needed for decent standard of
living. If these choices are not available, many more opportunities remain
inaccessible."
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a tool used to measure the non-
income dimensions of the quality of life. It is a composite index of three basic
components of development:'
Longevity - Longevity was always measured in terms of life
expectancy at birth, and it is taken to reflect total health conditions of
people.
Educational attainment -Knowledge was measured by adult literacy
rate and mean years of schooling with 2/3 and 1/3rd. weights. Still
later, mean years of schooling was replaced by combined enrolment
ratio.
A decent standard of living -level of living was represented by a
transformation of per capita income. As the exercise was international
in nature and exchange rate was found to be a poor indicator of
comparative purchasing power, the UNDP measured per capita
income in purchasing power parity dollars, which was
transformed.
India has been characterized as a country with a low level of human
development with the country's rank in the human- development v index
calculated by the UNDP being 135 among 174 countries in 1996. India ranks
115th rank out of 162 countries in terms of the UNDP's Human Development
Index (HDI) and is classified in the group-medium with a human
development index of 0.571 in 2001. The 2002 Human Development Report
presents a disappointing picture of India's position in the global arena, that
India ranks 124th in the World with a human development index of 0.577. The
low human .development index-of India is due to low per capita income, low
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
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percent level. Hence, it can be inferred that the human development in India is
determined by educational attainment, health attainment and economic
attainment.
Measures recommended
The study recommended the same measures to improve human development.
First of all development models have to be people centered. It should be
effective and sustainable, new partnerships are to be made between the state
and the market, which should take into account be the market efficiency and
social sensitivity. Further there is need for rapid flow of information and equal
access of education to all irrespective of income and wealth endowment.
The entire resource structure must be assessed so that human capital is
strengthened by the role of education, health and nutrition.
Plan targets would first be expressed in terms of basic human needs and
only later translated into physical targets for production and consumption.
Thus there would have to be a clear exposition of the targets for average
nutrition, education, health, housing, etc. It should be seen that human beings
are to be declared as ultimate of economic planning, then adequate steps are
required to ensure their full participation in planning. Thus, a human
development strategy must be decentralized. The beneficiaries need to be
involved fully in planning for themselves and then in implementing the plan
'that is finally drawn up. If Finally a comprehensive set of social and human
development indicators needs to be evolved to monitor plan progress. In
addition to Gross National Product growth rates, annual assessments on the
performance on human development front, changes in relative and absolute
poverty levels etc. need to be carried out.
References
Abdul Shaban and Bhole (1999): "Measuring development distance
between regions in india - A combined corporate approach", Men and
development, Vol. XXI, No. I, March, Pp. 82-96.
Arul Chellakumar and Jayakumar (2007)-"Economic growth and human
development", Peninsular Economist, Vol. XiX. No. 1. Pp. 299.
Bindu. P.Verghese and Damayanthi.V.T. (2006): "Disparities in and channels
to Human Development -The case of Indian States", Men and development,
Vol. XXVIII, No. 3, September, Pp. 11-22
Census of India, 1991, 2001, Government of India.
Centre for Development Studies (2009): "Challenges inhuman development in
India", Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, January 24-25, 2009.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
22
Exclusion, Poverty and Inequality in Urban India
An Analysis
M.D.Umesha
Introduction
The growth of cities and the consequent acceleration in the process of
urbanization in the world is one of the most striking developments of modern
times. In the 21st century urbanization is the main indicator of economic
development. Urban growth is an undeniable fact across the world, so is in
India. In economic point view, urbanization is a process whereby the primary
productive functions are replaced by complex secondary and tertiary
functions. Urban migration and industrialization account much for the large
share of this rapid growth. Urbanization in India had begun about 2500 BC.
Urban centers like Harappa and Mahanjodaro are the initial examples of olden
times. In India, during the times of Rajaputs and Mughals administration in
AD 1200, several urban centers and pilgrim centers were found. In this period
Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Kolkatta, Bombay, Goa, Cochin etc
were a few urban regions in India. With the British rule, Indian economy was
transformed into a colonial market for the supply of new materials to the
British industries. This hit adversely, on natural growth of number of cities in
the country. British Administration had its Empire Capital, Provincial.
In India, in 1991, of the total population 25.70 per cent of people lived in
urban areas, which is currently about 31.16 per cent (311 million) as per the
2011 Census. India's urban population has grown more than 11 times over the
last century, from 254 Lakh in 1901 to 2850 lakh in 2001. The last one decade
urban population has increased from 28.53% according to 2001 census to
above 30.10 (2011 Census). According to a survey by UN State of the World
Population report in 2007, by 2030, 40.76% of country's population is expected
to reside in urban areas in India. The number of million cities in the world in
1950 was 78 which increased to 433 in the year 2000. By the year 2025 the
number of million cities would touch the mark of 622 where 43 per cent of the
population is accepted to live in urban areas. Hong Kong and Singapore
(eachlOO %) are highly urbanized areas in the world, against Trinidad,
Tobago and Uganda, (each 12%).
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Among the Million plus Urban Agglomerations /Cities, there are three
very large UAs with more than 10 million persons in the country such as
Greater Mumbai (18.4 million), Delhi (16.3 million) and Kolkata (14.1 million).
Added to this, Bangalore occupies the fifth place among the top 10 Urban
Agglomerations and accommodated 8.5 million people in 2011. Maharashtra
(43.86%) is highly urbanized in the country where Bihar (10.47%) is the least
urbanized. Karnataka finds sixth place in the country in respect of
urbanization.It is in this context the present paper attempts to analyse if the
issues related with urbanization and also deal with the remedies to combat the
aggravating situation in India. This is based on secondary information.
Urbanization Problems
Urbanization is not only indicator of economic development but also
creates problems of different nature such as urban poverty, unemployment,
growth of slums, housing shortages, congestion, overcrowd as linked with
transport and land inadequacies, environmental pollution, road accidents etc.
Also, insufficient open space, rapid development of illegal residential layouts
are identified and recognized as urban problems in developed as well as
developing countries with increased urbanization. The increased urbanization
results in the following:
1. Urban Poverty, 2. Urban Unemployment, 3. Emerging New Slums,4.
Environmental Impacts, 5. Housing Crisis
Urban Poverty
Urban Poverty is a major problem of urban development and manage-
ment in developed as well as developing countries. It is the direct and
inevitable consequence of modern capitalism. It is widespread and more
alarming in developing countries like India on account of their
underdevelopment on the one hand and the pseudo urbanization or over-
urbanization on the other. Urban poverty is both relative and absolute,
particularly in over-populated developing countries like India.
Urban Unemployment
Urban unemployment is one of the most disturbed factors in the context
of economic development, particularly in India. Position of unemployment in
urban areas is open and disguised ones. In 1999-2000 urban employment in
India was 7.65 per cent as against 7.19 per cent in 1993-94. In urban India, 57
males and 90 females were unemployed per 1000 persons in 2004 according to
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
the 60* round of NSS Survey, as against 52 males and 84 females in 1993-94
{50Lhl round NSS Survey). As per the 66lh round NSS Survey, 51 male and 91
females were unemployed per 1000 persons in 2007-08. Thus urban
unemployment has been a matter of concern for the administration and the
academics alike.
Environmental Impacts
Urbanization and environment have close inter-linkages. Urbanization
has an impact on the environment, and in turn the environment also impacts
on urbanization. The growth of urbanization has put severe pressure on urban
facilities and resulted in environmental degradation in the form of land, water,
air, and noise pollution. The process of industrialization, urbanization,
migration etc., certainly changes the environment. Air quality deterioration in
urban areas with urban transportation, industrial activity, biomass burning
and biomedical burning has been severe. The pollutants being emitted by the
urban transport, industrialization, drainage, solid wastes, and biomass
burning suspended SO2 (sulpher dioxide), NOx (Oxides of nitrogen), HC
(Hydro carbon), and CO (Carbon monaxide) are matter of concern. The
industries in urban areas contribute to green house gas into the atmosphere,
leading to a rise in global temperature. All these, if not controlled will pose
severe threat to both resources and environment which are scarce in nature.
Because of environmental degradation, most of the urban people suffer from
Diabetic, Blood Pressure, Respiratory problems, Cardiatic, Cancer, etc apart
from increasing HIV+ve cases.
Housing Crisis
Housing, besides being a basic requirement for the urban settlers, also
holds the key to accelerate the pace of development. It is estimated that the
overall employment generation in the economy due to additional investment
in the housing / construction sector has increased by eight times of the direct
employment. Housing is consumption good in the sense that it provides
security, and a minimum decent living. Rapid urbanization results in housing
shortages in urban areas. In 1951 the shortage of urban housing was estimated
at 2.8 million units, it has increased to 9.3 million on 1961, and to 12 million in
1971. During 1991 it has decreased to the level of 8.23 million' and then
continuously decreased to 7.71 million in 1996 and 6.64 million in 2001. Even
then, the problem of housing still persists more severely in urban India.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
23
Economic Development and Urban Poverty
T. Ramesh
Introduction:
Poverty is an unacceptable human condition that does not have to
inevitable. The main goal of development is to eliminate poverty and reduce
social imbalances. Sustainable economic growth and appropriate social
policies are keys to fighting poverty. At the same time, reducing poverty helps
growth by enabling the poor to participate productivity in the economy. Yet
economic growth by itself does not guarantee success in eradicating poverty.
Other important dimensions of poverty, such as quality of life and
participation in decision- making, need to be addressed.
Urban poverty is not a spillover of rural poverty as generally perceived
and the manufacturing sector in India has not been able to provide necessary
pull to rural workers. Migrants in cities are economically better off and are
placed at higher economic stratum than the natives of cities on poverty
indices. Rural migrants into urban areas have been found to have a lower
probability of being poor than the local population.
Poverty goes beyond lack of income. It is multidimensional,
encompassing economic, social and governance perspectives. Economically,
the poor are not only deprived of income and resources, but of opportunities.
Markets and jobs are often difficult to access, because of low capabilities and
geographical and social exclusion. Limited education affects their ability to get
jobs and to access information that could improve the quality of their lives.
Poor health, due to inadequate nutrition and health services, further limits
their prospects for work and hampers them from realizing their mental and
physical potential. This fragile position is exacerbated by insecurity. Living in
marginal conditions with no resources to fall back on, shocks become hard or
impossible to offset. The situation is made worse by the structure of societies
and institutions that tend to exclude the poor from participating in decision-
making that affects social and economic development.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
It is a point of concern that over a quarter of the world’s poor are concentrated
in India. An estimate by the Planning Commission shows that more than 260
million people continue to live Below the Poverty Line (BPL), which is about
26 percent of the country’s population. There is still a high concentration of the
poor in the rural areas. Out of the total, 193 million poor – about 75 percent of
the total poor – live in rural areas. The poor are also concentrated mostly in
backward regions like dry land, rainfed and drought prone, tribal, hill and
desert areas. The concentration to the poor continues to be more among
weaker sections of society particularly among SCs, STs, and backward classes.
The relationship between economic development and urban poverty is
complex. Though large cities have lower levels of poverty the backwash effect
of new development may become even harsher on the urban poor. Cities do
need blue collar workers and in the interest of an orderly and inclusive
development, cities need to integrate the poor and informal sector workers
into main city system.
Such a vast size of the rural population below the poverty line does
have a telling effect on the country and its economy. It amounts to great
wastage and underutilization of the human resources. There is also a great
burden on the economy in terms of recurring relief investment at the time of
drought, floods, cyclone, etc., since the poor are the most vulnerable to natural
calamities. It also affects greatly the potential for saving of the economy for
productive investment. Poverty also breeds many socio-cultural problems,
which are to be tackled separately. It also affects the image of the nation
globally.
“Growth with social Justice” has been the basic objective of the
development planning in India since independence, which have led to
significant changes. Some of these changes are distinctly visible – especially in
the economic sphere with the adoption of new technologies, diversified
production and sophisticated management. Changes have also taken for
disadvantaged communities, with the weakening of untouchability and caste
discrimination and with women enjoying by and large more freedoms than
ever before. On the political front, India has remained a vibrant democracy
with increased participation by women and men in political decision-making.
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References:
K. Shiva Kumar, Poverty and Human Development in India: Getting
Priorities Right, Human Development Resource Centre.
Rajashekar, Poverty Alleviation Strategies of NGOs, Concept Publishing
Company, New Delhi 2004
Global Poverty Report, G-8, Okinawa summit, July 2000.
G.S. Aurora (ed.), Poverty and Economic Reforms: The Social Concerns,
Academic Foundation, 2004.
India-Sustaining reform, Reducing Poverty, A World Bank Development
Policy Review. OUP, New Delhi, 2003.
India: Poverty, Employment and Social Services, A World Bank Country
Study, 1989.
K.S. Krishnamurthy (ed.), Poverty and Income Distribution, Sameeksha Trust
& OUP, 1990
8.Poverty in an Age of Globalisation, The World Bank, October 2000
9. Review of The Asian Development Bank’s Poverty Reduction Strategy,
Asian Development Bank, June 2004.
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24
Analyses of Urban Issues in Karnataka: A Study
Huchhe Gowda
Introduction
According to 2011 census, the urban population in India increased to
31.2 per cent as compared to 28.8 per cent in 2001. Thus it is seen that the
proportion of people living in urban areas and depending on non-agricultural
activities is increasing rather rapidly. This trend is mainly because of the fact
that land used for agricultural and related activities being a limited resource,
could not support the increasing labour force in rural areas. Thus employment
seekers started migrating to urban areas in general. Both the push and pull
factors are responsible for the increasing pace of urbanization in India.
Thus, the problems of urbanization are not only increasing in number
but also in size and enormity. Meanwhile the forecast is that half the country’s
population will be living in urban areas in another two or three decades. This
trend needs to be reversed urgently by providing the urban facilities in rural
areas by locating several industries and generating non-farm employment
opportunities on a very large scale.
Urban Issues in Belgaum District
There is only one City Corporation i.e. Belgaum city, there are two
CMCs, seven TMCs, sex TPs and only One NAC in the district. Belgaum city
is the district head quarters and out fo the two CMCs, Gokak city is the taluka
head quarters whereas Nippani is a town situated on the border of Karnataka-
Maharashtra. Out of the seven TMCs in the district, Athani, Bailhongal,
Chikodi, Ramdurg, Savadatti are taluka head quarters, whereas the other two
i.e. Mudalagi and Sankeshwar are small towns. Out of the total six TPs, three
i.e. Hukkeri, Khanapur and Raibag are the taluka head quarters and the
remaining (Konnur, Kudachi, and Sadalaga) are again small towns. Gokak
falls is the only NAC in the district.
Percentage of Urban Population
Out of the total population in the Belgaum taluk, more than half i.e.
51.25 per cent reside in Belgaum city. According to the census 2011, Belgaum
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city is classified as the III tier city, and fifth largest city in the state in terms of
population. Very recently Belgaum city has witnessed enormous growth due
to political, industrial, educational and health related facilities. Almost all the
educational institutions are established here with three universities, two each
medical and dental colleges and seven engineering colleges. Very recently, due
to holding of winter session of the Karnataka State Assembly in the city and
also due to construction of Suvarna Soudha, Belgaum has been identified as
second capital of Karnataka State. Belgaum city is also the divisional head
quarters of the Belgaum administrative division, therefore many government
offices are located here.
During the last few years in Belgaum city small-scale industries,
particularly engineering works like foundries and metal casting, machinery of
automobile parts etc. are not only growing but also expanding on a large scale.
This is the reason why Belgaum is known as the ‘Foundry Hub of Karnataka’.
Some of the small-scale industrial units are exporting to international market.
Both the CMCs in the district, i.e. Gokak and Nipani record more than
10 per cent of taluk population. Both are business centers. Particularly Nipani
is the last urban agglomeration of Karnataka towards the Maharashtra state
border on NH-4. It is very famous for growing good quality of tobacco.
Tobacco and beedi rolling business is very unique in this town and hence
mainly responsible for the emergence of the town as a commercial center.
Among the TMCs, Ramdurg, Bailhongal and Savadatti have more than
10 per cent urban population as per 2011 census (13.45, 12.8 and 11.67 per
cent respectively). Devotees from all over India gather here in Savadatti
during certain season and days to offer their prayers to Goddess ‘Yallamma
Devi’ and this is mainly contributing to higher population in the town. Besides
being the taluka head quarters, Ramdurg and Bailhongal are also developing
as commercial centers. The rest of ULBs are small towns with less than 10 per
cent population.
Households without own houses
The maximum Percentage of households without their own houses may
be found in Nippani (29.29 per cent) and Gokak (28.03 per cent). Both these
towns are business centers. Large number of landless labourers from the
mofussil areas migrate here in search of employment. Some of them do get the
employment and few others start their own small business on a meager scale.
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Hence, these households find it difficult to have the houses of their own and
Percentage of such households is noteworthy in these two towns.
Belgaum city is having the next highest Percentage of houseless
households which is around 17 per cent, closely followed by Raibag town with
almost the same Percentage points. Belgaum city is growing very fast and due
to the various push and pull factors large number of people are coming and
settling here. With escalating cost of real estate, it is a dream-cum-true for such
households to own a house in Belgaum city. As far as Raibag is concerned, it
being a taluka head quarter, few government officials stay there. The standard
of living of people is very low and landless labourers have migrated here in
search of employment. Due to wide spread poverty, the Percentage of
households without their own houses is also comparatively little higher. In
rest of the ULBs, this Percentage is less than 10 per cent which may be due to
the immigration. In these small towns, traditional families residing for long
time have their own houses and migrated population is very negligible.
Urban Water Supply
Despite the fact that, the district receives good rainfall, three important
rivers flowing and two major dams being constructed, more than half of the
population in the ULBs of the district are not covered by tap water connection.
More than 50 per cent of the households with water tap connectively can be
found in Athani, Bailhongal, Gokak, Sankeshwar and Kudachi ULBs.
Including Belgaum city, in all the other ULBs, tap water connectivity is for less
than 50 per cent of the total households. In Mudalagi TMC, the same is only
20 per cent. Particularly during summer, the eastern part of the district
experience huge water shortage resulting in lot of hardship to the people. The
Drinking water supply in these ULBs and its frequency is provided in the
following Table 2
In eight wards of Belgaum city, 24/7 water supply project is
implemented and hence throughout the day water is supplied to all the
households. In two wards daily water is supplied but only for few hours. In
the remaining 48 wards, water is supplied once in 3 days. There is a need to
improve the frequency of water supply in these wards. In nine out of
seventeen ULBs, water is provided once in two days. In Savadattti, Chikodi
and Hukkeri water is supplied only once in five days.
In Bailhongal and some parts of Ramdurg, water is supplied once in 10
days. Thus, it is evident from the above analysis that the five ULBs in the
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ULBs is more than 2, which is due to the fact that all these taluka level
hospitals have been upgraded as 50 bed hospitals by the government. This is a
very good and welcome step which is to be appreciated; however, other
medical and supportive staff along with the health infrastructure also needs to
be enhanced accordingly. The same bed-population ratio in Belgaum city is
less than 2 in spite of the fact that there is facility in the city such that at one
time more than 5000 patients may be accommodated in one or the other
hospital. This situation is largely due to the huge population that the city has.
In all other ULBs health facilities are not adequate, hence the above ratio is
around 1 and even less than that as well.
Mobilization of Own Resource
With respect to the Percentage of own resource mobilization to the total
receipts, Gokak’s performance is the best in the district with 32 per cent
followed by Soundatti, Nipani etc. The lowest Percentage of resource
mobilization other than Belgaum City Corporation is in Bailhongal TMC with
only 9 per cent. This indicator reveals the efficiency of the governance in these
ULBs and also the dependency of these ULBs on the State government grants
and funds. Moreover, it is necessary to note that in this third tier of
governance, the ULBs are not empowered to raise their own revenue through
taxes except the Gram Panchayats, which are empowered to do so. Hence,
Belgaum city corporation Percentage of revenue mobilization is only 1.4 per
cent. In case of ULBs like Hukkeri, Sankeshwar, Athani, are performing better
with respect to own revenue mobilization.
Expenditure on Development Works
Various development works are undertaken by these ULBs like
providing clean drinking water, construction of community toilets and
provision of drainage facilities, minor roads, community halls etc. Per capita
expenditure on development works is the highest in Nipani (Rs. 4896) and
Gokak (Rs. 3400). It may be noted here that in these two CMCs Percentage of
own resource mobilization is also the highest in the district. This reveals the
fact that in both these CMCs, good governance is practiced and the
development work is very progressive. The performance of Bailhongal and
Ramdurg TMCs are also comparatively better. The same is at medium level in
Belgaum city. However, the minimum per capita expenditure on development
work may be observed in Chikodi in the entire district which is rather strange.
In rest of the ULBs the same is around Rs. 1000, which again is hardly
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population. This means SC/ST population alone constitute half of the slum
population in various ULBs in the district.
In all other urban areas, the number of slums is less than 10 and the
population covered is also less than 5000 except Athani, where nearly 10 slums
cover about 100 acres of land accommodating nearly 12000 dwellers. In Athani
as well the SC/ST population constitutes about 70 per cent of the total slum
population.
Table 1 Details of the notified slums in the district (2013)
Households
Population
Population
Population
Population
Number of
Slums
Other
Total
Total
Area
SC
ST
Sl.
No. ULBs
1 Belgaum city 39 158.31 5488 28460 7286 656 20518
2 Gokak 7 19.01 856 4563 3642 229 692
3 Nipani 4 8.39 298 1394 378 70 946
4 Athani 10 97.05 2267 11925 8139 188 3598
5 Bailhongal 6 20.25 1019 4453 1554 317 2582
6 Chikodi 6 26.07 661 3300 2887 19 394
7 Mudalagi 8 40.13 887 5528 1873 1213 2442
8 Ramdurg 6 24.08 699 2422 1047 4 1371
9 Soundatti 5 12.27 554 2580 456 194 1930
10 Sankeshwar 6 10.32 648 2923 2581 33 309
11 Hukkeri 2 26.25 420 1491 672 9 810
12 Khanapur 3 7015 354 1539 696 683 160
13 Konnur 3 19.35 833 4222 1081 1536 1605
14 Kudachi 5 31.08 715 4581 2194 - 2389
15 Raibag 4 12.38 792 3934 2050 659 1225
16 Sadalaga 5 24.00 982 4910 2460 520 1930
17 Gokak Falls - - - - - - -
Total 119 536.09 1747 88225 39005 6330 42899
3 (44.2%) (7.10%) (48.62%)
Source: Assistant Executive Engineer, Slum Development Board, Belgaum
People migrate here from the surrounding areas of Bijapur and few
districts of Maharashtra which are economically very backward, in search of
employment. Hence, the number of slums and their population is
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comparatively on a higher side in Athani town. All other ULBs are small
towns which are not truly urban in nature and in almost all of them
agriculture is the primary occupation and apart from few governmental and
educational institutions there is no mention worthy industrial or commercial
development at all.
So far, in Belgaum district 531 houses are built under HUDCO Scheme,
2559 houses under the Valmiki-Ambedkar Vasati Yojane (VAMBE Scheme)
and 286 houses under the Integrated Slum development Programme. These all
houses are distributed to the households in the slum areas. This is quite
insufficient because at present only one household out of five is allotted a
house and still four households continue to stay in the slum with minimum of
the basic facilities. So far 66 community toilets (Ten Seated) and 15
Community halls have been constructed in these slums.
Concluding Remarks
The urban population in Belgaum district is approximately 25 per cent
which is lower than the state average of nearly 35 per cent as per the census
data of 2011. There are 17 ULBs in Belgaum district consisting of 1 City
Corporation, 2 CMCs, 7 TMCs, 6 TPs and 1 NAC. Except Belgaum city, all are
small towns. Apart from few government offices and educational institutions,
hardly one can find any other industries whether big or small or even the
growth of service sector in these ULBs is not much. Belgaum is the only city in
the district which is truly urban in nature and accommodates more than half
of the taluk’s population. In rest of the ULBs the urban population is nearly 10
to 12 per cent only.
In the entire Belgaum district ULBs, during the year 2011-12, more than
half of the households do not have the tap water connection. In this backdrop,
it is to be noted that, access to drinking water has implication not only for
health status and human development parameters but also for opportunities
depending upon the opportunity cost of time. This has special implications for
women and children. Mostly the responsibility for fetching water, sometimes
from over long distances and waiting for long periods, for household needs is
invariably assigned to women or girls, who drop out of school to attend to
these chores. Hence, the ready availability of clean drinking water is the pre-
condition for improvement in literacy and health indicators in the society.
Further, most of the ULBs receive water only for a few hours on alternate days
or two or three times in a week. The reasons include limitations in source
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25
The Role of Public Private Partnership in Infrastructure
Development in India
Introduction
Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is an agreement between government
and the private sector regarding the provision of public services or
infrastructure. The social priorities with the managerial skills of the private
sector, relieving government from the burden of large capital expenditure, and
transferring the risk to the private sector. The public assets are transferred to
the private sector as privatization, so the Government decided to work
together with the private sector to provide services and public-private
partnership describes a government service or private business venture which
is funded and operated through a partnership of government and one or more
private sector companies. Thus PPP refers to a long-term contractual
partnership between the public and private sector agencies, specifically
targeted towards financing, designing, implementing and operating
infrastructure facilities and services in the State. These PPPs aim to achieve the
twin objectives of high growth and equity on a sustainable basis.
India has systematically rolled out a PPP program for the delivery of
high-priority public utilities and infrastructure and, over the last decade or so,
developed what is perhaps one of the largest PPP Programs in the world. With
close to 1300 PPP projects in various stages of implementation, according to
the World Bank, India is one of the leading countries in terms of readiness for
PPPs. As per the 2015 Infrascope Report of the Economist Intelligence Unit,
"Evaluating the environment for PPPs in Asia-Pacific 2014", India ranks first in
the world in "Operational Maturity" for PPP projects, third for sub-national
PPP activity and fifth overall in terms of having an ideal environment for PPP
projects. The government of India has been developed by the Department of
Economic Affairs (DEA) to provide key information related to PPP initiatives
in India and to share PPP best practices to enhance the ability of the public
officials as well as private developers to implement PPP projects. The
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Review of Literature:
The lot of research has been conducted on public and private
partnership from last few decades. The review includes studies pertaining role
of PPP in development of infrastructure sector in India.
Vutsova (2012), this study was conducted on the role of public-private
partnership for effective technology transfer. This article aims to analyze the
different levels of development of public-private partnership and highlight its
role in the implementation of technology transfer through introduction and
implementation of new and / or more - custom models. This paper also
analyzed to determined by the relationship between public and private sectors
that ensures different degrees of competitiveness in vast areas of knowledge.
In order to address global challenges that affect strongly social-economic
development, different models of collaboration from the traditional ones are
needed on the basis of PPP.
Nuwagaba (2013), this study was emphasized on public private
partnerships (PPPs) and their Effect on Services Delivery in Rwanda. It was
carried out at Rwanda development board (RDB). The researcher explored the
state of PPP in Rwanda and went ahead to explore whether or not PPP can
improve service delivery in a country. The findings revealed that, there are no
PPPs in the country just yet and what exists are just concessions given to some
investors in the key areas. PPPs can function well if there is no political
interference and there is need for transparence at all times during contacts
negotiations and execution in the government.
Singh (2014), this study was conducted on a study of public private
partnership (PPP) in tourism sector India. This paper highlights the concept of
PPP and growth of PPP projects in tourism sector in India. And analyze its
benefits & challenges issues in India. Public Private Partnerships (PPP) have
become a globally utilized term for the establishment and execution of
infrastructure projects and deliver services to society, with cooperation
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between public and private sectors. Public Private Partnerships (PPP) have
become a globally utilized term for the establishment and execution of
infrastructure projects and deliver services to society, with cooperation
between public and private sectors. This sector is a significant vehicle for
economic progress that generates employment, foreign exchange, tax revenues
and contributes to poverty alleviation of a country.
Kumar (2015), this study was undertaken on role of public private
partnership in tourism sector of Indian economy. These paper aims to focus on
the areas where it has been used as a strategy and to the extent it serves as a
successful tool to leverage the available natural and manmade resources for
Tourism. The paper discusses cases of agreements between government and
the private sector for provisions for public services or infrastructure in
Tourism Sector. The policy framework and intense and ventures are failure
where both government and private bodies share proprietary right. Thus the
paper summaries areas, for both parties to work together with set objectives to
give value addition for tourism sector in Indian economy.
Oluwasanmi (2016), this study was conducted on Public Private
Partnership and Nigerian Economic Growth: Problems and Prospects. This
paper is therefore designed to provide answers to the soaring demand for
infrastructure which is increasing geometrically and its satisfaction not duly
met by existing contracting methods in Nigeria. The paper also analyzed the
challenges militating against the implementation of Public Private Partnership
(PPP) agreements in the country. It is recommended that stakeholders in the
areas of PPP should be adequately trained and enabling laws be domesticated
in each state of the federation in order to take advantage of the sensitive
nature of public properties.
Objectives of the Study:
The major objectives of the study are as follows:
1) To highlight the theoretical background of public and private partnership
in infrastructure sectors in India;
2) To examine the status of the Infrastructure Projects under public and
private partnership in India.
3) To analysis the sector-wise distribution of infrastructure projects of PPP;
and
4) To offer findings, suggestions and conclusion in the light of the study.
Research Methodology:
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The data required for the present research is considered as journey from
unknown to the known. The present study is purely based on data gathered
from secondary sources. The required secondary data constitutes the main
source of information, suitable for the purpose of the study. The sources of
secondary data were ledgers, annual reports, brochures and other reports of
PPP. In addition to these books, articles, published journals, thesis submitted
to the universities were also referred. Internet or website has also been
extensively made use for the purpose of the study. The data has been collected
from infrastructure projects under public private partnership. The analysis
and interpretation of data Spearman Correlation Co-efficient and Rank
correlations is used.
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energy (grid) status of under the basis of PPP as against the lowest number of
energy sector projects is 40 and the amounts incurred project cost 42,824.82,
crores are belongs the subsector of oil/gas/LNG storage under the basis of
public and private partnership (PPP) in India.
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Conclusion:
This research paper discuses the present status of PPP projects in
infrastructure and sub structure wise distribution on the basis of PPP in India.
The public-private partnership come with the aim of contributing to a better
understanding of its implications for governance and development by
examining the different definitions, modalities, and institutional frameworks
at the national and state levels. public private partnership (PPP) projects in
India, involving nearly six major infrastructure ventures. out of that our study
constructed on four major sectors namely, energy, transport and
communication, social and commercial, water and sanitation sectors, the PPP
regulatory bodies handled and invest more projects in transport and
communication, water and sanitation sectors compared to other sectors. To
conclude the government and PPP policy maker and regulatory bodies are
helps the growth and development of infrastrute sectors to achieve sustainable
growth with the supportive approach of private and public sector in India.
References:
M.Sathana Priya (2011), “public and private sector partnership in
India”,Journal of Management and Science, ISSN: 2249-1260,Vol.1, No.1
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26
Impact of Global Urbanization on India
Ramesh.M.N and Sneha D.R
Introduction:
India’s current urbanization process reproduces inequalities that exist in
the larger society through exclusionary settings, inclusionary barriers in urban
spaces also disproportionally affect the urban poor. Muslims, Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) constitute large
percentages of India’s urban are poor, they are at the receiving end of an
urbanization process which is deeply exclusionary and unequal. Without
working governance protections, these social groups routinely are deprived
basic services such water, health, education, sanitation, and legal protection.
India’s current urbanization process is producing urban ‘winners and losers’
and the excluded often express their frustrations and impotence through
violence.
In early 1990’s the Indian economy had witnessed dramatic policy
changes. The idea behind the new economic model known as Liberalization,
Privatization and Globalization in India (LPG), was to make the Indian
economy one of the fastest growing economies in the world. An array of
reforms was initiated with regard to industrial, trade and social sector to make
the economy more competitive. Education is an important investment in
building human capital that is driver for technological innovation and
economic growth. It is only through improving the educational status of a
society that the multi-faceted development of its people can be ensured. In the
post-industrialized world, the advanced countries used to derive the major
proportion of their national income not from agriculture and industry but
from the service sector.
Urbanization refers to the process by which rural areas become
urbanized as a result of economic development and industrialization.
Demographically, the term urbanization denotes the redistribution of
populations from rural to urban settlements over time. However, it is
important to acknowledge that the criteria for defining what is urban may
vary from country to country, which cautions us against a strict comparison of
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Urbanization in India:
The urbanization of the developing world began to accelerate in late 20 th
century, although there was no clear trend in overall urban growth in less
developed countries due to inconsistent definition of urban and lack of quality
in their census data. The transition from the 20th to present century marked a
new and more striking era of global urbanization. In 2008 the world crossed
that long-awaited demographic watershed of half of the people on earth living
urban areas. Further acceleration of urbanization going forward is likely to
raise the share of the world’s urban population to 75 percent by 2050.
Urbanization is one of the most important demographic shifts
worldwide during the past century and represents a substantial change from
how most of the world’s population has lived for the post several thousand
years. A majority of the world’s population will live in urban areas by 2007.
Urban environments have been linked to a range of human health issues, and
as the pace of urbanization accelerates, new challenges arise to characterize
these environments, and to understand their positive and negative
implications for health. The most rapidly urbanizing cities are in less-wealthy
nations, and the pace of growth varies among regions. Nearly half the world’s
population now lives in urban settlements. Cities offer the lure of better
employment, education, health care, and culture; and they contribute
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Conclusion:
Education is the most vital input for the growth and prosperity of a
nation. It provides strength and resilience to enable people to respond to the
changing needs of the hour. Education is the backbone of all national
endeavors. It has the power to transform human beings into human resources.
We cannot build a sustainable and prosperous nation without human resource
development which mainly depends on the health and vitality of higher
education. Higher education has the omnipotent role of preparing leaders for
different walks of life – social, political, economic, cultural, scientific and
technological. Higher education has special value in the contemporary
knowledge society which contributes both directly and indirectly to the wealth
of a nation. Higher education today, Globalization or no Globalization, is no
more constrained by geographical boundaries. Innovative forms of
translocation and transnational education have become a possibility. Multi
campus institutions, “franchised institutions learning centers providing
university degree, off campus education, distance learning, internet based
distance education, virtual universities merging of part studies to combine
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into a whole for obtaining national as well as international degrees are only
few models as examples. As far as higher education is concerned, an enthused
and well-informed student has umpteen choices, for the first time in the
history of education, to access for a “global market place”.
India has benefited as well has lost from globalization changes and
reforms that are affecting the economic, political and social life of Indians.
Skilled labour employment opportunities have increase over time with the
services sector providing over 50 percent of the job opportunities. The Indian
economy has expanded together with the GDP whereby the annual Indian
economy rate increased because of general trade and commerce liberalization
of trends such as foreign direct investment. India faces a terrible economic
depression in 1991 as a result of weakening agriculture and low annual
growth in the industries sector. Education needs to respond to the additional
demands of a rapidly globalizing world by raising awareness of environment,
peace, cultural and social diversity, increased competitiveness, and the
concept of a global village. Education prepares the individual to connect and
live in harmony with the environment. The challenge for higher education,
therefore, is to reform, create and develop systems that prepare the individual
to work in a borderless economy and live in a global society. In other words,
our educational institutions need to produce global citizens.
Reference:
Amnesty international, Human Rights and Privatization, Retrieved December 25,
2008.
Rai, jaimal, The Rural - Urban Economy and Social Changes in Ancient India,
BharatiyaVidyaBhavan,Bombay 1974.
B.Bhattacharya, “Urban Development in India”, Shree Publishing House, New
Delhi, 1979.
Ashish Bose, “India’s Urbanization 1901-2001”, Published by Tata McGraw-Hill
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 1980.
S.B.Mukherjee, “Population Growth and Urbanization in South and South-East
Asia”, Published by Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 1988.
P.Jagadish Gandhi, “Globalized Indian Economy”, Published by Deep and Deep
Publications (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2003.
Robert Cowen, “Last Past the Post: Comparative Education, Modernity, and
perhaps Post-Modernity, Comparative Education Review 32, no 2 (1996) : 151-70.
Philip G Altbach, Higher Education and WTO: Globalization Run Amok,
Chronicle of Higher Education.
Open Doors 2004, Report on international Educational Exchange, Institute of
International Education.
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27
Exclusion, Poverty and Inequality in Urban India
Ohila MP
Preamble
A significant barrier to understanding and intervening in the locations
discussed in this paper is that of inadequate measurement. We have analyzed
the extent of urban poverty itself in detail here. Poverty lines in India have
been criticized on various fronts. The first is the inadequacy and the
redundancy of using a food calorie norm to measure poverty. Calories are not
wholly representative of consumption patterns, in fact it has been observed
that the number of calories being consumed has fallen in spite of the increase
in consumption expenditure (World Bank, 2011 ). This is because of a change
in eating habits that is not reflected in the poverty line. The poverty line does
not take into account the increased monetisation of various goods and
transactions. The main reason for this is the under-reporting of consumption
levels to a large extent by wealthier classes of people and to a small extent by
the poorer classes. Ray points out one of the biggest drawbacks of the poverty
line-"Poverty lines are always approximations to a threshold that id truly
fuzzy, more because the effects of sustained deprivation are often felt at a later
point in time(Poverty lines) are pointers to a deeper, less quantifiable concept."
The consumption surveys do not capture services provided through the huge
amounts of public expenditure, the poverty lines derived from these surveys
do not take into account these services that are consumed by citizens
(Planning Commission, 2014 ). A measurement frame is required to monitor,
track, and better understand the movements of these variables in cities. For
instance, not enough is known about whether people move in and out of
poverty frequently, the nature of work for cyclical migrants as well as people
that split work across rural and urban areas. In addition, there is not enough
data on the identification of the urban poor, even though there has been much
work on measuring poverty. The Hashim Committee(2012) was the first one to
carry out identification of the urban poor and to understand the characteristics
of urban poverty at the
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national level. Most identification procedures are carried out at the state level
for different schemes. There are no in depth surveys of urban amenities,
behaviour patterns, nutrition levels, related to the identification of the poor
and actual delivery of benefits or services. Metrics need to be informed by the
multiple ways in which urban poverty is particular and shaped by its location.
Finally, while gender disaggregation of data has improved in the recent past,
significantly more needs to be done to see intra-household distributions in
resource allocation and the pathways that influence this allocation. Restricting
gender data to 'female-headed households,' as is often done in large public
datasets, does not adequately address the gender dimensions of urban
poverty. The growth and development of between rural and urban in India are
presented in this article on the basis of an extensive review of literature.
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resources should move freely so that marginal returns are equalized between
sectors and regions. An increase in agricultural productivity may precede the
growth of urban settlements. But as new innovations take place in the urban
sector, urban labor productivity and wages rise, making migration from the
rural to urban sector attractive. In the meantime, urban development may also
improve access to capital, inducing further mechanization or other innovations
relevant to agricultural production. As a result, agricultural productivity
grows, narrowing the productivity and income gaps between rural and urban
areas. When innovations take place again in the urban sector, the gap in
productivity and income widens between the two sectors. Rural labor begins
to migrate to the urban sector, and capital moves to rural areas. A new
equilibrium emerges.
This process of moving from disequilibrium to equilibrium due to
technological innovations in both sectors is the major source of economic
growth and development. But many developing countries disrupt this natural
economic development process. Very often governments interfere in favor of
the urban sector, distorting capital and labor markets to favor urban over rural
areas, in an attempt to jumpstart development or leapfrog this process. As a
result, overall efficiency is lost, as resources do not flow to their "free-market"
locations where they would naturally earn the highest rate of return. As a
consequence, the rural-urban gap increases, and the natural growth that
would occur in rural areas, as well as in urban areas, is circumvented. In fact,
in developing countries, we typically observe the coexistence of a modern
urban sector and a traditional rural sector. In these countries, the urban
population is often better off than their rural counterparts. This rural-urban
divide evolves when governments in developing countries give preference to
the urban sector in their public policies. Such preferential practices may
include, for example, price policies, public investment, and welfare transfers
that favor the urban over the rural population. In part this urban bias may also
occur because urban centers in developing countries may be better organized
politically and thus have greater influence on policy makers than the rural
population.
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Discussion
These descriptive statistics demonstrate significant intra-urban variation
in child morbidity and mortality and some evidence to suggest an "urban
penalty" in the case of child morbidity.
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increased risk of chronic conditions later on, care for which the government
ultimately pays for directly with the provision of health services that are too
expensive for individuals to privately access, and indirectly in the loss of
investment of human capital and productivity associated with chronic poor
health. Finally, the limited financial protection available for health-related
expenditures both impoverishes and keeps poor families from escaping
poverty, limiting the scope of India’s development trajectory.
References:
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2012. World
Urbanization Prospects The 2011 Revision. United Nations, New York
Sankhe S, Vittal I, Dobbs R, Mohan A, Gulati A, Ablett J, et al. 2010. India's
Urban Awakening: Building inclusive cities, sustaining economic growth.
McKinsey Global Institute
Montgomery MR. 2009.Urban poverty and health in developing countries.
Population Bulletin, a publication of the Population Reference Bureau. 64(2).
Rice J and Rice JS. 2009. The Concentration of Disadvantage and the Rise of an
Urban Penalty: Urban slum prevalence and the social production of child health
inequalities in the developing countries. International Journal of Health Services.
39(4):749-770
Baker J and Schuler N. 2004.Analyzing Urban Poverty: A summary of methods
and approaches. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3399
Jayachandran S and Lleras-Muney A. Life expectancy and human capital
investments: Evidence from maternal mortality declines. Quarterly Journal of
Economics. 142( 1 ):349- 97
Tilak JB.Household expenditure on education and implications for redefining the
poverty line in India. Background paper, prepared for the Expert Group on the
Review of the Methodology for Estimation of poverty (Planning Commission,
May 2009)
Suryanarayana MH. Nutritional norms for poverty: Issues and implications.
Concept paper prepared for the Expert Group to Review the Methodology for
Estimation of Poverty.
Baharoglu D and Kessides C. Chapter 16: Urban Poverty. In: Sourcebook for
Poverty Reduction Strategies. World Bank
World Bank. 1994. Poverty reduction in South Asia. Washington, DC
Yardley J. 2013. Ahead of elections, India"s cabinet approves food security
program. New York Times, available at
http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07 /04/indias-cabinet-passes-food
security-law/ Accessed on July 9, 2013
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28
Exclusion, Poverty and Inequality in Urban India
Wajeeda Bano
Introduction
Urbanization is a part and parcel of the development process.
Urbanization refers to the proportionate increase of the urban population in
relation to the total population. In India, the percentage increase in the urban
population has been consistently greater than the percentage increase in rural
population urbanization trends in India over the last 50 years (1961-2011) are
given in Table 1
Table 1 Trends in India’s population
Year Urban population % of urban population Decadal growth rate
(million) to total population of urban population
1961 78.9 17.97 -
1971 109.1 19.91 38.3
1981 159.5 23.31 46.2
1991 217.6 25.71 36.4
2001 286.1 27.82 31.5
2011 377.1 31.15 31.8
Source: Compiled from various Census Reports, Registrar General of India
In 1961, India’s urban population was 78.9 million which 18.0 % of total
population. By 2011 it had increased to 377.1 million which is 31.15% of the
total population. Thus little less than one out of three persons in India lives in
urban areas. The decadal growth rate of urban population has been higher
than rural population. Urban growth rate at 46.2 % was fastest during the
decade 1971-81. It declined to 36.4% during 1980s, 31.5% during 1990s and
31.15 during last decade 2001-2011.
The urbanization data of the latest census 2011 has attracted a lot of
attention mainly because of the decadal increase in the size of urban
population i.e. 91.0 million people over the decade 2001-2011. The reasons for
this growth in urban population are natural increase in population within
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Discussion:
Inclusive growth is the modern day’s mantra of development. Inclusive
growth is defined as a concept that advances equitable opportunities to every
section of the society. The concept is becoming increasingly important against
a background of widening inequalities in the society, which are associated
with globalization and related economic reform policies. Urbanization is one
of the important realities of recent decades in India. Its urban system consists
of 7933 cities and towns of different population sizes, and a population of
377.16 million (Census 2011) which is the second largest in the world. The
urban system has registered an extraordinary expansion in its base over the
2001–11 decade, and this trend is expected to continue. Urbanization has made
significant contributions to India’s economic growth and poverty reduction.
Urbanization is central to India’s economy, contributing close to 60 per cent to
its Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The process of urbanization is a necessary
condition for India’s structural transformation and inclusive growth.
However, it is not free from inequalities.
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Residential inequalities
With the country’s agriculture sector having a limited absorption
capacity, majority of the growth in urbanization is expected to be a
consequence of rural-to-urban migration. Post economic liberalization, India’s
manufacturing and services sector has seen an influx in employment from the
rural youth. With the country expected to witness rapid industrialization, the
trend of migration from rural to urban areas is likely to continue. Growing
concentration of people in urban areas has resulted in an increase in the
number of people living in slums and squatter settlements. Skyrocketing
prices of land and real estate in urban areas have induced the poor and the
economically weaker sections of the society to occupy the marginal lands
typified by poor housing stock, congestion and obsolescence. It is apparent
that substantial housing shortage looms in Urban India and a wide gap exists
between the demand and supply of housing, both in terms of quantity and
quality.
Table 3 Urban housing shortage 2012
Households in homeless condition 0.53 million 3.0%
House holdings living in non serviceable 0.99 million 5.0%
(Kaccha house)
Households living in obsolescent house 2.27 million 12%
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In 2001, about 23.5 per cent of the urban households were living in slums,
which significantly reduced to 17 per cent in 2011. However, the absolute
number of households living in slums has increased from 10.15 million in 2001
to 13.75 million in 2011.
Urban segregation
Research on Indian cities has also found high degrees of residential
segregation by socio-economic status, religion and caste. In popular
imagination, the city is often viewed as a liberating space where rigid social
structures make way for secular transformations. Particularly in the global
South, the city is synonymous with social mobility and emancipation. Taking
into account the transformative potentials of cities and towns, Babasaheb
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Ambedkar, Dalit icon and key architect of the Indian Constitution, exhorted
the oppressed communities to leave the “narrow-minded” villages for city life.
The Dalits and other marginalised sections have not disappointed Ambedkar.
The last decade saw an approximately 40% jump in Dalits opting for urban
living. Cities have historically remained prime locations for India’s religious
minorities, especially Muslims and Christians; compared to 29% of Hindus, an
impressive 40% of Muslims and Christians live in urban areas. In short, the
socially oppressed and spatially disadvantaged continue to flock to cities and
towns to escape degrading social practices of segregation and discrimination,
and also, importantly, to move up social mobility ladders. The findings of
many recent studies on Indian cities indicate that while cities still remain
the best hope for social mobility for millions of oppressed and marginalised
communities, they increasingly mirror India’s rural social and cultural
realities, its entrenched caste system and social customs. Residential
segregation and identity-based discrimination are on a steady rise in urban
spaces. Dalits and Adivasi are still heavily concentrated within certain
geographical areas of cities, mostly in unauthorized settlements and poor
neighbourhoods. Even cities such as Pune, Delhi and Bangalore that are more
efficiently planned than other cities are not immune to this disturbing trend of
residential segregation. Informal settlements located on city peripheries do not
receive basic services such as drinking water, sanitation, healthcare and food
stamps.
In short, India’s current mechanisms of urbanization offer few
opportunities for its disadvantaged citizens, especially for its religious
minorities, new migrants and poor. Cities are not only mimicking rural social
and cultural structures of inequality and exclusion, but they are also creating
reasons for future conflicts. This current form of urbanization that is
producing “urban winners” and “urban losers” should alert urban planners
and key policy makers to the necessary reforms. It is well known in
development literature that such unequal access to resources – which are, in
India, basic services – can curb human development potentials, lower the
quality of life, create conditions for communal political rhetoric and exacerbate
development cleavages along religious and ethnic lines. It must be reiterated
that caste and religious differences greatly coincide with social and political
mobilisation and can unleash civil strife and social unrest. Now Indian cities
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are on slow but sure paths towards crises of various kinds, and it is vital to
reverse the current trends of segregation and inequality.
Regional disparities
The results of 2011 census reveals that the biggest trend towards urbanization
is in southern India, where all states except Andhra Pradesh have more than
35% of population living in urban areas. These states also saw the fastest
economic growth in the last decade, drawing in associated migration from
other states, this brings out the pressure of population on large urban areas
i.e. cities, UAs ( Urban Agglomerations) and mega cities. In fact , the disparity
in growth rates between large and small and medium sized towns has
increased significantly as urbanization process has got concentrated over the
time in large cities and developed regions. As result the big towns located in
developed states have experienced high economic and demographic growth
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due to their stronger economic base, whereas towns located away the
emerging global centers of growth have failed in attracting investment due to
a high infrastructural deficiency.
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being behind and to devise ways of pulling these people back in also to
analyse the processes that create and aggravate poverty.
Much of India’s future urbanisation will be the result of migration from
rural areas and small cities and towns. These urban migrants are often
invisible, voiceless and powerless. Without official recognition or support,
urban migrants are increasingly living and working in extremely poor and
precarious conditions in the informal sector. Therefore one of the major public
policy issues will be to devise ways and means to reduce inequalities while
expanding the system.
The strategies to ameliorate the situation may focus on regulating the
growth of the system and targeting of public investments towards basic needs
of the deprived groups. The social conditions of India demands now also
greater role from government both directly and indirectly. To bring parity and
inclusive growth government should assume greater responsibility of
regulating and monitoring urban development.
Conclusion
Meaningful progress towards sustainable human development, inclusion and
stability can be better achieved through measures that promote and protect
human rights and ensure effective participation of lower caste in such efforts.
Discrimination and exclusion of ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities
undermines the efforts to achieve poverty reduction, democratic governance,
and over all development. In contrast, their effective participation enriches
decision making, and helps plan, implement and monitor sustainable and
effective solutions to development challenges. Urbanization should empower
all and development to benefit all section of the society. It is imperative for
India to emerge as a modern, developed nation. Urban poors and excluded
groups need to be fully mainstreamed in social, political and economic spheres
to ensure their upliftment. Thus, it becomes must that inclusion efforts have to
be taken up in large scale to prop up and upgrade socio-economic status of
urban poor.
References
Arvind Sharma, Secular Politicking,(2008), India Today, January 7, 2008, New
Delhi, India.
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225
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29
Urban Poverty: A Threat to Economic Development – A
Critical Review
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Rural Migration:
Rural migration to cities is usually caused by economic or personal problems.
According to an article published by the University of Michigan in 2002,
titled “Urbanization and Global Change,” developing countries, in an attempt to
pay off foreign debt and bolster their financial standings, encourage
exportation of natural resources. Rural migration is one of the main grounds
for urbanization. People are getting attracted towards the lifestyle and way of
living of city life. Though rural migration is a positive step towards
advancement it has impacted the society both in positively as well as
negatively. As more and more nations begin to industrialize and modernize,
we must watch out for the problems caused by these expansions. Urbanization
should be encouraged and should not have to come with slum formation and
environmental pollution. By regulating the pace at which a nation urbanizes,
we can encourage development while limiting its negative side effects. This
evil of rural migration is one of the main causes of urban poverty and leads to
increase in slum areas which are the main pillar of urban poverty.
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Slum population of India is not unnoticed. All the politicians though for
their own benefit try to gain votes from the slum population as India’s slum-
dwellers are fully enfranchised and actively vote for national and local leaders
who they feel will protect their interests.
India lacks tools to curb rural migration and on top of it Constitution of
India ensures free movement of people throughout the country. “While slums
may be born organically, they will not disappear automatically just because
cities build more houses.” If the slum is a fact of modern urbanisation of
India, India’s choice is to decide what is its vision for the slum of the future,
the role of the slum, its design and purpose, how it will transform slums to
make them assets and thereby put them on the path to transforming into being
the waiting room to enter a better life. If this is to happen, the real challenge is
to support of the organic process of mutating slums into dynamic city sub-
centres in an ever-expanding city boundary.
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population growth, urban and rural development and education and skills
development.
Conclusion
For the first time in history of the world, more people live in cities than
in rural areas, thus making urban poverty one of the most important, yet most
overlooked issues of the 21st century The huge numbers of people living in
towns and cities and the increasing proportion living in slums will present the
21st century with its most important health challenge. Given India is already
in the midst of a rocky economic cycle at the same time as slums are growing
at the edge of every major city, the investment in urban infrastructure can
create a highly positive multiplier effect for the economy while addressing a
major issue. “Addressing this issue of urban poverty is one of the key steps in the
regeneration of the India story and will have a highly positive impact on the success of
the next government. Indeed, solving the issue is about as difficult as putting a man
on the moon, but would have massive collateral benefits for the nation as a whole and
would be a true indicator that India is truly ready to play its role on the global stage.”
Reference
“Transforming India’s Slums: A Critical Step in Creating the New India”,
October 2013 @ http://greaterpacificcapital.com/transforming-indias-slums-
a-critical-step-in-creating-the-new-india/
“Urban Poverty in India, Slamming the Slums”, March 24, 2016 @
http://www.poverties.org/blog/urban-poverty-in-india
“Urban Poor, Slums and UN” July 14, 2013 by Rashid Faridi @
https://rashidfaridi.com/2013/07/14/urban-poorslums-and-un/
“Problems of Urbanization: Holding Back Development?” @
http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2011/01/problems-of-urbanisation/
“Dynamics of Urban Poverty, Strengthening Civil Society Voices on Urban
Poverty” April 9, 2013 By Nidhi Batra.
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30
Bridging Law and Society with Urban Poor
Introduction
"Some people think luxury is the opposite of poverty. It is not. It is the
opposite of vulgarity." — Coco Chanel, French fashion designer
As Coco Chanel says a person does not need to lead a luxurious life to
be lifted out of poverty, all he needs are the basic necessities of a decent life.
There are two kinds of poverty - (a) absolute poverty and (b) relative. While
the latter lacks decent standard of living, the former lacks basic necessities of
life itself. This means the latter is not bad as the former. But it still stunts the
growth. We have such a sad state of affairs that despite so many policies in
place. This is not due the lack of amenities or policies but for the incompetency
or the disinterest shown in their implementation. Social exclusion is another
effect of poverty. While social exclusion includes living in poverty and a
violation of Human Rights, it is far deep rooted than that.
Poverty has always been prevalent in India for a very long time, but of late,
with growth in the economy, poverty also seems to be steadily increasing.
There was a time when India was a very rich country, its citizens also rich, this
was before it was plundered and left a bare skeleton. After independence,
India completely opened herself up to globalization which has had an adverse
effect on her. Although poverty has seen a steady rise, according to a 2011
Poverty Development Goals Report, Poverty in India is expected to drop by
22% in 2015.
Objectives
It is necessary for people to understand that poverty is a deep rooted
evil that is very tricky to weed out.
When you go through the statistics in the course of this paper we see a
huge decrease in the number of poor people, so, eradication of poverty
is an achievable goal with effective implementation.
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It is clear from the above statistics that the number of poor people reduced
from 407.1 million in 2004-05 to 269.3 million in 2011-12.When we compare the
difference between the years 1993-94 and 2004-05 with 2004-05 and 2011-12
there is a significant change in trend. We have the potential to completely
eradicate poverty if we see the statistics, granted it will be difficult, but if we
succeed in achieving it, India will be restored to its former glory.
In 2011-2012, there were still 13.7% people below poverty line in urban areas
and 25.1% in rural areas as per the Planning Commission which might have
increased in the past four years. Data from the Socio Economic and Caste
Census (SECC), as per the guidelines of the Hashim Committee, shows that
around 35% of Indian households live below the poverty line.
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Legislations in India:
Directive Principles Of State Policy
In legal terms, urban poverty can be explained as the negation of social justice
and economic democracy (also termed as economic justice). Article 38 and 39
of the Constitution of India enunciates social justice and economic democracy
respectively. The two concepts embody the doctrine of ‘distributive justice’.
This doctrine helps in mitigating the problem of social exclusion.
In Air India Statutory Corporation v. United Labor Union, the Supreme Court
has held that, “Social justice is a dynamic devise to mitigate the sufferings of
the poor, weak, dalits, tribals and deprived sections of the society, and so
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elevate them to the level of equality to live a life with dignity of person”. The
expression “the level of equality to live a life” also includes economic
democracy. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar has rightly stated that, “We do not want
merely to lay down a mechanism to enable people to come and capture power.
The Constitution also wishes to lay down an ideal before those who would be
forming the Government. That ideal is economic democracy”.
Though the Directive Principles of State Policy lays down principles to achieve
‘Welfare State’, India has failed to eradicate urban poverty. A Ministry of
Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation was set up in the wake of this failure.
The ministry concerns itself with the issues of urban poverty, employment and
housing in the country.
Acts//Rules:
The ministry has enacted few Acts to address the serious and complex
problems of urban poverty. They are as follows:
The Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street
Vending) Act, 2014-The street vendors are present since ancient times.
But in the contemporary world, they are not given the same dignity and
tolerance as it was given during ancient times. There are nearly a million
of street vendors in India who are the constituents of urban poverty.
This Act protects the livelihood of the street vendors. It is not conferring,
but confirming their rights. The street vending activities can be
regulated to minimize the exploitation of street vendors by police and
municipal authorities. The social security provided in this Act helps in
extenuating urban poverty.
Draft Model Tenancy Act, 2015 – It is not incorrect to presume that
people under relative poverty live in rented house. This Act aims at
regulating the relationship of tenant and landlord in rental contracts. It
states the rights and liabilities of the parties. This Act renders judicial
help by guaranteeing speedy adjudication of disputes. Judicial help acts
as a pillar in the process of bridging law with urban poor. The main
objective of the Act is to bestow social security to poor people and
balancing the two extreme ends of the society.
The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry
Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993- Manual Scavenging is a role
traditionally determined for urban people of absolute poverty.
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Schemes/Policies:
The Urban Poverty Alleviation Programmes (UPAPs) target the urban poor
and aims at eradicating urban poverty by facilitating them with resources to
run a decent life. Many policies are formulated with regards to the
programme, namely:
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Housing for all (Urban) – There has been
a decadal growth rate of slums by 34%, the slum households are projected
to go upto 18 million. The mission has a goal of construction 20 million
houses for urban poor. Rehabilitation of slum dwellers is done through
credit linked subsidy. This mission covers non slum urban poor also who
are approximated to be 2 million.
National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM) – This scheme replaced
Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY). It is based on the principle
of self-employment. It creates opportunities for skill development. This
helps urban poor to establish a market-based employment. The Act also
aims at obtaining help from community and inculcates the idea of ‘mutual
help’.
Rajiv Rinn Yojana (RRY) – This is another instrument addressing the
housing needs of economically weaker sectors (EWS) and low income
groups (LIG) in urban areas. It propounds to channelize institutional credit
to the poorer sections of the society.
Law is an instrument to expunge poverty. The rights guaranteed in law helps
the poor people to rise up to higher class. But it cannot be achieved to the
fullest, if people are unaware of their rights. So the Government has to bring
legal awareness among poor people to make them understand their legal
status.
International Conferences:
Urban poverty is no more a local issue. The intensity of the problem has been
recognized globally. Countries have come together to fathom out the remedy
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
to eradicate urban poverty. India too has joined hands with them to increase
its international activities regarding housing and urban development. The
Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation is a member of
Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF), Asia Pacific Ministerial
Conference on Housing and Urban Development (APMCHUD), UN-
HABITAT and UN Bodies, India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA) Dialogue Forum,
India Africa Forum (IAF) and World Urban Forum (WUF).Conferences held in
these forums or organizations have suggested few propositions for urban
development which directly helps in reducing poverty. Those suggestions are
listed below:
1. Strengthening local government – An accountable, effective and
responsive local government helps in triggering the issue from the root.
India has given a constitutional position for local governments. But
weak local governance will not suffice the demands of the urban
poverty alleviation. The forum believes in putting local government at
the heart of development.
2. Delivery of Basic Services – Poor people lack basic necessities in life.
The government is expected to provide those basic amenities to them in
an organized form. It is possible through law which is backed sanctions.
Basic necessities also include pollution free environment. So the
government has to take measures to reduce air, water and land
pollution.
3. Urban and Rural Planning and management – An integrated planning
and management are required to improve governance for sustainable
development. It promotes coordination among various sectors. It needs
to be supported by strong financial, legal and implementation
mechanisms.
India has taken active participation in these forums, discussions and
conferences. These suggestions have enlightened and supported India to take
bold steps to reduce urban poverty.
Suggestions:
Bridging law and society with urban poor is a gradual process. The bridge
constructed needs to be well built to withhold all the pressures of the
stakeholders and rich class people in the future. It has to be made strong by
raising pillars with good foundation and construction. There are mundane
solutions. This paper tries to bring out a few of those suggestions, namely:
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Conclusion:
India is facing the problem of poverty from many decades. It has taken many
steps and measures to mitigate it. It has also realized that it is a gradual
process. Nelson Mandela has rightly pointed out that, “As long as poverty,
injustice, and gross inequality exist, none of us can truly rest”. It is the
responsibility of not only the Government but also the society and other
sectors of it. Every sector has got a duty to work towards objectives of the
nation and help India in building a developed nation. And this is possible only
after alleviating poor people.
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References
“Press Note on Poverty Estimates, 2011-12”, published by the
Government of India Planning Commission, July 2013, available at
http://planningcommission.nic.in/news/pre_pov2307.pdf (Last
visited- 23/12/2016)
Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition
2014 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007,
2009, 2011, 2014
Air India Statutory Corporation v. United Labour Union, AIR 1997 SC
645
Dr. J.N. Pandey, Constitutional law of India, Central Law Agency,
Allahabad, (52nd ed. 2015).
“Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Housing for all (Urban)”, published by
Ministry of Housing and urban Poverty Alleviation, available at
http://mhupa.gov.in/User_Panel/UserView.aspx?TypeID=1434, (Last
visited- 24/12/2016)
“National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM)”, published by Ministry
of Housing and urban Poverty Alleviation, available at
http://mhupa.gov.in/User_Panel/UserView.aspx?TypeID=1494, (Last
visited- 24/12/2016)
“Rajiv Rinn Yojana (RRY)”,published by Ministry of Housing and
Urban Poverty Alleviation, available at
http://mhupa.gov.in/User_Panel/UserView.aspx?TypeID=1283, (Last
visited - 24/12/2016)
“Strengthening local government in delivering development”,
published by Commonwealth Local Government Forum, available at
http://www.clgf.org.uk/what-we-do/programmes/, (Last visited -
24/12/2016)
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
31
Exclusion Poverty and Inequality in Urban Area
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growth of the services sector – particularly the FIRE sector – with a consequent
explosion in demand for skilled workers and (iii) a drop in the rate of labour
involvement during the reform period. There has also been an increase in
regional inequality, especially in the incidence of rural poverty. This rise in
inequality has implied that, despite better growth, poverty reduction has been
sluggish. The plan of this paper is as follows. Aspects of economic growth and
inequality, inequality pattern, urban rural labour markets and the impact of
migration on poverty, inequality pattern, Poverty and Inequality at the State
Level, Tentative Conclusions.
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thereby fails in taking a long term view of the process. Notwithstanding the
above criticisms, there seems to be a general agreement that growth rate in the
nineties, was slightly higher than that in the previous decade and that the rate
has accelerated during the present decade. This is confirmed by the trend in
per capita private final consumption expenditure obtained from National
Income Accounts. It shows modest growth during 1950-90 but subsequently,
the rate has been rising sharply to attain a level of Rs. 18,000 in 2007-08, three
times the figure of 1950-51. Similarly, the gross domestic saving rate which
was around 20% in the eighties, jumped to 25% during the nineties, the rate
being 36% in 2007-08. The measures of economic liberalization attracted
foreign capital as never before. From the modest figure of about Rs. 2500
million in 1986-87, the foreign investment rose to Rs. 1.2 billion (Economic
Survey 2007-08, Government of India). That the economy grew at an average
of 8.8% over the five years (2003-04 to 2007-08) has been noted to make a clear
break from the previous spurts in growth by the Economic Advisory Council
to the Prime Minister (2008). Taking all these into consideration one may argue
that nineties and subsequent years make a departure even from the eighties
and that one needs to analyze the growth performance during the last two
decades with empirical rigour and assess its implications in terms of changes
in labour market and inequality. Questioning the thesis that the recent
acceleration in growth is due to the policies and programmes of globalization
and structural adjustment, Nayyar (2006) argues that colonial rule is more
significant than the first break associated with Independence than the
structural break in the early eighties.
3. Inequality patterns
In a country as vast and regionally and socially differentiated as India, a
discussion on growth scenario will be incomplete without bringing in the
regional dimension as also issues of sharing of benefits across social categories.
The very positive macro economic trends notwithstanding, there is a concern
that the country has not been very successful in transforming “its growth into
development” manifest, most observable in growth of unemployment, of
informal sector and low productive jobs. Understandably, the major issue
challenging the policy makers is to tackle the problem of sharpening socio-
spatial inequalities and labour market exclusion that have manifested in the
development scene in an ominous manner. Regional (inter-state) inequality in
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
per capita Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) is noted to have gone up
significantly during the past couple of decades. It must, however, be pointed
out that it is not for the first time in the post Independence history of India that
this has happened. It had gone up during sixties which was attributed to
Green Revolution and its regional concentration in north-west India. Similarly,
the latter half of the seventies saw an increase in inequality which was
attributed to industrial stagnation in backward states. The period since the
early nineties has come under closer scrutiny as the country has entered a new
policy regime of „economic efficiency and accountability opening up the
economy to global forces and bringing down subsidies and bureaucratic
controls. Several studies analyzing the trend in inequality in per capita
income, based on standard statistical measures of relative deviation like
coefficient of variation and Gini-coefficient generally confirm the thesis of
accentuation of regional imbalance. The weighted measures of inequality in
per capita income register a clear rising trend. What compounds the problems
of backward states is that there is marginal or no decline in their population
growth and these are much above the national average. The process of
demographic transition seems to be still a couple of decades away for most of
these states while the developed states in general seem to be on the verge of
this transition if not already into the phase. The implications of interstate
inequality become far more serious when one considers labour market
segmentation across states as manifest in decline in the rate of interstate
migration during past few decades. Using the population of the states as
weights. The inequality indices have been computed based on per capita
figures
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246
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
96).. Bihar has also had low rates of economic growth and is among the
poorest states in India. On the other hand, in Punjab, the richest state33 in the
country, the rural Gini coefficient dropped from 32.2 to 24.4 over the same
time period, with poverty falling sharply. Thus, too much inequality seems to
be an impediment to economic growth in this case. In specific situations, the
cause and effect could work either way. Not only can more equality and less
poverty be good for growth, but also high growth may lead to more equality
and less poverty.
6. Tentative Conclusions
We go back now to the theme of this paper. Have the economic reforms
reduced inequality and poverty in the Indian economy? An answer to this
vexed question is not easy, since India has, been a late and slow reformer. On
the basis of a study of the data up to 1997, the following general statements
can be made. 32 In both the rural and the urban sectors, at the all-India level
inequality was higher post-reform than it was at the time of the crisis. Since
the Gini coefficient for the urban sector is always higher than that for the rural
sector, and since rapid economic growth implies a shift in the population from
the rural to the urban sectors, the reform process has been accompanied by an
increase in overall inequality. This increment in inequality is the result of the
shifting in the distribution of income from wages to profits, a drop in the rate
of labour absorption and rapid growth of the FIRE sector. This has increased
the demand and, therefore, the remuneration of skilled labour and specialized
factors of production. However, since the reforms have been gradual and
partial and labour still enjoys considerable security of tenure, this
deterioration in inequality as compared to that in the transition economies has
been mild. Poverty rose in the immediate aftermath of the reforms. Growth
picked up, but the level of poverty remained stubborn (partially due to higher
inequality and stagnation in the agricultural real wage), although there was
some decrement in urban poverty. The decline in the crucial area of rural
poverty was lower than that38 during the 1980s and quite unsteady. Rural
poverty actually rose in 1995-96, and urban poverty in 1997. In reality mean
consumption have been higher for the urban sector than they have been for
the rural sector.
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References
1. Poverty and Inequality in India; Recent Trends K.S. Hari & Neelambar Hatti
2. Ahluwalia, M. S. (2000),“Economic Performance of States in Post Reform Era”,
Economic and Political Weekly, May.
3. Ahmad, Ahsan and Narain Ashish (2008), “Towards Understanding
Development in Lagging Regions of India” Paper Presented at the Conference
on Growth and Development in the Lagging Regions of India, Administrative
Staff College of India, Hyderabad.
4. Dubey, A, S. Gangopadhyay and W. Wadhwa (2001), “Occupational Structure
and Incidence of Poverty in Indian Towns of Different Sizes”, Review of
Development Economics, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 49-59.
5. Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (2008), Economic Outlook,
Government of India, New Delhi
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32
Rural and urban differential in academic achievement
among institutionalized adolescent orphans in Kerala
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
rejection and lack of parental affection were the primary causes of antisocial
Personality. The importance of family situation in the formation of Personality
is emphasized today by all the sciences which are participating in the study of
human behaviour(Morgan,1995). The family is the small miniature of the
society, in which the child lives and the most powerful in conditioning the
original nature in to the socialized behaviour.
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facility is 100%,teaching and non teaching staff is 46%, and the recreational
facilities provided by the orphanage is 62%
Table 1
Details Regarding the Facilities used in the Orphanages
Facilities No. of No. of Maximum
Sl. provided by Orphanages % Orphanages % No. of %
No. Orphanages receiving not Orphanages
the facilities receiving
the facilities
1 Building 10 77% 3 23% 13 100%
Facilities
2 Educational 11 85% 2 15% 13 100%
Facilities
3 Learning 8 62% 5 38% 13 100%
Materials
4 Medical 13 100% 0 0 13 100%
Facility
5 Supporting 9 69% 4 31% 13 100%
Facility
6 Boarding 13 100% 0 0 13 100%
Facility
7 Teaching 6 46% 7 54% 13 100%
And Non-
Teaching
Staff
8 Recreational 8 62% 5 38% 13 100%
Facility
Figure 1
Percentage of Orphanages Receiving and not Receiving the Facilities.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Locale
H0: There is no significant relationship between the Infrastructure Facilities
Available for Institutionalized Adolescent Orphans based on Locale.
Table 2
Data and Result of Test Infrastructure Facilities Available for
Institutionalized Adolescent Orphans based on Locale
Figure 2
Mean Scores obtained for Infra structure facilities available for
Institutionalized Adolescent Orphans based on Locale
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Table 3
Data and Result of Test of Significance between Facility and Academic
Achievement of Adolescent Orphans.
Variables N df r tr Level of
Significance
Facility 250 248
.2526 4.11
Academic Achievement. P<.05
Conclusion
Interview schedule was designed to collect data in the following areas-
financial sources, organizational information’s, number of inmates, staffs
number and their salary ,adjustment problems faced by orphans , their
educational background, orphans dealing with outside community, their
placement in jobs, and their vocational training. Through the interview, the
investigator got a brief description about their financial sources. It is from the
congregation that they get the financial sources .Some Orphanages did not get
any grant from the government .Some Orphanages did not get any grant from
the government. Some Orphanages contain two or more staffs. Some are not
.Orphans face many adjustment problems outside the
community(Pushpakumari, 1985). Through this schedule the investigator got
an idea of the placements of the ex-orphans .Some Orphanages give vocational
training to the Orphans .The interview schedule gives an idea about the
financial support and facilities available in the Orphanages.
Implications
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Reference
M.A. Pushpakumari., A Study on the Personal and Educational Problems
Experienced by Wein Students at the Degree Level in the Collages Affiliated to the
University of Kerala, unpublished M.Ed. Thesis, Kottayam : Mahatma Gandhi
University, 1985.
Umadevi, Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence, Achievement Motivation
and Academic Achievement, Edutracks, , August 2009, Vol.8, No. 12.
Mangal S.K. (2005) Advanced Educational Psychology, New Delhi : Prentice Hall
of India Private Limited.
Mangal Shubra, Convergence of IQ, EQ and SQ Imperative for Hollistic Growth and
Development, Edutrack, Hyderabad : Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.,
November, 2007, Vol 7, No. 3.
Mangal, S.K. (2007), Statistics in Psychology and Education (2nd Edn.), New Delhi
: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.
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33
Inclusive Urban Development - Service Sector
Employment in the Era of Globalization
Margaret Mary
Introduction
One of the most important forces that have shaped India’s economy in
the last two and a half decades is the process of globalization. This has been a
world-wide phenomenon, and India could not have remained insulated.
However, in the case of India, the globalization process was considerably
aided by the far reaching economic policy reforms especially liberalization of
trade and investment that India undertook since 1991. The term ‘globalization’
is used widely, but often in different senses. Used in a broader sense, one may
include under the ambit of globalization, the adoption of supra-national
standards in economic arrangements in a country (Balakrishnan, 2010, p.167).
A narrower definition of globalization, which is the one adopted for this
paper, is to interpret it as a process of unification of world economic order
through reduction of barriers such as tariffs, export fees and import quota (as
given in Wikipedia). Removal of barriers to foreign investment would also be a
part of the above definition. The economic reforms in india since 1991 are
therefore a major contributor to the process of globalization in India insofar as
these reforms enabled the India economy increasingly to get integrated with
the world economy.
The process of globalization was facilitated in India through economic
policy changes. This was done with the belief that globalisation would
contribute to achieving accelerated economic growth in India and help in
creating employment opportunities by favouring labour-intensive growth in
as much as India is believed to have a comparative advantage in unskilled-
labour-intensive production. The favourable effect of globalization on
economic growth probably did take place, though this may have occurred
with a lag and was confined to certain sectors of the economy. But, in terms of
inducing a labour-intensive growth path in India and thus creating a lot of
employment opportunities, globalization did not achieve much success. In the
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first ten years following the large-scale trade and foreign investment
liberalization initiated in 1991, there was no marked increase in the trend rate
of economic growth in India. The trend rate of growth in real GDP (Gross
Domestic Product) was about 5 per cent per annum during 1980-81 to 1990-91,
which increased to about 5.6 per cent per annum during 1990-91 to 2000-2001.
However, there was significant acceleration in economic growth in the 2000s.
The trend rate of growth in real GDP accelerated to about 7.4 per cent per
annum in the period 2000-01 to 2010-11,3 and during the period 2003-04 to
2010-2011, the trend rate of economic growth was about 8.2 per cent per
annum (well above the trend growth rate in the 1980s and 1990s). Indeed,
India is poised to become the fastest growing economy in the world in the near
future, overtaking China in terms of the rate of economic growth.
Objectives
1. To study and understand the impact of globalization on urban
development
2. To study the employement in sevice sectors through globalization
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Due to globalization not only the GDP has increased but also the
direction of growth in the sectors has also been changes. Earlier the maximum
part of the GDP in the economy was generated from the primary sector but
now the service industry is devoting the maximum part of the GDP. The
services sector remains the growth driver of the economy with a contribution
of more than 57 per cent of GDP (Goyal, 2006). The alignment of the Indian
economy to the global and regional markets has important implications for the
urban and city level economic structure. Cities are in the process of adapting
new economic realities (Mathur, 2003). City-level economic development is
slowly shifting away from industrial activities to more sophisticated
knowledge base systems.
The post-1991 period is marked by a significantly slower growth of
formal sector employment. In line with the global trends, much of the new
employment generation (73 percent) has taken place in the services sector.
Fifty per cent of new employment has taken place in manufacturing activities,
while the primary sector employment has declined by 23 per cent during this
period (Mathur,2003). The services sector is expected to benefit from the
ongoing liberalization of the foreign investment regime into the sector.
Software and the ITES-BPO sectors have recorded an exponential growth in
recent years (Goyal, 2006). To highlight 0bject Indian Urbanization and
Economic Development Given the present level of urbanization, India is still
predominantly a rural-agricultural country' with three-quarters of its
population living in rural areas and two-thirds of its workforce engaged in
agriculture and allied activities. However, increasing levels of urbanization is
accompanied by significant shifts in the structure of the economy. The share of
the primary sector is declining while the share of the secondary and tertiary
sectors is increasing, both in terms of employment and total output, and their
contribution to the national income. The share of the urban sector in the
national income has been disproportionately higher than the population share.
Urban areas contributed nearly 29 per cent of GDP in 1951. This share was 43
per cent in 1981 and was estimated to be around 47 per cent in 1991- The
urban per capita GDP ratio has correspondingly increased from 1.96 in 1951 to
2.16 in 1991 (Mehta 1993). The share of the manufacturing sector in terms of
Economic Development 59 total urban employment has recorded consistently
increasing levels between 1961 and 1981. This has decreased by about 5 per
cent during 1981-91. A relatively larger proportion of the urban work force is
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now employed in the service sector. The imbalance in the pattern of economic
development and urbanization in India manifests itself both at the regional
level as well as in relation to the high concentration of urban population and
activities in a few large cities. Wide-ranging variations in the level of
urbanization and urban growth rate bear some semblance to the cross national
patterns of economic development and trends in urbanization. The more
developed and industrialized states have higher levels of urbanization and are
now experiencing relatively slower urban growth rate, while less developed,
industrialized states are rapidly urbanizing. The distribution of urban
population of 217 million residing in 3768 urban centres is uneven across
regions and city-size. In 1991, the 23 metropolitan cities accounted for 33 per
cent of the total urban population while 64 per cent of the urban population of
the country resides in the 273 cities above 100,000 population.
It is quite likely that these 300 urban centres contribute over 80 per cent
of income originating in urban areas. Such high levels of concentration of
urban population and economic activities can be explained to some extent by
the linkages of these cities to the external world markets. Locational and
Sectoral Shifts a second pattern observed is that the twin processes of
economic development and urbanization are associated with locational as well
as sectoral shifts of labour. The income elasticity of demand for manufactured
goods being greater than that for food and other agricultural products, this
sector has a higher potential for economic expansion and labour absorption
(Mills and Becker 1986; Oberai 1993). Thus, urbanization generally entails shift
of labour from lower income predominantly agricultural activities, to higher
income industrial and service sectors. Such locational and sectoral shifts of
labour imply a higher average income level which helps in attaining a faster
pace of overall economic growth at the national and regional levels. The
decline in manufacturing employment and increase in service sector
employment are particularly pronounced in the metropolitan and large cities.
A strong association between Indian urbanization and industrialization has
been observed. Nearly 74 per cent of all the registered factories are located in
urban areas.
Employment in Service Sector
Being a diverse country, India is rapidly urbanizing along with the
density of the population. The implications of globalization for a national
economy are many. Globalization in India has intensified interdependence
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and competition between economies in the Indian market. Changes have taken
place in the last two decades especially in the nature and pattern of urban
growth. Economic and spatial structures of cities have begun to reflect the
changing composition of the global regional markets. New townships with
high quality infrastructure have sprung on the periphery of large cities. The
emergence of the software and services outsourcing in India is one of the most
visible outcomes of globalization on land and housing markets. For making
local economies competitive, the cities are in the process of improving city
image and quality of life through infrastructure and other projects. The pattern
of urban life in India is characterized by continuous concentration of
population and activities in large cities. Nearly 30% of the total population
lives in urban areas along with population pressure with the fulfilment of their
needs. Every step of movement towards economic, political and cultural
modernization, taken by the state in India, is responded to by the people with
an enhanced sense of self consciousness and awareness of identity. The
linkages both visible and invisible, defining the cultural interdependence
among communities and regions in India which have existed historically,
reinforce instead of threatening the national identity. These bonds seem to
become stronger as India encounters the forces of modernization and
globalization. Flowing with globalization, India is shining in nearly every
prospect. India is getting a global recognition and slowly moving towards to
become a major economic and political strength.
The emergence of the software and services outsourcing industry in
India is one of the most visible outcomes of globalization, stimulated by the
spread of modern information and communication technologies (ICTs) and
the restructuring of global capitalism since the 1980s (Upadhya, 2006). The
global IT industry has been both facilitator of the new economy as well as one
of its primary industries, and the back office and low-end software services
providers, such as India, have played a central role in the development of this
economy by enabling work to be performed faster, cheaper and around the
clock (Carol Upadhya, 2006). The Indian software services and IT enabled
services (ITES) industries are largely products of these developments in the
global economy, as companies located in the advanced industrial economies
are outsourcing and off shoring an increasingly large proportion and range of
their activities to places where skilled human resources are more easily
available at lower cost (Upadhya, 2006). The internationalization of the
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Challenges
India’s future seem to be paradoxical, on one hand it has to sustain the
pressure of urban population growth and on the other hand it has to optimize
the scarce natural resources in order to compete globally with stable economic
growth. Housing, which constitutes so large a percentage of the built
environment, is a critical element in any sustainable urban growth strategy.
With this background the study calls for an integrated approach that aims at
exploring and understanding the complex phenomenon of urban development
and to evolve an appropriate sustainable growth model.
Conclusion
The impact of globalization on Indian urban life has a tremendous
influence. The impact of globalization on Indian rural economy has given new
face to modern India. There is a rapid and positive progress towards society.
The impact of globalization has changed India as one the global superpowers.
Thus, India is getting global recognition and slowly moving forward to
become a major economic and political strength. Thus, the paper clearly
elucidates that globalization is a complex phenomenon. It has a very profound
impact on India’s urban life. India’s globalization, urbanization and urban
development have shown remarkable growth. The study clearly reveals that
globalization is a complex phenomenon and it has a profound impact on
various urban sectors including housing and land markets. India’s
globalization and urbanization have shown remarkable and selective growth
by city sizes, regions and sectors. Higher growth and larger concentration of
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References
Improvement of the situation of women in rural areas”, General
Assembly, United Nations-2005.
The impact of globalization on families and communities”, International
Anglican Family Networks, London-2008.
Sandhya Rani, G. “Globalization and Women”, Asia-Pacific Journal of
Social Sciences-2010, pp-144-1
4.Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 6 - 2, 78-85, April - June 2009
Jayprakash Chadchan and R. Shankar .
5.Breese, G. (1969) Urbanisation in Newly Developing Countries, Prentice
Hall, New Delhi.
6.Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 6 - 2, 78-85, April - June 2009
Jayprakash Chadchan and R. Shankar
263
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
34
Urban Development and Migration in India: An overview
Siddaraju VG
Introduction
Urbanization has been a historical process linked to the level of
economic development and social transformation. Demographically, it is
measured as a proportion of the population living in urban centres that
evolved overtime in varying sizes. Large urban centres are recognized as
engines of economic growth since economic activities, communication
services, educational and health services, scientific and technological
innovations are concentrated in them. Urban centres also provide vital links to
the rural areas and are instrumental in rural development. On the other hand,
sustainable urbanization and equity in the distribution of social and economic
resources remain a great challenge globally, and more so for those countries
which have been urbanizing faster. India could be categorized as a country
with a low level of urbanization as officially 31 per cent of the population lived
in urban areas as per 2011 Census.
The estimated level of urbanization for the year 2014 was 32 per cent of
the population compared to 54 per cent at the global level. The rate of India’s
urbanization, that is the annual per cent change in the proportion of the urban
population, is higher (1.1%) than the global average (0.9%) (UN DESA, 2014).
This shows that India has been urbanizing faster, like most countries in Asia
and Africa, and its urban population is likely to grow from 410 million in 2014
to 814 million in 2050 with 50 per cent living in urban areas. However,
paradoxically, India will also be a country with the largest rural population of
about 805 million by 2050 (ibid.). So, while urbanization will be faster, the
rural segment will continue to be substantial for many more decades beyond
the middle of the twenty first century when India is likely to achieve
population stabilization.
However, it may be noted that the comparison of the level of
urbanization of India, with either global average or with any country, is beset
with definitional heterogeneity as there is no standard definition of urban at
the global level.
Thus, the definition of urban followed in a country matters in order to
understand the relationship between urbanization and migration. The criteria
of urban generally comprise one or more indicators like civic status, size,
density, percentage of non-agricultural workforce, urban characteristics like
presence of paved roads, electricity, piped water, sewers, and availability of
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265
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
In this above background, the present study has been made an attempt
to study the relationship between urbanization and migration, to study the
contribution of migration to urban growth and to analyze the Reasons and
Characteristics of Urban Migrants. The present study is based on secondary
data and dat was collected from various govt. reports, journals and books.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
resources remain a great challenge globally, and more so for those countries
which have been urbanizing faster. India could be categorized as a country
with a low level of urbanization as officially 31 per cent of the population lived
in urban areas as per 2011 Census.
The estimated level of urbanization for the year 2014 was 32 per cent of the
population compared to 54 per cent at the global level. The rate of India’s
urbanization, that is the annual per cent change in the proportion of the urban
population, is higher (1.1%) than the global average (0.9%) (UN DESA, 2014).
This shows that India has been urbanizing faster, like most countries in Asia
and Africa, and its urban population is likely to grow from 410 million in 2014
to 814 million in 2050 with 50 per cent living in urban areas. However,
paradoxically, India will also be a country with the largest rural population of
about 805 million by 2050 (ibid.). So, while urbanization will be faster, the
rural segment will continue to be substantial for many more decades beyond
the middle of the twenty first century when India is likely to achieve
population stabilization. However, it may be noted that the comparison of the
level of urbanization of India, with either global average or with any country,
is beset with definitional heterogeneity as there is no standard definition of
urban at the global level.
The definition of urban followed in a country matters in order to
understand the relationship between urbanization and migration. The criteria
of urban generally comprise one or more indicators like civic status, size,
density, percentage of non-agricultural workforce, urban characteristics like
presence of paved roads, electricity, piped water, sewers, and availability of
education and health services. India follows a definition that consists of a
combination of municipal status and demographic criteria. There is a variety
of municipal status in India, such as Municipal Corporation, Municipality,
Municipal Council, Nagar Panchayat, Notified Area Committee and
Cantonment Board. If a settlement has a municipal status, it is defined as
urban. For rest of the settlements, criteria such as a population of at least 5,000,
a density of 400 persons per sq. km and 75 per cent male work force in the
non-agricultural sector are applied. A settlement not covered by municipal
status must satisfy all three criteria to be declared as an urban centre. These
prerequisites with some minor changes have been followed since 1961.
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50
43.8
In Percentage
40 35.6 1981-91
1991-01
30 2001-11
20.8 20.6 21.5
18.7 19
20
10
0
Natural Increase Rural to Urban Migration Reclassification and
Boundary Changes
Particulars
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
which are often devoid of basic services and have largely grown in an
unplanned manner.
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better living. Their home villages had virtually rejected them as surplus
population which the rural resources of land were not able to sustain any
longer.
References:
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA),
2014 World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights
(ST/ESA/SER.A/352). Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Population Division, New York.
http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf
Bose, A (1965), Six decades of urbanisation in India 1901–61. Indian
Economic and Social History Review, 2 (23): 23–41.
Sovani, N.V (1964), The analysis of ‘over-urbanization’. Economic
Development and Cultural Change, 12 (2):113–122.
Preston, S.H, (1982), Urbanization: developing countries. In: International
Encyclopedia of Population (J. A.Ross, ed.). The Free Press, New York, 1982,
pp. 650–655.
Hutton, J.H (1986), Census of India 1931: With Complete Survey of Tribal
Life and Systems, Vol. 1, GianPublishing House, Delhi.
Various Census reports of India, Govt. of India.
Bhagat, R.B. and S. Mohanty (2009), Emerging pattern of urbanization and
the contribution of migration in urban growth in India. Asian Population
Studies, 5 (1): 5–20.
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35
Cooperatives’ For Social Inclusion: Some Thoughts
Nanjunda
“The resolution was a great statement about what peace was about – co-operation is not just
about business economics, but about world peace and behaving in a different way – that gets
forgotten.” Iain (Macdonald, former director general of the International Co-operative
Alliance )
Introduction:
Co-operative movements are the organs of the institutions for inclusive
development which are very influential and most flourishing part of Indian
Developing Process, the institutions were busy in the manufacture,
dispensation, sharing, servicing, banking and marketing processes etc. The Co-
operative proposal for Social Inclusion was initialized beneath the umbrella of
the Centre for Co-operative and Community-Based Economy, University of
Victoria, which Prof Mac Pherson had set up in 2000. Cooperatives have
revealed uniformly ground-breaking flair in customary sectors such as health
education, equal opportunities, social care, where the gaps between what
communities need and what the government can provide are widening.
Driven by global demographic changes, jobs in provision of care services are
projected to be some of the fastest growing segments of the labour market.
Cooperatives in Italy, for example, have prolonged to the point of providing a
wide range of services, from day-care for children to home-care for the elderly.
Cooperatives go on to capturing international notice as the world searches for
ways to attain a lasting global economic revival and to locate a path in the
direction of more sustainable development of the margins
The Cooperative Initiative for Peace and Social Inclusion (CIPSI) is
devoted to the study and promotion of co-operative contributions to peace
and social cohesion and evaluate and display the significance of the
international co-operative movement's commitments to peace; to increase
understanding of how those contributions are undertaken; to learn from the
successes and failures of co-operatives and their function in peace-building;
and to globally improve the possibility of co-operatives to contribute to a more
nonviolent world.
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Potential of cooperatives was also seen significant for the following propose
Ensuring food security and good nutrition;
Providing quality education and lifelong learning;
Ensuring good governance and effective institutions ;
Empowering women and achieving gender equality
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an chance. They need to create technology and business platforms that suit the
need of these banks.
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References
Anca Voinea, The Co-operative Initiative for Peace and Social Inclusion 13
August 2014 Co-operative News
Bishnu Mohan Dash Repositioning Women through Cooperatives and
Dynamics of Social Inclusion An Indian Perspective, SAARC Journal of Human
Resource Development 2011
Irchall, J. (2003). Rediscovering the Cooperative Advantage: Poverty
Reduction through Self Help. Geneva: ILO Cooperative Branch.
Williams, Richard C. (2007). The Cooperative Movement: Globalization from
Below. England: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.
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36
The Problems of Rural- Urban Women Entrepreneurs in
Mysore District: A Feministic Study
Bhaskara.D
Introduction:
The biggest problem or difficulty of a woman entrepreneur is that she is
a woman. The attitude of men has not changed in spite of constitutional and
legal equality. Women need to play multiple roles at a time, such as, taking
care of their after children, other members of family, house work and
entrepreneurship. Married women entrepreneurs are in need to balance
between firm and home. Her success depends on supports of all members of
family due to less self-confidence as compared to others in undertaking
entrepreneurial activity. Further, women entrepreneurs are seen with
suspicious eyes in society and attitudes of society are against her
entrepreneurship. Society discriminates women despite of constitutional
equality.
Many women entrepreneurs are complaining harassment from male
officials to get the work done. Many women though educated and got
theoretical knowledge but lacked practical expertise. The problems of women
entrepreneurs are classified into financial, marketing, human resource. The
finance is the scarcest resource in any part of the world and it is very
important requirements of an enterprise. Banks and financial institutions
hesitate in lending credit to women entrepreneurs due to lack of collateral
security in their name and non-availability of right guarantee.
The complicated bank loan procedure and delay in sanctioning of loans
deters many women from venturing. Bankers are also discouraging women
borrowers believing that they will go back as house wives again. Further,
timely non-availability of right skilled labour and their continuous new
demands affect adversely to the growth and development of firm. It is also not
possible for women entrepreneurs to adopt appropriate sales promotions and
pricing policies in marketing of their products due to their small size. In
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Lack of education even in 21st century, rural women in India is lagging far
behind in the field of education. Most of the rural women are illiterate.
Women in rural areas of various taluks like H D Kote and Piriyapatna are far
behind in literacy levels compared to other taluks like Nanjangud,T
Narasipura and Mysore urban areas. early marriage, low socio-economic
status, partly due to son's higher education. Lack of education is one of the
biggest obstacles for rural women who want to start an enterprise. Due to lack
of proper education, women entrepreneurs remain in dark about the
development of new technology, new methods of production, marketing and
other governmental support which will encourage them to flourish. Licensed
under Creative Commons Attribution, Lack of Raw Materials Due to poor
road connectivity and poor transportation, it is quite difficult to make
availability of raw materials all the time in rural areas. Availability of raw
materials is an essential component of entrepreneurship. Women
entrepreneurs in rural areas really face a tough task in getting the required
raw material and other necessary inputs for the enterprises when the prices
are very high.
Male Dominated Society - In our constitution there are equal rights for men
and women but in real sense equality does not exist in rural areas. Women are
being neglected in many spheres of life. Women are not treated equal to men.
As far as rural areas are concerned, people have a set attitude that women are
only for household work. Their entry to business needs the approval of the
head of the family. Entrepreneurship has traditionally been seen as a male
preserve and male dominated. All these put a break in the growth of women
entrepreneurs. Thus male entrepreneurs become hurdle in the success of
women entrepreneurs.
Problem of finance Women entrepreneurs have to suffer a lot in raising and
meeting the financial needs of the business, bankers, creditors and financial
institutes are not coming forward to provide financial assistance to women
borrowers on the ground of their less credit worthiness and more chances of
business failure. They also face financial problem due to blockage of funds in
raw materials, work-in-progress finished goods and non-receipt of payment
from customers in time.
Tough competitions- In the age of technology, women entrepreneurs of
Mysore rural areas face a lot of problems and challenges. Usually women
entrepreneurs do not employ high technology in the process of production. In
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a market where the competition is too high, they have to fight hard to survive
in the market against the organized sector and their male counterpart who
have vast experience and capacity to adopt advanced technology in managing
enterprises 5.7 High cost of production Several factors including inefficient
management contribute to the high cost of production which stands as a
stumbling block before women entrepreneurs. Women entrepreneurs face
technology obsolescence due to non-adoption or slow adoption to changing
technology which is a major factor of high cost of production.
Low risk-bearing ability: In our country, generally women are delicate and
emotional by nature. An entrepreneur must have risk bearing capacity for
being successful entrepreneur. But women, sometimes fail to bear the amount
risk which is essential for running an enterprise. Lack of proper education,
training and financial support from outsides also reduce their ability to bear
the risk involved in an enterprises.
Limited Mobility: In our country, mainly in rural area, women mobility is
very limited and has become a problem due to traditional values and inability
to drive vehicles. Moving alone and asking for a room to stay out in the night
for business purposes are still looked upon with suspicious eyes. Sometimes,
younger women feel uncomfortable in dealing with men who show extra
interest in them than work related aspects. Thus security of rural women
entrepreneurs is a major challenge.
Social Barriers: The traditions and customs prevalent in Indian societies
towards women sometimes stand as an obstacle before them to grow and
prosper. Castes and religions dominate with one another and hinder women
entrepreneurs too. In rural areas, they face more social barriers as they are
always seen with suspicious eyes.
Lack of entrepreneurial: aptitude Lack of entrepreneurial aptitude is a major
concern for rural women entrepreneurs. They have no entrepreneurial bent of
mind. Sometimes even after attending various training programmes on
entrepreneurship, women entrepreneurs fail to tide over the risks and troubles
that may come up in an organizational working.
Limited managerial ability: Management has become a specialized job which
only efficient managers perform. Due to lack of proper education women
entrepreneurs are not efficient in managerial functions like planning,
organizing, controlling, coordinating, staffing, directing, motivating etc. of an
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Out of those women entrepreneurs who packed their products, 93.96 per
cent packed themselves who are from upper class educated –high income
groups in Mysore.
32.72 percent women entrepreneurs have not used any promotional
techniques to promote their products.
70.08 percent women entrepreneurs have faced stiff competition from other
industries.
Out of those women entrepreneurs who faced stiff competition, 88.81 per
cent practiced healthy competition and 97.26 per cent have taken steps to
overcome from them.
86.48 percent women entrepreneurs of Mysore rural areas have estimated
funds requirement before starting entrepreneurial activities.
55.01 percent women entrepreneurs have brought additional loan for their
enterprises.
77.98 percent women entrepreneurs of low income rural areas of all taluks
have faced problems while taking loans.
51.89 percent women entrepreneurs have stated not necessary is the reason
for not planning.
There have financial, marketing, labour and production problems with more
number of women entrepreneurs.
Women entrepreneurs have less family related problems to undertake
entrepreneurship.
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training to both rural and urban entrepreneurs of all Mysore taluks. However,
more numbers of trainings are class room and theoretical oriented. These
types of training are not sufficient to undertake entrepreneurship profitably.
Therefore, it is essential to give practical oriented training to make
entrepreneurs more and more competitive and confident in undertaking
entrepreneurship.
Extension of Incentives to Small and Seasonal Entrepreneurs: The Karnataka
Government has been providing incentives to the registered entrepreneurs
under entrepreneurial memorandum in Mysore District. However, there are
many small and seasonal entrepreneurs who have undertaken
entrepreneurship without registration. Therefore, the governments may
extend incentives of to these small and seasonal entrepreneurs irrespective of
their size, nature, caste and creed in the interest of development of
entrepreneurship among women.
Establishing Women Entrepreneurs Co-operative Societies: Mysore District
is in foremost in establishment of women entrepreneurs co-operative societies
which solve problems like credit, raw material, packing, pricing, branding, etc.
In addition, it assists in protecting rights of women entrepreneurs. Further,
there has no women entrepreneurs’ cooperative society in study area.
Simplified Procedure and Documentation for Availing Benefits of Schemes:
To ensure maximum women could avail the benefits of schemes of the
governments, the procedures and documentations required to be submitted
should be simplified and accessible, a single window clearing facility can be
installed for the same and enough awareness should be provided, making it a
nationwide campaign, like polio promotion and HIV awareness activity.
Quick Release of Subsidy and Incentives: Women entrepreneurs are need to
wait for long period to get subsidy or incentives, which hindered the progress
of entrepreneurial activities and banks are reluctant to advance loans till they
receive subsidy. Therefore, there has a need of realizing subsidy and other
incentives on time to expedite the process of credit sanction and disbursement
on one side and development of women entrepreneurship on other side.
Setting up of Women Entrepreneurs Banks: The progress of women
entrepreneurship in India has been much lower as compared to some
advanced countries of the world. This may be due to lack of financial and
infrastructural support to potential women entrepreneurs. Further, it is very
difficult for women entrepreneurs to borrow from banks for investments in
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productive activities without collateral security and surety. However, they can
borrow only through self-help groups and the amount of lending under SHG
has been too less than actual requirements for investments.
Special Scheme for Financial Assistance: In case if it is not possible to set up
separate bank for women entrepreneurs, the RBI shall consider designing a
special scheme for granting comprehensive short and long term financial
assistance to women entrepreneurs without insisting on collateral security and
surety. The financial assistance shall be granted purely on the basis of merits
of the project proposals and on hypothecation of enterprise assets.
Strengthening Quality of Infrastructures: Mysore has the best infrastructure
compared to the other districts of Karnataka. However, low quality
infrastructure hinders the growth and development of their entrepreneurship.
Basic infrastructures like water supply, electricity, technology, buildings,
transportations, markets, insurance and banks are need to be strengthened for
development of entrepreneurship and smooth movement of entrepreneurial
activities.
Conclusion
Women entrepreneurship is very crucial for the economic development of the
country. It is really a matter of pride that Karnataka state is leading position in
providing encouragement to women of rural and urban enterpreuners.
Mysore district occupies the prominent position in providing incentives ,basic
infrastructure, loans and primary and secondary taining and skill
development schemes. Though some taluks like H D Kote and Piriyapatna lag
behind in literacy levels and skill development, the Zilla Panchayat has
adopted various programmes to empower both urban and rural women by
providing suitable skills and marketing management to avoid any untoward
exploitation by middlemen.
References:
S.K Dhameja (2002), Women Entrepreneurs: Opportunities, Performence,
Problems Jaico Publishers, New Delhi.
S.Shanta,Vasantha Gopal;Women Enterpreunership in India, Atlantic
publishers, New Delhi.
Odeyar D Heggede, Women and Economic Development, Ramya Roopa
Prakasana Mysore
Mysore District Industrial and Commercial Department Yearly Journals
Kandaveitappa, Women in Rural Areas, Mohit Publications Jaipur
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37
Dynamics of Poverty, Inequality and Exclusion in Urban
India: Debates And Discussions
Dilip.S.Chavan
Introduction
A public–private partnership (PPP) is a government service or private
business venture which is funded and operated through a partnership of
government and one or more private sector companies. These schemes are
sometimes referred to as PPP, P3 or P3. Thus PPP refers to a long-term
contractual partnership between the public and private sector agencies,
specifically targeted towards financing, designing, implementing and
operating infrastructure facilities and services in the State. These PPPs aim to
achieve the twin objectives of high growth and equity on a sustainable basis.
Origin of PPP: Pressure to change the standard model of public procurement
arose initially from concerns about the level of public debt, which grew
rapidly during the macroeconomic dislocation of the 1970s and 1980s. In a
competitive global environment, governments around the world were
focusing on new ways to finance projects, build infrastructure and deliver
services. Initially, most public–private partnerships were negotiated
individually, as one-off deals, and much of this activity began in the early
1990s. In 1992, the Conservative government of John Major in the UK
introduced the private finance initiative (PFI), the first systematic programme
aimed at encouraging public–private partnerships.
Development of public works assets can be seen as a barometer of a countries’
economic, political, and populace well-being. Infrastructure development is
critical for sustainable growth for countries such as India, Indonesia, China,
and the Philippines to name a few. Development of infrastructure projects
with private capital through Public Private Partnership (PPP) route has
become one of the commonly adopted procurement strategies in developed
and developing countries. All over the world where PPP procurement has
been used in one form or another, the way in which it is carried out has
become an important issue. There is no standard method of PPP
implementation as each country adapts the process as appropriate for its own
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Source: (Volume I, Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012– 2017) Planning Commission 2013.
The total public sector investment in infrastructure envisaged in the Twelfth
Plan is Rs.16, 01,061 crore from the Centre and Rs.12, 89,762 crore by the
States. Investment by the private sector, which includes PPP projects, makes
up the balance of Rs.26,83,840 crore, which is 48.14 per cent of the required
investment during the twelfth Plan, a much higher share than the anticipated
36.61 per cent during the eleventh Plan.
Objectives
To understand the concept and current status of Public Private
Partnership (PPP) Projects in India.
To analyze effectiveness of various assistance schemes and emerging
areas of PPP projects.
To focus on the scope of PPP projects in Indian Infrastructure.
To point out the challenges and barriers of PPP projects in India.
Research Methodology
This research paper is purely based on secondary data collected from various
sources. All the data generated from Government of India official website and
the official website of the committee on infrastructure, Planning Commission,
ministry of finance and Investment Commission of India. The other major
tools for the collection of the information has been from available literature as,
journals, books, and news of Govt. of India and states Govt. related to the PPP.
Result & Discussion
1. PPP and Privatization:
PPP and Privatization are seen by many people as the same entity. However,
both the words are not at all similar and cannot be used as synonyms. There
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lies a vast difference between these two terms which best can be explained on
the basis of responsibility, In the case of funding projects and its
implementation, the entire responsibility for its success or failure lies with the
private entrepreneurs. It is the private entrepreneur who has to be made
responsible if the projects or services didn’t click. But in case of PPP, the full
responsibility lies with the government and in case of failure the government
has to own responsibility. And on the basis of ownership, the rig ht of
ownership under privatization is transferable and can be transferred to private
entrepreneurs with both the gains (Profits) and Risks associated with projects.
But in case of PPP, the legal ownership of assets is retained by the public
sector. It is non-transferable. In case of risk & reward, under privatization, the
private partner enjoys full profits, but at the same time is responsible for the
losses an entrepreneur suffers. But in PPP this is advantage of private sector
that, risks and rewards are shared between both sectors.
2. Public Private Partnership Appraisal Committee (PPPAC):
PPPAC has been approved on 27th October 2005 at a meeting of the Cabinet
Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA). In the below figure we select last five
years different sectors PPP projects which are approved by PPPAC. (Rs in
Crores)
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
No
No. No.
of No. of of No.
Pro Total of Total Pr Total Pr Total of Total
ject Project Proj Project oje Project oje Project Proj Project
Sectors s Cost ect Cost cts Cost cts Cost ects Cost
Highwa 86336.2 17
y 90 9 123 123691.5 168 168190 9 175013.6 224 235437.5
Railway 1 8500.00 1 8500.00 1 8500.00 1 8500.00 1 8500.00
Ports 7 3683.25 10 11346.90 10 11346.9 18 18383.00 26 22477.70
Civil
Aviation n 2 1000.00 2 1000.00 2 1000.00 2 1000.00 2 1000.00
Tourism 1 148.87 1 148.87 1 148.87 1 148.87 1 148.87
Housing 0 0 0 0.00 17 8342.05 17 7299.00 17 7299.00
Sports 0 0 0 0.00 5 2475.00 5 2475.00 5 2475.00
99668.4
Total 101 1 137 144687 204 200003 223 2128195 276 277338
Source – Annual Report, Ministry of Finance (Budget Division, 2008-13), GOI
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The above figure shows that PPPAC has approved projects during the 2008-
09, 2009-10, 2010-11, 2011-12, and 2012-13 financial years. In 2008-09 PPPAC
has approved total 101 no. of projects, total amount of Rs.99668.41 crore
between them highway was the top most sectors for which Rs.86336.29 crore
allotted for the 90 projects. Till now 2012-2013 (up to December 2012) PPPAC
Rs. 235437.56 crore allotted for 224 approved of highway projects. So the
highway sector has been minting top position. Along with other sectors like In
Railway approved one project an amount of Rs.85000.00 crore, In Port sectors
26 projects approved an amount of Rs. 22477.70 crore, In civil Aviation sector
02 Project approved an amount of Rs. 1000.00 crore, In Tourism sector 01
approved an amount of Rs. 148.87 crore, In housing sector 17 projects
approved an amount of Rs.7299.00 crore and in sports stadia sectors 15
projects approved an amount of Rs. 2475.00 crore. On the basis of the figures,
we conclude that the PPPAC has been doing a substantial job in the field of
PPP and is transforming Indian economy. The huge amount spent on projects
under PPP seldom speaks volume its success.
3. Viability Gap Funding (V.G.F.):
The GOI announced Viability Gap Funding (VGF) scheme in budget 2005-06.
This major scheme promotes PPP in various infrastructure sectors include
roads, seaports, airports, railways, convention centers. Keeping in mind the
success of the projects many more new sectors like storage, internal
infrastructure in national investment and manufacturing zones. This scheme
aims to support infrastructure projects which are economically justified, but
short of financial viability. The total VGF provided under the scheme is up to
20% of the total capital cost of the project. Empower institution (Under the
finance ministry) sanctioned Viability Gap Funding up to Rs.100 crore for
each project. The Empowered Committee sanctioned proposals up to Rs.200
crore, And the Empowered Committee with the approval of the Finance
Minister sanctioned proposal amounts exceeding Rs.200 crore.
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VIII. Conclusion
Considering India’s infrastructural needs, PPPs are not just an option,
but a necessity. It has been seen that PPP has many merits such as large
investment in public (both urban and rural) infrastructure, efficient service
delivery, cost-effectiveness, contracts that are performance-based, sharing of
risks, effective use of assets and opportunities of long-term investment.
Though a mixed economic approach is followed by India, which is reliant on
public private involvement in economic activities, Public Private Partnership
in infrastructure is now more than a decade old.
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38
Dynamics of Poverty Inequality and Exclusion In Urban
India: Debates And Discussions
Introduction
Urban sector of India is spreading its underlying foundations broadly.
Movement to urban regions by individuals demonstrates that the nation is in
the way of become a developed country and continuously individuals can
meet the basics as well as have been enhancing their norms of life. In any case,
the remarkable thing is that simultaneously to this advancement the slums in
urban areas likewise have been expanding step by step. The poor slum
dwellers have not the fundamentals of life and fighting economically and
socially. The reasons for this problem are the lack of employment or income
sources and lower income. The critical part of this issue is the lack of education
and skill standards in children and people of here so they can contend with
this world. Different plans have been presented by the government from time
to time to raise the lives of these destitute people but since of the lack of
administration and policies paralysis the government have failed to do
although not fully. A definitive solution for this issue is education including
Non formal education to individuals and children of these slums. So they can
develop economically, socially and educationally.
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will have lots of happiness! What about the dreams and aspirations of the
people who live here?
Role of State
Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation is implementing
Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY) throughout the country, aimed
at providing gainful employment to the urban unemployed and under-
employed poor, through encouraging the setting up of self employment
ventures by the urban poor living below the poverty line, skills training and
also through providing wage employment by utilizing their labour for
construction of socially and economically useful public assets. The scheme has
been comprehensively revamped with effect from 2009-2010. Ministry of Skill
Development and Entrepreneurship has been initiated schemes like Pradhan
Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna (PMKVY) under which the skill training classes
are used to given the urban slum dweller.
In the past years the various steps were also taken by the states like
‘Operation Blackboard’ aimed to improve classroom environment, ‘Non-
Formal Education (NFE) and EGS & AIE’ for giving Non formal education for
children etc. State makes contribution to legislative steps in the form of
schemes to throw out the poor conditions of slum dwellers and also clubbed
hands with the non state actors like Non Governmental Organisation to fight
with the problem.
Recent scheme ‘The National Skill Development Mission’ was approved
by the Union Cabinet on 01.07.2015, and officially launched by the Hon’ble
Prime Minister on 15.07.2015 on the occasion of World Youth Skills Day. The
Mission has been developed to create convergence across sectors and States in
terms of skill training activities. (i) Institutional Training, (ii) Infrastructure,
(iii) Convergence, (iv) Trainers, (v) Overseas Employment, (vi) Sustainable
Livelihoods, (vii) Leveraging Public Infrastructure.
Role of N.G.O.’s
Sustainable and enduring associations with the voluntary area will fortify the
Government's endeavours to realize the objective of all inclusive education
and skill training in urban slums. The atmosphere for across the India reform
and improvement in education makes it an ideal time for the Government to
manufacture strategies cooperation with the voluntary organisations (N.G.O.)
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can able to help sovereign to discharge its functions, although it have been
doing work with the government for the constitutional pledge to serve basics
to its subjects.
‘Pratham’ N.G.O has been serving the education including vocational
and non formal education to various urban slum dwellers in multiple cities of
India. But it is facing problems in the serve of education because of the state’s
lack of governance and strategic malfunction. Not only one but many N.G.O.’s
are working for giving education to slum dwellers in urban areas. The author
would like to mention brief of his working experience where he have worked
as intern at Delhi based N.G.O , who have been providing basic education to
children including computer education, skill training to women of slums in
Delhi. He has seen over there the life of those people were changed
comparatively before prevailed conditions. Children over there were happy to
get education and the women over there were also happy to had skill training
so that they will no more depend upon their husbands and also they were able
to contribute to family expenses with their husbands proudly, they told. Skill
training includes beautician, tailoring, weaving etc. Challenges, it were facing
was lack of support and funds from government, although it was getting the
support. But what author felt over there if funds and support of government
will increase then it will be able to educate and train more people of slums. It
was working hardly.
Needs of Urban Slum Poor
Overhauling the slums is not just moving the slum inhabitants into multi-
storeyed houses. It needs significantly more think attempts to be worked
upon both with body and the soul. The needs of them are:
The government has made “Awas Yojanas”, including schemes having
same essence to eradicate the poor condition of living of urban slum
dweller, where it makes houses for the slum dwellers where they are
asked to shift, though this step of state is for welfare of them but the need
of them is something far from that. They don’t have enough sources to run
their livelihood as lack of employment and education skills.
The issue doesn’t end here, as these slum dwellers give those houses on
rent to earn money and again keep on living in slums. So, government
must provide them education and skilled training simultaneously with the
employment so that they can earn money and able to meet with their
livelihood expenses.
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Challenges
State is facing the lack of implementation of the schemes made by the
government for the slum dwellers due to the lack of governance at the
executive level.
o The N.G.O.’s are playing their role in getting to slum dwellers for their
betterment but they also face the problem of lack of funds, as the budget is
granted by the government but does not reach them properly.
o If reached properly than the N.G.O. are not used to utilize the fund for the
consideration of slum dwellers because they are making their profit
fraudulently.
o Absence of enthusiasm of teachers, low quality of training, ambiguity in
educational programs and course readings, absence of group participation,
powerless management system, inadequate cost, an absence of
accentuation on mainstreaming and so on. Additionally, most NFE centres
were in residences as of now served by formal schools
o Slum dwellers are facing the problem of corruption while getting the
benefit under various education schemes of government.
Solutions
We have to gain from the nations like Israel, which tended to the Urban
Poor issues by presenting ideal strategies and imaginative methodologies. In
Israel, despite the fact that they don't have slums as we have in India, they
confined their approaches for tending to the necessities of the urban poor and
cater those requirements by including private players in a more adaptable and
successful way.
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Also the government of India has to fill all those loopholes which may cause to
the policy paralysis at legislative and executive level, which may be done in
the following manner:
• There should be the provisions of welfare for slum community including
educational and skill training in such manner which shall be beneficial to
them in real sense.
• The legislative policies must contain the provisions of involving more and
more role of Non state actors such as N.G.O. with the state machineries.
Such N.G.O. shall be recognised and time to time inspection should be
done for checking the work of N.G.O. by state and such inspection team
shall be governed by central government or appropriate government
directly and submit the report.
• The policies shall contain the rule of force to the provisions contained in it
for their implementation and there shall be accountability backed up by
the sanction in a positive approach of both state executive and Non state
actors towards the people.
• The education curriculum must contain the curriculum of latest era of
modernisation and should not be outdated. The programmes of skill
training to the dwellers must have the variety of courses so that the
women, men and children can choose their work of passion.
• By accelerating vocational and skill training programmes by issuing
certificate from appropriate authority or recognised organisation.
• At every district level or where the slums are situated in urban areas, a
welfare centre of government should be established especially for serving
the education to children.
• Every government teacher should be taken the classes in these slum areas
at least once in a week with rotating policy. The government must fix the
duty of every teacher in a reasonable and required manner. So that the
people and children can have the education by the persons having
eligibility to teach rather than the normal teachers and should bring some
law or amendment regarding this matter.
• For promoting this the government may award the extra allowances for
the government teachers who will teach over here.
• Report shall be submitted to the appropriate authority by time to time
regarding the course coverage by the teachers, report may includes ideas
and suggestion by teachers and learners.
• Continuous body shall be established to check and review the needs of
slum dwellers regarding education and skill training.
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39
Urban development Vis- A - Vis Social inclusive: A Study
of CSR in India
Kavyashree.N
Introduction:
Every Constitution has its own philosophy and for the philosophy of
our Constitution we must look into the preamble of the Constitution of India,
which emphasis on justice of social, economic and political and equality and
liberty. The Indian Constitution enables the government to take positive
welfare measures some of which are legally enforceable they also give powers
to the government for pursuing collective good of the society. The formation
of socialistic pattern of society based on equality, liberty and fraternity, it laid
down certain provisions in Constitution of India for the social justice and
development. Secure to justice and access to justice is part of basic structure of
the Constitution and principles of Constitution are adopted by we the people
of India and hence it is our at most duty to frame policies for the protection of
philosophy of our Constitution.
II. Objectives of the study
Legal discharge of corporate social responsibility.
Amendment to the company law and its necessity.
Social responsibility through legal instrument.
Urban and social and civic development, through corporate
responsibility.
There is no cross check on legal discharge of CSR.
There is no development without social development.
To understand the CSR initiatives in India.
The World Summit for Social Development, held in March 1995,
established the concept of Social integration to create an inclusive society, “a
society for all”, as one of the key goals of Social development. The
Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action, a key outcome of the
Summit, pledged to make the eradication of poverty, full employment and
social integration overriding objectives of development. Member states made a
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and human Right s, and further embodies social inclusion principles as well as
the objectives and goals set out in the Copenhagen Declaration. The question
now is how to make the concept of social inclusion operational, even in the
face of resistance to change. The challenge for policy makers and social
scientists is, therefore, to find ways to dissociate the concept of social inclusion
from the utopian realm of a “perfectly inclusive” world vision to redefining it
as a practical tool used to promote an inspirational yet realistic set of policy
measures geared towards a “society for all.” To this end, social inclusion, as an
overarching goal as well as a multi-dimensional process can play a critical role
in promoting sustainable human development.
The World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen 1995) defines
an inclusive society as a “society for all in which every individual, each with
Right s and responsibilities, has an active role to play”. Such an inclusive
society must be based on respect for all human Right s and fundamental
freedoms, cultural and religious diversity, social justice and the special needs
of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups, democratic participation and the
rule of law. It is promoted by social policies that seek to reduce inequality and
create flexible and tolerant societies that embrace all people. IN short run
government could use its policies to bring equality in all the aspects through it
are burdens on the government to distribute it equally. Policies of the
government for inclusive growth are an important component of most
government strategies for sustainable growth.
Inclusive growth, cohesive societies with accountable institutions are better
able to sustain development. Here it has meant inclusiveness as societies
promote more access to opportunities.
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Definition of CSR
A widely quoted definition by the world business council for sustainable
development state that “corporate social responsibility is the continuing
commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic
development while improving the quality of life of the work force and their
families as well as of the local community and society at large. Hence it says
two fold concepts, one it exhibits the ethical behaviour that an organization
exhibits towards its integral and external stakeholders; on the other hand, it
denotes the responsibility of an organization towards the environment and
society in which it operates.
CSR was adopted by the companies as an instrument of government and not
only for relief, but for development welfare and service delivery, but
ultimately for urban development leading to social inclusion of those areas
which are deprived of facilities and infrastructural growth and necessities. For
these private companies can directly involve in these development work or
else setup strong foundations of their parent concern and works, some work
with the help of private public partnership (PPP), for urban development
leading to social inclusion for sustainable development. Sometimes companies
have tie ups with NGOs for implementation of CSR activities.
Through CSR activities companies are improving livelihood of those
who are in and around urban areas like semi urban and slums and other areas
by improving health, sanitation, providing education, helping them to have
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
There is no denying that our cities need fixing. Burden sharing between
key stakeholders in urban space is key to tackling he need for urban
transformation, much more needs to be done. Hence, it is unwise to leave out
the private sector, which would want to improve the future of our cities for its
own growth and profitability. Inclusive urban development was top at the
agenda even for our present Prime Minister at the time of his tenure of Gujarat
CM. making schedule vii more inclusive, especially from an urban standpoint,
would be one of the steps in building economically vibrant cities. Rapid
urbanisation will be one of India’s largest transitions in the years to come,
because of too many factors with the urban population estimated to increase
from 300 million to 600 million by 2030. Policy making in India however, has
failed to keep up with this changing reality. Ministry of corporate affairs has
given some clarity on what is considered CSR under the company law Act
2013, by issuing circular.
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Conclusions:
The Indian economy, seeking stronger integration with the global system, has
shown many interesting features in its structure of urbanisation and process of
urban growth during the last few decades of the last century. In the widest
sense the strategy for sustainable development aims to promote harmony
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References:
Census of India 2011
India 2015, A reference Annual , publications, Division, ministry of
information and broad casting, government of India, page no718
World business council for sustainable development WBCSD-1999
UNhabitat.org, UNHabitat for a better urban future
Ministry of corporate affairs, notification(rules), new Delhi
27/02/2014(available at mca.gov.in.ministrypdf/companies act notification 2-
2014
Corporate Social Responsibility –Towards a Sustainable Future White Paper
KPMG IN INDIA
National voluntary guidelines on social environmental and economic
responsibilities of business, voluntary
Govt of India, ministry of corporate affairs general circular, n,r21/2014 dated
18 June
Prime urban development India limited csr policy, available at
ww.ptonline.com.>policies>corporate
10. CSR in India-, www.sustainabledevelopment.in center of excellence
for sustainable development
Hand book on corporate social responsibility in India pwc,
www.pwc.in.pdf.publication
www.moud.goi.in ministry of urban development
Govt plans to awards for corporate social responsibility acivities, economic
times.com/news/economy accessed on 22/12/16 a 1.30
Commission on growth and development,2008 growth report: strategies for
sustained growth and inclusive development, the world bank report
Creating an inclusive society: practical strategies to promote social integration,
, organized by DPSD/UNDESA, 23 May - 17 June, 2007
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40
Dynamics of Poverty, Inequality And Exclusion In Urban
India
Introduction
Law is supreme and no one is above law but this is not the only thing. Law
and Order should be maintained in a country so that everything runs
smoothly but there are few things which are beyond the control of law. For
example, Poverty. Poverty not only gives rise to the class difference creating
inequality but also creates a barrier for people excluding or including them in
a particular kind of society.
Inequality and exclusion which are another main virus of our society which is
created by our society itself, generally people who migrate from the agrarian
based system to a primary economic system in general terms called as” urban
poor” suffer inequality which in one or the other way leads to exclusion as we
see them inferior to us, they are denied of various things like rights their
resources etc. An imbalance is created in our society because of this, class
difference is created which is not good for our society.
Society is created by us and because of the creation of this society the
difference of class is there, we have set up a standard to measure who is rich
and who is poor. We accept the rich people or people who have sufficient
money to buy luxury or at least some thing near to it but what about poor
people who don’t have enough money to afford or buy their daily needs, what
we do with them, we exclude them from our society. We don’t want them to
join the main stream of our society. We say that Law is supreme and no one is
above the law then why not this law has helped us to remove the imbalance
created by our society.
Since our society has given birth to social exclusion and is being practiced in
almost every part of our country. We have to eradicate this from our society to
establish equality amongst all. The problem is that we don’t participate to
bring about the change in the mind-set of our society. It is rightly said if we
want to see the change, we have to be the change we want to see.
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as Urban Poor. The population of Urban Poor is also very much. Around
Thirty-Five Percent of Indian Household qualify as poor. According to SECC
report, the monthly per capita expenditure is just Rs 1407 in urban areas in
2011-2012. As per C Rangarajan report, a person who is living in an urban area
and spending less than Forty-Seven Rupees will be considered as poor.
Dismissing the SECC report, the Rangarajan Committee said that the number
of poor people was much higher in 2011-12 which was 29.5% of the
population. According to this report, 3 out of 10 people living in India are poor
and the number of poor people has been increased by 9.4 crore in one year.
The same report says that the poverty in the country has declined by 3% every
year, from the financial year 2004-05 to 2011-12.
Social Exclusion
Social exclusion is a form of discrimination or we can say it as excluding
someone wholly or partially from being a part of social, economic or political
community. This exclusion is done on the basis of caste, creed, ethnicity,
religion or gender. It is referred as way in which any individual is cut off from
the involvement of the society. It is not accidental but systematic as it is result
of structural features of society and it is involuntary too as it is regardless of
the wishes of those who are excluded from the society.
We can also say that social exclusion is based on three pillars, or it has
basically three unique features which are as follows: -
It involves culturally-defined social categories, with associated cultural
perceptions, values and norms that shape social interaction.
It is embedded in our social relations.
It affects the rights of people and their entitlement which is denying
them from the opportunities they need to maintain a universally
acceptable standard of living and to fulfil their potential.
Social exclusion is a complex and multi-dimensional process. It involves the
lack or complete or partial denial of resources, rights, goods and services, and
the inability to participate in the normal relationships and activities, available
to the majority of people in a society, whether in economic, social, cultural or
political areas. It affects both the quality of life of individuals and the equity
and cohesion of society as a whole and we cannot deny this fact.
The PACS approach to Social Exclusion
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It affects both the quality of life of individuals and the equity and cohesion of
society as a whole.
This definition also has the advantage of not narrowly limiting the causal
processes at work in social exclusion or the factors that affect life chances.
These are open to empirical investigation.
Relation between Poverty and Social Exclusion
Social exclusion has an undeniable impact on the poverty status of socially
excluded communities.
Those who belong to socially excluded groups are not affected by a lack of
resources ‘just like’ the rest of the poor. They face particular discrimination in
gaining access to these resources. For example, there may be a clean water
pump in a village but those who are socially excluded may not be allowed
access to it because social exclusion locks people out of the benefits of
development, denying them opportunities, choices and a voice to claim their
rights, it causes greater levels of poverty.
Relation between Social Exclusion and Inequality.
The concepts of social exclusion and inequality are closely linked. Unequal
societies in which certain groups are discriminated against can lead to
exclusion. Likewise, social exclusion involves inequality. Policies and
initiatives to reduce inequalities and social exclusion can be quite similar; both
take a multidimensional approach and generally target groups rather than
individuals. Both are also concerned with the responsibility of richer groups in
bringing about social exclusion, and are conscious of the need to address
policies towards richer as well as poorer people to reduce social exclusion/
inequality.
Conclusion
We would like to conclude this paper by stating that Poverty, Inequality
and Exclusion are inter-related with each other. If everything should be equal
and it is not, it means this is a situation of Inequality. Poverty means a person
who is Below Poverty Line (BPL) or a person who struggle too much for his
necessities whereas there are few people in the society who can afford
everything and live a luxury life. This difference of affording a luxury life and
struggling for necessity creates a huge difference and this difference creates
inequality of status.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
There are many forms of Inequality but inequality of status of one of the
prominent thing that appears in Indian Society. Equality of Status is
guaranteed by the Constitution of India. Government is also taking initiative
to ensure its citizen equality. People come to cities or urban areas to find jobs
for themselves but it is again found that they are jobless in cities. These people
constitute a major group in Urban Poor and thus, increases the poverty in
Urban Area. Government schemes to remove poverty in Urban Area is one
step taken towards development of cities.
The class difference introduced societal status which determines the Standard
of Living of people inviting exclusion of few people. For example- The maid
who works in house is not allowed to have food on the dining table with the
family. So, we can now see how these three factors are inter-linked with each
other. There is an unseen and hidden forces that keeps these three factors
together.
Bibliography
Document of Fifth Five Year Plan
Tendulkar Committee’s Report
C Rangarajan Report
Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC) Report, 2011
Indian Human Development Survey Report (IHDS), 2011-2012
Constitution of India
The sources of these data were online. They are: -
www.indiankanoon.org
www.planningcommission.org.in
www.weforum.org
www.economicdiscussion.net
www.socialguide.net
www.pacsindia.org
www.who.int
312
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
41
The Role of Social Inclusion In Tackling The Problem Of
Poverty Reduction
Manjunatha K G
Introduction
Social exclusion is a serious problem in many countries of the
world.Asian, African and Latin American countries are facing this problem.It
is an important issue also in India. Certain groups in the society are
systematically excluded from opportunities that are open to others, because
they are discriminated against on the basis of their race,
religion,gender,caste,age,disability and other social identity. People who are
excluded like this are not just like the rest of the poor, only poorer, and as a
result they are excluded out of the benefits of development. Social exclusion
deprives the people of their choices and opportunities to escape from poverty
and denies them a voice to claim their rights.Social exclusion is often a cause
of poverty, conflict and insecurity.if we have to tackle it effectively we need to
study the real problem. It would have to help us to formulate the
policies,laws.rules and regulations it also find out a different ways of working
with partner governments ,the international community and civil society
organisations to overcome it.The study of social exclusion can help us to
understand the problem of developing as well as developed economy. Social
exclusion and poverty are very much correlated with each other. The present
paper will analyse the how government policies, agencies are working for the
socially excluded people in India and around the world is very crucial issue in
the present time
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
314
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
315
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
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Act1955,The Hindu Divorce Act 1955,The Hindu succession Interacts Act 1956
,The Dowry prohibition act 1961 have passed for women. The dowry
prohibition act of 1961 has been made more stringent by Amendment of 1984.
Welfare Of The Disable People: Four major national institutes have been
established in the country. National Institute for Orthopedically Handicapped
at Culcutta. National Institute for Visually Challenged in Dehraaduhun.
National Institute for Mentally Challenged in Secunderabad. National
Institute for the Hearing Handicapped in Bombay.
Welfare Of The Drug Addicted People: This is the major problem in India. The
ministry of welfare has no exact record about it. The children and youth of the
country involve in it.74 voluntary action agencies has been set up in the
country. Counseling centre started in the country since 1986-87 in Delhi. The
government passed Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act in 1985
The Welfare Of Underprivileged: The SC ,ST and OBC population ias a part of
the disadvantaged society. Under article 330 and 332 of the Constitution seats
are reserved for SC and ST population .Post metric and Premetric scholarship
schemes are implemented for this people in the different parts of the country.
Conclusion
Concepts of social exclusion are becoming increasingly prevalent as part of
the social policy approaches in the developed nations. They have emerged as
the result of general shift in considering poverty as multidimensional and a
process rather than a purely economic. They are popular because they claim
to capture both the material and cultural aspects of deprivation, and try to
integrate into various forms of disadvantages ina single framework.However
closer analysis reveals a number of problems with the core concepts of
underpinning them. Social exclusion approaches are in need of a better
understanding of a marginality, the limits of a dualistic notions of a power,
and need to consider the excluded as agents within the process of exclusion. It
is a major issue in every type of a economy. It should be studied and handle
properly for economic growth and economic development.
References:
Sinha, Archana.Economic Empowerment and Amelioration of disadvantantaged
in India, Kurukshethra, vol.5,(2006)
Sen, Amartya, Social Exclusion Concept Application and Scruitiny,Critical Quest
Publishing, New Delhi,2004
Venkateshan, S ,Social Exclusion and Poverty,Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi,2007.
317
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
42
Socio-Cultural Transformation and Urbanization in India
Manjunatha B T
Introduction
India’s contact with the West was a contact between a pre-modern and a
modernizing cultural system. By the time the Western tradition exerted
influence on various aspects of Indian social life, cultural and political system,
and its own internal structure had experienced a series of transformations. Its
traditional hierarchical and holistic character had broken down; its value
structure was rendered more open, liberal, equalitarian and humanistic and
this tradition was imbued with a new-found sense of confidence in the
scientific and technological world-view based on rationalism, equality and
freedom.
Urbanization is a transformative process in which people migrate from
rural to urban areas and change the ways they use land, interact, and earn a
living. The urban populations include not only city dwellers but also
suburbanites and even residents of small towns that have been pulled in by
urban sprawl. Urbanization corresponds with a shift from labor-intensive
agriculture-based occupations to manufacturing, information, and service
occupations all of which depend heavily on fossil fuels, not only to provide the
energy to make, distribute, and deliver goods and services, but also to
transport employees from home to work.
Objective of the study
To study the socio-cultural transformation and urbanization in India
To analyses Law, Urban Poor and Social Exclusion
Collecting opinions and giving suggestions
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Methodology
The scope of the study is limited to understand the concept and applicability
of socio-cultural in Karnataka, the study includes the impact and appropriate
frame work for development of socio-cultural in Karnataka. The present study
is both Primary and Secondary data. Data collected through observation,
interview, research related articles, research papers, Reports of Ministry of
Tribal affairs in central as well as the state and, Karnataka Inclusive policy
The data also collecting from different websites related to the Urban
development and using qualitative and quantitative Research
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Indian society, being no exception, has also been subject to this complex
process. Subsequent discussion on socio cultural dynamics in Indian society
shall focus on two aspects (A) what has been the context of change (B) How
these change came about. (A) Taking Aryan society of the Vedic times as a
point of departure, we can have an overview of these changes in demographic,
familial, stratificational, economic and political spheres. They constitute
various sub structure of Indian society. Thus these change are to be termed as
structural changes. They have been both endogenous and exogenous in
nature.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
cities; the growth of the latter has been facilitated by increased longevity and
improved health and social benefits. In previous generations, and in most
rural societies, many of these individuals would have shared accommodation,
often as part of extended family groupings. The result, again with respect to
Western countries, is that average family size is now fewer than four persons,
while average household size is fewer than three. In many older central cities,
in fact, average household size is below two persons. This is in part a sign of
success, reflecting improvements in housing and in our ability to afford to live
alone, but it also reflects dramatic changes in how we choose to live and in our
attitudes to marriage, family life, and social responsibility.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
categories of real estate and property, both its means and ends reconfigured.
The two imaginations sometimes overlap: as developers building ‘affordable
housing’ units demand concessions from the state, they draw upon both the
commodity nature of housing as well as recognition of the social and need-
based characteristics of the commodity they produce. In different ways,
however, these contrasting imaginations of housing eventually see it as an
asset to be accessed, consumed and used, be it by households or developers,
for use or exchange. Housing is, in other words, an end unto itself. However,
housing is not just what it is but what it does. Declaring affordable housing to
be a sector marked for priority lending, the Reserve Bank of India spoke not
just of access to housing but of the ‘employment generation potential of these
sectors’.4 Similarly, for the National Housing Bank, housing is a basic need but
also ‘a valuable collateral that can enable the access of credit from the financial
market’.5 Others argue that housing is a vector to other developmental
capabilities. Without it, health, education, psycho-social development, cultural
assimilation, belonging, and economic development are impossible. As a bidi
worker and member of the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA),
Manjuben, says, ‘My house is my asset, my savings, my workshop, and my
place to rest and belong.’6 Debates within development circles disagree only
about where the virtuous or vicious cycle begins—the fact that these
developmental capabilities are interlinked is widely accepted. It is, therefore,
within the multiple meanings and roles of housing (as need, right, commodity,
infrastructure, legal status, and financial asset) as well as the dual nature of
housing (as an end in itself as well as a means to other desired outcomes) that
it is essential to approach the question of exclusion in access to housing. In this
chapter, this is done so from a particular location. It is argued, in keeping with
the framework of this report, that access to affordable and appropriate
housing must be seen as a public good, the protection and provision of which
requires strong public commitment and action in multiple ways, including an
unambiguous framing of housing as a right and entitlement. This is primarily
for two reasons: (a) a belief that the economic, social, political, and
developmental implications of exclusions from housing, unlike with private
goods, make life with dignity impossible; and (b) the structure of the housing
market is such that reasonable access is deeply prone to entrenched exclusions
in the absence of corrective intervention and public action.
Conclusion
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Reference
Ahmad, A. (1986): “Socio-Cultural Change in a Developing Society: The
Case of India”, in Safi, M. and Raza, M. (eds.) Spectrum o f Modem
Geography, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.
Barooah, B. (1998): The Sonowal Kacharis o f Assam, pub. by the author,
Guwahati, p. 4. Barua, I., Sengupto, S. and Dutta Das, D. (eds.) (2002):
323
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
324
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
43
325
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Implementation
Under Sec 3, States are responsible for providing work in accordance
with the Scheme. Under Sec 4, every state government is required to make a
scheme for providing not less than 100 days of guaranteed employment in a
financial year, to those who demand work
Migration in India is not new and historical accounts show that people have
moved in search of work, in response to environmental shocks and stresses, to
escape religious persecution and political conflict. However improved
communications, transport networks, conflicts over natural resources and new
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327
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Inter-district
Intra-district
migrants
migrants
25%
59%
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
90000000
80000000
70000000 10 years and above Inter-state
60000000 migrants
50000000
40000000 5-9 years Inter-state migrants
30000000
20000000 1-4 yaers Inter-state migrants
10000000
0
Less than 1-year Inter-state
migrants
All duration Inter-state
migrants
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
330
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60
50
Saydapur
40
Mudnal
30
Total
20
Total
10
Saydapur
0
21-25 40-60 60 Total
Table -4
Gender wise classification of the sample respondents
Gram Male Female Total
Panchayat
Sydapur 08 22 30
Mudnal 10 20 30
Total 18 42 60
Source: Field survey.
Chart: 4. Gender wise classification of the sample respondents
60
60
42
50
40
18 30 Sydapur
30
20 30 Mudnal
20 10 22
Total
10 8
0
Male
Female
Total
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
60 60
50
40 Sydapur
30 30 Mudnal
22 Total
20 20
14 12
10 11
8 8 7 7
4
3 4
0
< 75 days 76-90 days 90-100 days >100 days Total
60
40
Syadapur
20 Mudnal
Total
0 Mudnal Total
Decreased Syadapur
Increased
Remained
Same Total
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
333
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
no way to have helped in food security management while 15% are not
sure about food security management.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
335
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
44
Slum Education: Importance of Present and Future
Scenario
H.N. Narasingappa
Introduction;
Education is a critical input in human resource development and is
essential for the country’s economic growth. Though the major indicators of
social –economic development are the growth rate of the economy, birth rate.
death rate .infant mortality rate and literacy rate. and all of are
interconnected. The literacy rate has been the major determinant of the rise or
fall in other indicators. There is enough evidence in India to show that a high
literacy rate. especially in the case of the women. correlates with low birth-
rate. And increase in the rate of life expectancy
The recognition of this fact has created awareness on the need to focus
upon literacy And elementary education programmes. Not simply as a matter
of social justice but more to foster economic growth. social well-being and
social stability. Literacy rate in India has shown considerable improvement
over the past few years but the conditions of slum education is still in its
immature phase. This article tries to study how youth participation can help
in education of slums especially to their social- economic conditions slum
;residence of urban poor for billions of people, the urban experience is one of
poverty and exclusion. Often studies overlook those residents of a city whose
homes and work are unofficial or unregistered preciously those most likely to
be poor or suffer discrimination i .e. the slums. Difficult urban living
conditions reflect and are exacerbated by factors such as illegibility, limited
voice induction-making and lack of secure tenure, assets and legal protection.
Exclusion is often reinforced by discrimination on the grounds of gender
,ethnicity, race or disability’s addition ,cities often expand beyond the capacity
of the authorities to provide the infrastructure and services needed to ensure
people’ s health and well being . a significant proportion of urban population
growth is occurring in the most unplanned and deprived areas .these factors
combine to push essential services especially education beyond the reach of
children and families living in poor urban neighborhood however by no
336
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
means do all of the urban poor live in slums and by no means is every in
habitant of a slum poor never the less ,slums are an expression of and a
practical response to deprivation and exclusions and despite their many
deprivation s slum residents provide at least one essential service to the very
socialist from which they are marginalized labour some of it is formal and
some undocumented but almost all is low paid for example as factory hands
shop assistants street vendors and domestic workers and hence if provided
with basic elementary education this labour can be utilized to improve their
social –economic condition
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
among slum children .overage is often the outcome of late admission to school.
Late admission is caused both by demand side i.e. migration from rural areas
to slum s and supply side i,e, lack of school capacity for all children a short
period of admission , requirements of birth certificate, etc. Economic problems
are one of the main reasons why children do not attend school .however
various educational schemes have been applied by government to increase the
literacy rate some of them are as follows.
Right to education
Mid day meal
National Achievement Survey(NAS)
Mahila Samakhya Programme
Scheme to Provide Quality Education in Madrasas (SPQEM)
Scheme for Infrastructure Development in Minority Institutes (
Nali-Kali - A Recipe for Joyful Learning
Chinnara Angala – A Course to the Mainstream
Baa Bale Shaalege (Bringing the girl child to School) Campaign
Beediyinda Shaalege (From Street to School)
Cooliyinda Shalege [Labour to School]
Listen – Learn
Mobile Schools
Tribal Education – Special Drive in a Forest
Programme for the backward districts of north east Karnataka
akshara dasoha
Distribution of Uniforms, School Bags & Text Books under Vidya Vikasa
Scheme
Sarva shikshana abhiyana
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
339
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Children from poor urban neighbourhoods are among the least likely to
attend school. A survey in Delhi ,India, found a primary school attendance
rate of 54.5 percent along children living in slums in 2004-2005, compared with
90 percent for the city as a whole . the quality of available schooling options
in poor urban areas is another issues to consider. While data tend to focus s
on access, enrolment and retention, these are linked to the perceived quality
and benefits of available education. Overcrowding and a lack of appropriate
facilities such as toilets are among the factor that undermine the quality of
education access to education for poor and marginalized children access to
education for poor and marginalized children, including the provision of
quality schooling in informal settlements ,is of paramount importance. other
forms of training, such as vocational course ,can be particularly useful for
adolescents seeking to secure future live hoods in the urban context .whether
trough classroom or on the job training ,apprenticeships or skill-specific
course such as language or computer training, vocational initiatives should
aim to increase young people employability accelerated learning programs
are a practical solution for children who may had their schooling disrupted ,
whether by emergency or circumstance .such programs offer students the
Opportunity to fallow certified education course on the basis of competency
,not age or previous grade
Bibliography
K. Michaelowa, “Primary Education Quality in Francophone Sub-Saharan
Africa: Determinants of Learning Achievements and Efficiency
Considerations”.
J. Moil, “Primary Education, Teachers’ Professionalism and Social Grade
about Motivation and Demonization of Government School Teachers in India
P.R. Panchamukhi, Household Expenditure on Elementary Education,
J. Trolley, and P. Dixon “Private Schooling for Low-income Families: A
Census and Comparative Survey in East Delhi, India”, International Journal of
Educational Development
UN Millennium Project: Towards Universal Primary Education: Investments,
Incentives and Institutions, London.
.I. Gupta and A. Mitre “Rural Migrants and Labour Segmentation: Micro Level
Evidence from Delhi Slums”, Economic and Political Weekly.
Sallie Singh and Kaplana deepen .assistant professor, beanie group of college
,jaipur,
Rajastan,research scholar, GCA, Ajmer, Rajasthan slum education; present scenario
and future need
340
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
45
Performance of National Urban Livelihood Mission in
India – An Evaluation
Introduction
Economic development and urbanization are closely connected. Indian
cities are emerging as the country’s engines of economic growth, with a
contribution of more than 60% to total GDP. As per Census of India, 2011,
India’s urban population is now 377 million which shows a 31 per cent
increase from 2001. The Report on Conditions of Work and Promotion of
Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector by the National Commission on
Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector brought out in August 2007 (NCEUS,
2007) reveals that in 2004-05, out of India’s total workforce, 92% worked in the
informal sector. The urban informal sector comprises a large part of the
unorganized non-agriculture sector. Low levels of education and skill in the
unorganized sector workers have resulted in their inability to access the
opportunities offered by emerging markets. This underscores the criticality of
skills up-gradation for better livelihoods opportunities in urban areas.
Apart from this, urban poverty is also being multi-dimensional, various
vulnerabilities faced by the poor in cities and towns: occupational, residential
and social need to be addressed simultaneously in a comprehensive and
integrated manner with a targeted focus on the vulnerable groups so that a
definitive impact can be made on ground. Residential vulnerability issues are
being addressed through programs like JNNURM and RAY. The other two
vulnerabilities: occupational and social can be best addressed by creating
opportunities for skill development leading to market based employment and
helping them to set up self-employment ventures. Urban poverty alleviation
programs need to be based on skill development and easy access to credit. It is
in this context that a mission-mode approach to urban livelihoods is
considered necessary in the form of the National Urban Livelihoods Mission
(NULM).
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
342
Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Components of the NULM: NULM have the following 7 components; they are
1. Social Mobilization and Institution Development (SM&ID): This
component of the NULM envisages mobilization of urban poor households
into thrift and credit-based Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and their
federations/collectives.
2. Capacity Building and Training (CB&T): A multi-pronged approach is
planned under NULM for continuous capacity building of SHGs and their
federations/collectives, government functionaries at Central, State and
City/ Town levels, bankers, NGOs, CBOs and other stakeholders. Support
is also provided for creation of National, State and City level mission
management units to assist in implementation of programme for the poor.
3. Employment through Skill Training and Placement (EST&P): NULM
focuses on providing assistance for skill development/ upgrading of the
343
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
was only 250 crore which were increased to 344 crore in the next year.
Whereas in the year 2008-09 the funds allocation steadily increased from 344
crore to 545 which was followed by 515, 587.96 in the next years.
Subsequently, there was an enormous increase in the funds allocation in the
year 2011-12 i.e., 800 crore which was followed by 838, 950 and 1003 crore in
the next three years and finally it has decreased to 510 crore in the year 2015-
16. These variations of annual growth of central funds allocation also proved
by the exponential growth model also.
Above table shows the average annual growth of central fund allocation
under NULM. Here, exponential growth model has been used to analyze the
growth of central fund allocation. According to the above results, the average
annual growth of central funds allocation under NULM is 11.2 percent which
is statistically significant at 5percent level with the R squared value of 0.574.
And the F value is 10.779.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Scheduled Caste Sub Plan (SCSP) and Tribal Sub Plan (TSP)
Scheduled Castes Sub Plan (SCSP) for Scheduled Castes (SC) and the
Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) for the Scheduled Tribes (ST) are intended to channelize
flow of resources towards development of SC and ST, at least in proportion to
their numbers in the population, both in physical and financial terms. Relevant
guidelines regarding formulation, implementation and monitoring of
SCSP/TSP have been issued from time to time by erstwhile Planning
Commission.
Separate allocation for SCSP and TSP as part of the Plan allocation was
made from 2011-12. Accordingly, funds under various schemes administered
by MoHUPA from time to time viz., SJSRY, since restructured as NULM,
BSUP & IHSDP under erstwhile JnNURM, RAY and RRY have been
earmarked for SCSP and TSP. The SEP and EST&P components of NULM are
predominantly beneficiary oriented. Schemes for slum rehabilitation in urban
areas, however, have universal coverage, whereby all eligible slum dwellers
are covered.
The physical and financial details regarding SCSP and TSP are as under:
Table - 4: Scheduled Caste Sub Plan (SCSP)
Financial (Rs. in Crore) Physical Achievements under NULM
Year Allocation SEP EST & P
2011-12 247.50 14,996 60,843
2012-13 259.87 18,420 79,553
2013-14 328.50 17,865 1,39,090
Source: Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, GoI.
Note: SEP-Self employment Program
EST and P – Employment through skill Training and Placement
The table 4 clearly shows the allocation of funds under scheduled caste
sub plan during the year 2011-2014. According to the given details, in the year
2011-12 the total allocation of funds was 247.50 crore, the beneficiaries under
SEP were 14,996 and EST and P beneficiaries were 60,843. Where as in 2012-13
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
the total allocation of funds were increased to 259.87 and the beneficiaries of
SEP and EST and P were also increased to 18,420 and 79,553 respectively.
Finally, in the year 2013-14, the total allocated funds were increased to 328.50
and the beneficiaries under SEP were decreased to 17,865 crore and EST and P
were increased enormously to 1,39,09 0 during the study period.
Table - 5: Tribal Sub Plan (TSP)
Financial Physical Achievements under
(Rs. in Crore) NULM
Year Allocation SEP EST & P
2011-12 26.40 3,281 15,382
2012-13 27.72 3,920 27,992
2013-14 35.04 4,177 27,955
2014-15 144.00 1,659 14,735
2015-16 130.00 1,269 8,657
Source: Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, GoI.
Note: SEP-Self employment Program
EST and P – Employment through skill Training and Placement
The table 4 clearly shows the allocation of funds under tribal sub plan
during the year 2011-2016. According to the given table, in the year 2011-12 the
total allocation of funds was 20.40 crore, the beneficiaries of SEP were 3,281
and EST and P beneficiaries were 15,382. Where as in 2012-13 the total
allocation of funds were increased to 27.72 and the beneficiaries of SEP and
EST and P were also increased to 3,920 and 27,992 respectively. Subsequently
in the year 2013-14 the allocated funds were 35.04 and SEP, EST and P
beneficiaries were 4,177 and 27,955 orderly. Likewise in the year 2014-15 this
amount was 144.00 crore and SEP beneficiaries were 1,659 and EST and P were
14,735. Finally, in the year 2015-16, the total allocated funds were decreased to
130 crore and the beneficiaries under SEP were decreased to 1269 and EST and
P were decreased gradually to 8657 during the study period.
Conclusion
We may conclude that, National Urban Livelihood Mission has been
playing a vital role in improving the occupational, residential and social needs
of urban poor. On the other hand, NULM requires a comprehensive plan in an
integrated manner with a targeted focus on the vulnerable groups living in
urban areas. Subsequently, the Central government should have to provide
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
References
Arjun.R. (2013). Multi Dimensional Approach to Measure Poverty. Abhyudaya,
Volume-1 Issue-2 October-2013 Pages-8 www.uni-mysore.ac.in
Economic Survey of Karnataka - 2015-16. Department of Planning, Programme
Monitoring & Statistics, Government of Karnataka
Moser, C. O. (1998). The asset vulnerability framework: reassessing urban
poverty reduction strategies. World development, 26(1), 1-19.
Prabhavathi P.O, and Naveena .N. (2014). An Analysis of Poverty in Karnataka:
A Study. IOSR Journal of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), Volume 19,
Issue 3, Ver. III (Mar. 2014), PP 27-31 e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Rogerson, C. M. (1999). Local economic development and urban poverty
alleviation: the experience of post-apartheid South Africa. Habitat International,
23(4), 511-534.
Shankar B and Chidambaraswamy. (2009). Urban Poverty Alleviation:
Experiences of Community Development Initiatives in Karnataka. International
Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 6, May 2009
Urban Poverty Reports. Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation,
Government of India
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46
Introduction:
Poverty, one of the worst earth-shattering violations of human dignity
on this planet which has been deeply rooted in the mankind. The degree and
seriousness of poverty differ amongst developed, developing and least
developed economies of the world. Various Sustainable development
conventions including “Stockholm Conference, 1972”; “Brundtland.
Commission, 1987”; “Rio Declaration, 1992”; “Millennium Development
Goals, 2000”; and the most recent “Sustainable Development Goals of 2015”
have mooted for the alleviation of poverty. Further, various International
Conventions and agencies on Human Right including UDHR, UNICEF,
UNDP, ICCPR, etc. have been taking various steps in regard to curbing and
curing the disastrous disease of poverty in any economy of the world.
Methodology
Research Methodology
The research methodology embraced is altogether doctrinal, analytical and
comparative in nature depending on primary and secondary source material.
Primary Sources: Primary Sources used herein are the statutory enactment and
case laws.
Secondary Sources: Secondary sources used in the project are the text books,
journals and online database.
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To analyse the facts in the context of statutory provisions and policies and
relate it with the fundamental human right of development.
To critically evaluate the grey areas prevalent and to make suggestions.
Research questions
1. What are the different International and National policy and legal
framework on alleviation of poverty?
2. How and why alleviation of poverty in world is a need of hour towards
promoting economic development?
3. What are the main causes of poverty and why it still persists despite
various efforts taken by international community for eradication of
poverty?
Part-I: International Perspective
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right, no cut on these trivial expenditures, or any taking of the property of the
referred billionaires, is needed to eliminate extreme poverty.”
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expenditure on health and education, and also adopted the cost of living as the
basis for identifying poverty. In 2012, a new expert panel was constituted
chaired by C. Rangarajan. According to the report of the committee, the new
poverty line was determined as Rs 32 in rural areas and Rs 47 in urban areas.
The earlier poverty line figure was Rs 27 for rural India and Rs 33 for Urban
India in the Tendulkar report. On 8th February, 2015 a task force was
constituted under Shri Arvind Panagariya, the Vice Chairman of NITI Aayog.
Their objectives are to develop a working definition of poverty, suggest
strategies and anti-poverty programmes and other relevant measures.
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the earth flourishes freely, it would easily pour and fill the hunger of millions
of population of world for many years who are living their life under extreme
poverty. However, it is only possible through the concept of social justice or
distributive justice. Government of India also recognised the high growth of
income is not the only approach to improve the quality of life of the poor. It is
very important that the citizens are provided with the minimum services such
as education, health care and nutrition security to improve their live.
References
Primary Sources:
Statute:
The constitution of India.
United Nations Charter, 1945.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.
Case Laws:
Randhir Singh vs. Union of India, AIR 1982 SC 879
Secondary Sources:
Pogge Thomas; Freedom from poverty as a Human Right; Oxford.
Articles:
Neepa Saha; Poverty Alleviation Programmes in India; (22/11/2016) available
at http://www.vhai.org/
Yesudian, C. A. K. "Poverty alleviation programmes in India: A social audit."
Indian Journal of Medical Research 126.4 (2007): 364.
Pranab Bardhan: Efficiency, Equity and Poverty Alleviation: Policy Issues in
Less Developed Countries; Vol. 106, No. 438 (Sep., 1996), pp. 1344-1356;
Available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/2235526
Sengupta, Arjun. "Human rights and extreme poverty." Economic and
Political Weekly (2010): 85-93. Available at
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25664389
G. Sampath and Rukmini S; Is the MGNREGA being set up for failure? The
Hindu may 31, 2015; available at http://www.thehindu.com/sunday-anchor/
Joyita; Poverty estimation in India; the PRS Blog; August 5th, 2013; available at
http://www.prsindia.org/theprsblog/?p=2848
PABLO GILABERT; Kant and the Claims of the Poor; Philosophy and
Phenomenological Research , Vol. 81, No. 2 (SEPTEMBER, 2010), pp. 382-418;
available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/20779568?seq=1&cid=pdf-
reference#references_tab_contents
Nuria Sánchez Madrid; Kant on poverty and welfare: the conflict between
social demands and juridical goals in Kant’s Doctrine of Righ; , University of
Wales Press, 2016.
Thomas R. Malthu; The Theory of Population; available at
http://sites.middlebury.edu/econ0450f10/files/2010/08/malthus.pdf.
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47
Roots of Social exclusion
Harshit P. Tayal, Jayesh Hariramani and Govind Bhadoria
1. Introduction
“An inability or incapacity to choose to fully participate in the
development of the society or exclusion is terms which is used when the rights
are granted to all, but some individuals and/or the groups are not allowed to
enjoy the privilege; when some people of the society are denied to enjoy
various defined rights, privileges, immunities and opportunities that are
afforded to others at the same time and in the same circumstances.”
It said that the concept of “exclusion” was originally coined in France in 1974,
referring to various social categories of people, such as mentally, physically
handicapped, single parents, substance users, and other groups unprotected
by social insurance. But India is witnessing exclusion from decades, even in
Vedas and holly books like Ramayana, Mahabharata, the exclusion is defined,
and the concept is practiced from long time. Thus, arrival of Exclusion or the
social exclusion or the other manifestations of exclusion is not an accident of
sociological imagination nor it is emerged as a result of the in adequacy of
earlier concepts which are considered or which are explaining social exclusion
in its myriad ways. Exclusion and social exclusion is matter of fact and reality,
and is something which is done by people of a society to the other people of
society.
Exclusion covers a wide range of social, political, economical, ethnical,
and cultural, discrimination, deprivations and denials of equal social
opportunities, to some groups and section of society. In real sense it means
exclusion of such groups from access to such things as are considered to be
normal or taken for granted by the others in society. Exclusion is one of such
topics which can’t be explained in on one line definition, the scope is too wide.
But the practice is made to explain the term with two of its defining characters,
namely: the deprivation caused through exclusion or due to the refusal of
equal opportunity in multiple spheres of life, and secondly, its being rooted in
the societal relations and institutions, in brief it is the process through which
individuals or groups are wholly or partially excluded from the full
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participation in the society in which they live. Illustrations will help to explain
it more: exclusion of groups and individuals like, women, prostitutes, Dalits
from education, housing, ownership, voting, health care centers, etc, is
example of exclusion of individuals of groups due to refusal of equal
opportunities in multiple sphere of life; secondly, discrimination on the basis
of gender, age, widows, and the physically handicapped are the examples of
the exclusion in the society being rooted in the societal relation and
institutions. Exclusion is the concern related to society as a whole, it is
fundamentally concerned with the consequences of inequality, implying that
there are individuals and groups that are excluded. The root causes and
consequences of exclusion are poverty, inequality, and discrimination.
Hurting the excluded group and reducing their productive capacity by not
allowing them to enjoy all right and opportunities available are the key points
which we can relate to it. It has been rightly said that “They do not want to
remain in the dehumanizing social order, but fear that they may be subjected
to repression if they resist exclusion, inequality and discrimination.”
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Social Category: Like economic category, to explain this category also we need
to focus on four different aspects. In term of social categories the exclusion can
be defined as “excluding certain communities from the interaction and access
to social resources through social arrangements, normative value system and
customs.” Caste, Tribal, Muslim community, and women are the focused
aspect of this category.
Best example of Caste system can be the untouchables, in many
regions/part of India still the practice of untouchables is followed, like
preventing entry into certain temples, and institutions; SC’s and ST’s in qmany
villages are forbidden from using the well, or they have different well to use
water. Tribal faces a rare quandary. They are isolated and now they are
considered to be the victims of discrimination. Non-tribal see them in a
derogatory manner for various reasons especially for their food habits, ways of
living, which are actually very different from the main streams, but what then?
Everyone has its own ways and cultures and traditions, but still they are
discriminated and become part of exclusion. Women are the other most
excluded and discriminated section of the society. Within the segment of
Indian population women’s mobility and liberty is constrained and their
access to education and information hindered. Majority of times women in
India have been grounded in both of the economic aspects, the poverty and
employment.
Social Exclusion is structural, dynamic, and normative in nature and
comprehensive in coverage, involving denial of equal opportunities.
3. Exclusion in Indian Society!
As it has been earlier stated that social exclusion is structural, dynamic and
normative in nature, it is no wrong if I state here that in India the social
exclusion can be identified in 6 odd aspects which are interrelated,
interconnected and indivisible in nature.
1. Social exclusion is structural;
2. Social exclusion has an agency;
3. Social exclusion is multidimensional;
4. Social exclusion is collective;
5. Social exclusion is dynamic and has historicity;
6. Social exclusion extends to cultural spheres.
Forms of exclusion and discrimination in India
In actual sense the exclusion, discrimination and caste system has
exploited the social and economic life of the people of India, while some of the
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theories says that the caste system has regulated the social and the economic
life of the people of India.
In India, exclusion revolves around the societal interrelations and institutions
that excludes, discriminate against, isolate and deprive some groups on the
basis of their group identity, particularly cast.
Social exclusion not only promote discrimination and complexities in the
society but also results in lack of access and entitlement, not only to economic
rights but also to civil, cultural and political rights.
1. Caste based exclusion: Caste based exclusion, untouchability based
exclusion and discrimination can be further categorized into economic,
civil, cultural and political spheres.
1.1. Exclusion and discrimination in Economic Sphere: Inequality and lack of
opportunities in the economic sphere operates through markets and non-
market transaction and exchanges. In labor market denial of jobs, in capital
market denial of access to capital, in agricultural land market through
denial of sale and purchase of factor inputs and in consumer market
through denial of sale and purchase of commodities and consumer goods.
Secondly, exclusion and discrimination can occur in terms of access of social
needs supply or supply of public goods by the government, public, or
private institution in the area of education, housing and healthcare, and
some other goods which are essentials of every human to live life with
dignity; Public goods: a commodity or service that is provided without
profit to all members of a society, either by the government or by a
private individual or organization.
Further, from participation of a particular group in a particular job only or
denial of jobs on the ground that the individual is from a particular group
both the situations results in discrimination and social exclusion.
The best example of this kind of exclusion which our society witness is,
members of so called high society do not like to get associated with, or are
not associated with people engaged in certain category of jobs or to
perform these jobs on account of their being unclean or degrading, which
is why such jobs may be relegated to the “untouchables or dalits”. After
being part of civilized society this kind of discrimination is still in
practice.
1.2. Exclusion and discrimination in civil and cultural spheres: again one of
the common practices followed in India lack of access or absolute denial
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inequalities and social constrains some women walk out of abusive homes and
assert their rights in overt and covert ways.
2. Children: Children are amongst the most disempowered and exploited
groups in the society. They have no influence or say or power over the social
processes that govern their lives and they can seldom protect themselves from
the abuse or exploitation. Children come under the most vulnerable groups,
child labor, child prostitution, lack of education, and mal nourishment are
some of the major aspect where they exploited and hence excluded. Poverty
and social reason are enough for their exclusion from schools and colleges,
and this is again an enough reason to exploit them.
3. The poor: poverty, exclusion and discrimination are two concepts which are
actually different in nature, but the terms and there concepts are inextricably
connected to each other. Exclusion become easy for people who are poor, they
have lack of access to various resources and opportunities and this makes
them inferior and excluded from society. So, poverty plays two different roles,
first even an individual is not facing exclusion but is poor he will be excluded
from the society due to lack of access to all the goods, rights and opportunities,
and on the same page if any group is facing exclusion in society, than poverty
would be one of his characteristics, due to discrimination and exploitation. So,
this vicious cycle is difficult to break in India, around 40% of the population
stands below the poverty line, struggling to eke out a livelihood.
Ethnic Groups: social exclusion due to differences is a common feature across
the globe. In India, exclusion on the ground of ethnicity is perpetuated by the
rigidities of the caste system. The best example for such exclusion is the native
Adivasi population. They are forced to become sources of agriculture labor for
the non-tribes who encroached on the former’s resources. Social exclusion is a
key to the understanding of the problem of loss of ownership of land by the
tribes.
4. Widows: In many parts of India, widows are considered as an excluded
group. Even before the funeral of the diseased husband, some widows are ill
treated by the in-laws who take all the property, including the children. The
widows are excluded from attending certain social ceremonies and rituals at
both family and community level. Else they are forced to remarry the younger
brother of the deceased husband.
5. Transgender: Transgender people are those who live fully or partially in the
gender role ‘opposite’ to their biological sex. Instead, they are treated as the
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‘other’, often being subjected to violence, ridicule and disgust. The report
highlights the many ways in which the transgender community has been
discriminated against in India and denied elementary rights, largely through
the instruments of civil and criminal law. Trans-people often find themselves,
almost by definition, on the wrong side of the law and rarely, if ever, are
awarded the protections that the rule of law should provide to any citizen.
Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), for example, makes punishable
‘unnatural offences’ of voluntary and consenting sexual intercourse which go
‘against the order of nature. They are also discriminated and excluded in all
possible ways like, jobs, access to social and public places, education,
marriage, etc.
4. Need Contexualizing The Concept Of Social Exclusion
Exclusion is subject matter which is adversely affecting the whole globe not
only a particular sector or society, that’s why now a day’s exclusion is concern
of the whole society. To know exclusion and reasons for the its development
or for its existence in society we have to go through the whole process and
then after observing and collecting all respective information we can map it, or
than it has to be located in its context. This will help us to evolve a
methodology to map exclusion. So, some of the reasons why we need to
contextualize social exclusion are as follows:
1. First, particular context we can carve out clear cut contours of the group
that we wabt to analyze this will avoid overlapping of group of people or
will help us to identify if there is any overlapping if groups which suffer
from the same type of exclusion.
2. Second, because we all know that there is different basis of or reasons for
exclusion different groups of people hence there construction of
consciousness is also based on different types of exclusion. For instance,
the causes of exclusion of tribal in India of women, religious, minorities,
etc are different and that is why their ways and means of assertion for
inclusion is also different.
3. Further, for contextualization it becomes easy to identify the forces of
exclusion. For instance if we locate exclusion of dalits in Hindu social
order than we can identify Brahmanism and Brahmins or so called upper
caste in general as the forces of exclusion. . Since social exclusion has an
agemcy that it is done by someone to others and this can be identified by
its contextualization.
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5. Conclusion
The question remains, as to why the excluded people i.e., the individuals or
group of individuals have poor access to all resources; that directly and
indirectly determine the level of income and capabilities to secure other
sources of income. Why the ownership of agriculture land and on land capital
asset is low compared with non-SCs/STs? Why are the unemployment rates
high particularly among the women, transgender, SCs STs, and other social
excluded people? Why the literacy rate ad education levels are much lower
when compared with above mentioned individuals or groups of individuals.
The concept of social exclusion, tough in use only recently, is undoubtedly
quite powerful. It is a fundamental and wide category that may include in its
arch, the issues of poverty, hunger unemployment, and destitution. It is not
only about all those individuals or groups that are excluded from the basis
means of livelihood, but also about those excluded from the process of
political and economic decision making as well as these excluded from any
conceptualization of social security. At a wider level, it may refer to exclusion
from education, health care, and ultimately the freedom that an individual
must have to organize or control his or her life in a given social setting.
Social exclusion is not concerned solely with attitude; it is built into the social
structure and thus changing attitude will not necessarily change social
structure. The social structure of the society contributes t the formation if its
attitude and the attitude in turns contributes to the maintenance t[of the social
structure there is no easy way out of this vicious cycle it is thus ample clear
that social exclusion is India is a multi-dimensional concept that needs to be
addressed urgently as it is linked to poverty as well as denial of basic human
rights. It would, however, be useful to quantify social exclusion and monitor
progress towards social integration goals.
References
Sukhadeo Thorat, Nidhi Sadana Sabharwal; Bridging the Social Gap (Prespective
on Dalit Empowerment);
Social Exclusion, Integration and Inclusive Policies; V. Subramanyam and K.
Sekhar; Rawat Publications;
Ambedkar, B.R. 1987. ‘The Hindu Social Order: Its essential features’
Mapping Social Exclusion in India: Caste, Religion and Broadlands; Cambridge
Uni. Press; Paramjit S. Judge.
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48
Urban Poverty and Inclusive Growth: An Overview
Srikantha K N
Introduction:
Though, each rural and concrete areas struggle with the
impoverishment the image of urban impoverishment is exclusive. Besides
impoverishment money exclusion additionally became a constraint to the
thought development urban poor. With the additional rising of the Indian
economy in recent years that is predicted to continue, the speed of
urbanization can increase and concrete issues too. In India, most studies on
impoverishment are targeted on the agricultural poor and concrete
impoverishment has received very little attention of the policy manufacturers.
With the rising of massive cities, slums, the breeding grounds of urban
sordidness and impoverishment, swell primarily because of enlarged
migration of the poor from the villages in search of higher employment
opportunities and improved commonplace of living. Urban impoverishment
has become major social downside everywhere the world within the gift era of
economic process and unequal economic process. during this context the
requirement of the hour is to debate the urban impoverishment issues in-
depth and provides geographically compatible and divergent policy live to
bring urban poor into thought development. Hence, there's Associate in
Nursing pressing ought to analyze urban impoverishment from a definite
read.
As per Census of Asian country 2011, there are 7935 cities within the
country. The amount of cities has enlarged by 2774 since last Census. Several
of those cities are a part of UAs and therefore the rest are freelance cities. The
overall range of Urban Agglomerations/Towns, that constitutes the urban
frame, is 6166 within the country. The Census of India 2011 additionally
reveals that, the overall population of India was 1210.2 million. Of this, the
urban population stands at 377.1 million and in absolute numbers, the urban
population has enlarged by 91.00 million within the last decade (GoI: 2011).
The incidence of urban financial gain impoverishment declined considerably
from 49% in 1973-74 to 25.7% in 2004-05. However, there have been still 80.8
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expressly, not solely would India’s cities get more and more chaotic and
clogged, rural financial condition are going to be born-again to urban financial
condition with no gains to improvement of livelihoods of India’s burgeoning
population.
It has been assumed that with high concentration of health facilities and
services within the cities compared with rural areas, urban health issues
square measure less. However, for the urban poor and people living in shanty
cities, the amount of access to health facilities falls below the minimum
equitable level, wherever primary health care facilities, their location,
resources, quality and performance square measure poor, their links to
disadvantaged communities square measure inadequate and their utilization
is low (WHO, 1992). although all types of health services are accessible in our
cities, not all sections of the community are benefited by these facilities. There
exist wide gap within the utilization pattern of health services and health
improvement in populated area. Health improvement is influenced by 3
factors (Nayar, 1999), a) health factors, that embrace medical intervention, b)
health promoting factors like housing, facility, sanitation and hygiene. c) non-
health factors that embrace social and economic factors. specifically the trends
in urbanization that followed is additionally liable for the modification in
health standing of urban population. As per the Urban Health Resource
Centre (UHRC) India one in each 10 kids in slums don't live to visualize their
fifth birthday.1 solely 42 maximize slum kids receive all the counseled
vaccinations. Over 56 % of kid births happen reception in slums put the
lifetime of each the mother and new born to serious risk. Poor sanitation
conditions in slums contribute to the high burden of sickness in slums. 2/3 of
urban poor households don't have access to bogs and nearly forty you are
doing not have piped facility reception. Health system in India is additional
targeted towards the agricultural are having a structure right from grass root
to tertiary care and are managed by dedicated employees. But there's a large
deficiency of any such health care structure within the urban areas.
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Policy Suggestions:
Alleviating urban economic condition needs several tools as well as
food, shelter, employment, health services, monetary services, education and
infrastructure. The key to reducing economic condition is aware of a way to
use these tools. Among this credit could be a powerful tool which will be used
effectively once it's created on the market to the credit worthy among the
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References:
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49
Effects of Demonetization on Street Vendors
Ramesh and Ashraya.S.Chakrabarty
Introduction:
The importance of money in human life is similar to the importance of
food for the body. Just like you can’t live even for a few days without food,
you can’t survive for long without money. One can definitely solve most of
your problems of life if you have unlimited supply of money The only
problem is that money does not come just like that to any person by any
amount of wishing, praying or wanting. You have to work hard and compete
with fellow human beings to earn money as the supply of money is limited in
this world but the demand of money is unlimited.
The importance of Demonitisation at this scenario as proposed by the
Government of India is to curb the unaccounted money, curb circulation of
fake notes and making centralized circulation of currency notes which is legal
tender. In such case there are people who are affected by this initiative. The
unorganized sector of the society who run their business without any support
or incentives from the government are been immensely affected by this drive.
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Free movement and exchange of goods throughout the territory of India was
essential for the Economic Unity of the country which alone could sustain the
progress of the country.
Prior to the integration of India and enforcement the new constitution there
were in existence a large number of Indian states which in exercise of their
sovereign powers, had created customs barriers between themselves and the
rest of India, thus hindering at several points which constituted the
boundaries of those Indian states, the free flow of commerce.
Thus the main object of Article 301 was obviously to encouraging the free-flow
of stream of trade and commerce throughout the territory of India. The word
‘trade’ means ‘buying’ or ‘selling’ of goods while the term ‘commerce includes
all forms of transportation such as by land, air or water.
The term ‘intercourse’ means movement of goods from one place to another.
Thus, the words ‘trade commerce and intercourse’ covers all kinds of activities
which are likely to come under the nature of commerce.
Article 302 of Indian Constitution explains the power of parliament to impose
restrictions on trade, commerce and intercourse. The Parliament may by law
impose it. Such restrictions on the freedom of trade, commerce or intercourse
between one state and another or within any part of the territory of India, as
may be required in the public interest.
Article 303 deals with the restrictions on the legislative powers of the Union
and of the states with regard to trade and commerce. It provides that
parliament shall not have power to make any law giving any preference to any
one state over another by virtue of any entry relating to trade and commerce
in any one of the list in the VIIth Schedule.
But under Clause (2) of this article the parliament may however, discriminate
among states. If it is declared by a law that it is necessary to do so for the
purpose of dealing with the situation arising from scarcity of goods in any part
of the Territory of India. The question whether there is a scarcity of goods in
any part of India is for the parliament to decide.
Article 304 explains State’s power to regulate trade and commerce. The details,
(a) impose on goods imported from other states (or the Union Territories) any
tax to which similar goods manufactured or produced in that state are subject.
So, however as not to discriminate between goods so imported and goods so
manufactured or produced; and (b) impose such reasonable restrictions on the
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Findings:
Poor implementation of the policy (demonitisation)
No proper prior preparation before demonitising the old currency notes.
No governing body for the unorganized sector.
No social security for the Street Vendors.
Suggestion:
An au8thorituy to govern Street Vendors.\
Right implementation of Street Vendors Act, 2014.
Social Security for Street Vendors.
Providing suitable Insurance Plans/Policy for Street Vendors.
Conclusion:
In this drive of demonitisation the organized sector of the society have some
how hold their nerve in the said period of time, but the unorganized sector
have been shattered through this initiation. The inflow of money had become
low and the people are not ready to invest in any sought due to the cash crisis.
The unorganized sector has no back up for the loss in their respective business.
This drive has affected the street vendors particularly to their very livelihood.
References:
1. VII Schedule of the Constitution of India.
Consumer Education and Research Centre v. Union of India. AIR 1995 SC 922
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50
Poverty And Social Security Protection Among The
Women In The Informal Sectors
Mohan Das. K and Kavallaiah . C
Introduction:
Social security means the overall security for a person in the family,
work place and society. Social Security is a system to meet the basic needs as
well as contingencies of life in order to maintain an adequate standard of
living. It is not a charity rather a right. But women workers in the informal
sector have the least access to social security.
There are some of the inherent problems existing in the informal sector
and the women workers are subjected to all kinds of exploitation. It is found
that their earnings and job security are law, hours long, lifetime earning
profiles, flat and working conditions, physically stressful. Women workers in
this sector are totally neglected by the Governments and policy makers. These
innumerable problems made her to work mainly for economic independence,
for economic necessity. Most Indian women by and large undertake
“productive work” only under economic compulsion. This is the reason for
high female participation rates in economically under privileged communities.
For the millions in the unorganized sector or informal economy, social security
continues to be a missing link in their struggle for survival. And yet, it is these
unorganized women workers who are the poorest of workers, and are most
exposed to shocks and multiple risks that threaten their very survival.
Thus, Social Security protects not just the subscriber but also his/her entire
family by giving benefit packages in financial security and health care. Social
Security schemes are designed to guarantee at least long-term sustenance to
families when the earning member retires, dies or suffers a disability. Thus the
main strength of the Social Security system is that it acts as a facilitator - it
helps people to plan their own future through insurance and assistance. The
success of Social Security schemes however requires the active support and
involvement of employees and employers. Therefore, as a worker/employee,
they are a source of Social Security protection for themselves and their family.
As an employer they are responsible for providing adequate social security
coverage to all their workers.
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Strategies
Although social security is not a fundamental right in India, the laws
incorporating it derive their strength and spirit from the Directive Principles of
the State Policy as contained in the Constitution of India, which seek to
achieve social, economic and political justice in all institutions of national life.
Specially, Article 41 of the Constitution requires that the State should within
the limits of its economic capacity make effective provision for securing the
right to work, to education and to public assistance in case of unemployment,
old age, sickness and disablement. Article 42 requires that the State should
make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for
maternity relief. The obligations cast on the State in the above Articles
constitute Social Security.
The principal social security laws enacted in the line with these provisions are
the following:
The Employees’ State Insurance Act, 1948 (ESI Act) which covers factories
and establishments with 10 or more employees and provides for
comprehensive medical care to the employees and their families as well as
cash benefits during sickness and maternity, and monthly payments in
case of death or disablement.
The Employees’ Provident Funds & Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
(EPF & MP Act) which applies to specific scheduled factories and
establishments employing 20 or more employees and ensures terminal
benefits to provident fund, superannuation pension, and family pension in
case of death during service. Separate laws exist for similar benefits for the
workers in the coal mines and tea plantations.
The Employees' Compensation Act, 1923 (WC Act), which requires
payment of compensation to the workman or his family in cases of
employment related injuries resulting in death or disability.
The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (M.B. Act), which provides for 12
weeks wages during maternity as well as paid leave in certain other
related contingencies.
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972 (P.G. Act), which provides 15 days
wages for each year of service to employees who have worked for five
years or more in establishments having a minimum of 10 workers.
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life and disability cover, health and maternity benefits, old age protection and
any other benefit as may be determined by the Central Government. Schedule
I of the Act consists of ten schemes. It is essential and pertinent to mention
here that these schemes are not new and are mostly applicable only for BPL
families having income of Rs. 500 in urban areas and Rs. 300 in rural areas.
Therefore most of the urban unorganized workers may not fall under BPL
category and may not get the benefits of these schemes. Contrary to it, the
government should endeavour to give maximum benefits of these schemes to
the maximum number of unorganized workers.
Under the same Act the other category of women workers such as
unpaid women workers are not covered as they do not fall within the
definitions of self employed workers, wage workers or home based workers.
According to these definitions, getting wages or monthly earnings are
condition precedent for being considered as unorganized workers. Therefore,
the thing which gives pain is that the monetary value of women’s work is not
measured. However, it should not be a reason for denying social security to
women workers. Moreover, the problems of security, sexual harassment,
proper accommodation for migrant women workers, issues relating to nature
of work and industrial safety, gender wage gap, nonpayment of wages, child
care facilities at work spot etc. have been totally ignored.
Conclusion
From the above discussion it can be concluded that social security
constitutes an important element in guaranteeing social and economic needs
to individual. The right to social security is a core right to maintain human
dignity. Due to the socioeconomic changes has shrunken away that source of
security and expect that the state will be the umbrella of total protection
against economic risk. Thus, the mission for security must create a number of
social devices to afford protection to the needy. Because the informal sector
which imposes a heavy cost on society in terms of jobs, income and health
care. In this context, the Government’s strategy is to utilize not only its own
apparatus, but also non-governmental organization and other concerned
sections to design a credible comprehensive and workable social security
package for unorganized women workers of India.
Apart from these the relatively more successful schemes have been
those which have been targeted at certain specific sectors in particular regions.
While these schemes have reasonably achieved their limited objectives still
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vast majority of unorganized sector workers are outside the purview of social
security protection because of various reasons.
Even though the Unorganized Sector Workers’ Social Security Act, 2008
was enacted by the Government of India to provide social security benefits to
these vulnerable classes of persons, the Act is unsuccessful in fulfilling the
demands of the unorganized workers. The Act only offers some schemes
which are nothing but already existing target oriented social security
programmes initiated by the Central Government which are not universally
applicable to all unorganized sector workers. Application of these schemes is
subject to the condition that the family must be a below poverty line. Thus this
awaited Act is failed in realizing the aspirations of millions of poor workers.
Therefore in this connection what all the steps taken by the government to
meet the needs of these workers men/women no satisfactory results have
achieved. Hence, these issues need to be scrutinized and think for alternatives
or major reformation in the system otherwise social security protection to
unorganized sector will be a myth.
References
1. Abdul Aziz (1984) ‘Labour problems of a developing economy’, Asia
publishing house, New Delhi.
2. 3. Anand S.C (1986) ‘Migrant construction workers – A case study of Tamil
Nadu workers in Kerala’, MPhil dissertation, Thiruvananthapuram, CDS.
3. Ann Davis and Lucy Gibson (1994) ’Designing employee welfare
provision’,Personnel Review, vol. 23, pp33-45.
4. Adams, D. Plessis, Gumbie, A and Willis (2007) ‘Introduction to safety practice
in South African Mines’, Braamfontien creda communication.
5. Anu Rai and Prof. Ashis Sankar (2012) ‘Workplace Culture & Status of
Women Construction Labourers: A case study in Kolkata, West Bengal’,Indian
Journal of Spatial Science, vol-3, IJSS, pp44.
6. Becker G.S (1998) ‘A theory of competition among pressure groups for
political influence’, the quarterly journal of economics.
7. Binoy Joseph, Joseph Injodey, and Raju Varghese (2009) ‘Labour welfare in
India’, Journal of workplace behavioural health, vol. 24, pp 221-242.
8. Dr. Beena Narayan (2010) ‘Unorganised Workers: Role of ESIC in Creating
Awareness’, International Referred Research Journal, October, vol.II.
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51
Poverty, Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion:
Understanding Indian Experience
K.L. Chandrashekhara
Introduction
‘Poverty’ as a social problem is very much rampant in India. Poverty
and unemployment, the twin social problems are found throughout the length
and breadth of this land. Poverty is essentially relative concept, a condition
measurable only in terms of the living standards and resources of a given
society at a particular time. Though India is regarded as a developing country
it is very badly facing the problem of poverty. Though we became
independent seven decades ago our society has not become free from the
stranglehold of the problems such as poverty, over-population,
unemployment, illiteracy, etc. Even today every third poor man of the world is
an Indian. It means one-third of world’s poor people are found in India. More
than 50% of Indians are not able to contribute anything for economic
productivity while just 20% of the people are enjoying more than 50% of our
national income. These startling facts make it abundantly clear that India is a
poor country.
The poverty line in any given society is determined by the customs and
mode of living. The poverty line in India is not at the same point as in the
U.S.A. or in the U.K. As defined by Gillin and Gillin “Poverty is that condition
in which a person, either because of inadequate income or unwise
expenditures, does not maintain a scale of living high enough to provide for
his physical and mental efficiency and to enable him and his natural
dependents to function usefully according to the standards of the society of
which he is a member.”i
Urban Poverty and Urbanization in India
According to 2001 census, the urban population of the country was 286.11
million, living in 5161 towns, which constitutes 27.81% of the total country’s
population. However, the same as per 2011 census has risen to 377.16 million
viz. 32.16% of the total country’s population and at the same time number of
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towns has gone up to 7935. The rate of urban growth in the country is very
high as compared to developed countries, and the large cities are becoming
larger mostly due to continuous migration of population to these cities. India’s
current urban population exceeds the whole population of the United States,
the world’s third largest country. By 2050, over half of India’s population is
expected to be urban dwellers. This creates enormous pressure on existing
urban infrastructure. India’s urbanization is often termed as over-
urbanization, pseudo-urbanization. The large population size is leading to
virtual collapse in the urban services and followed by basic problems in the
field of housing, slum, water, infrastructure, quality of life, etc.
Urban poverty is a major challenge before the urban administrators. Though
the anti-poverty strategy comprising of a wide range of poverty alleviation
and employment generating programmes has been implemented but results
show that the situation is grim. More importantly, poverty in urban India gets
exacerbated by substantial rate of population growth, high rate of migration
from the rural areas and mushrooming of slum pockets. Migration alone
accounts for about 40 per cent of the growth in urban population, converting
the rural poverty into urban one. Moreover, poverty has become synonymous
with slums. The relationship is bilateral i.e. slums also breed poverty. This
vicious circle never ends. Most of the world’s poor reside in India and majority
of the poor live in rural areas and about one-fourth urban population in India
lives below poverty line. If we count those who are deprived of safe drinking
water, adequate clothing, or shelter, the number is considerably higher.
Further, the vulnerable groups such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes,
minorities, pavement dwellers etc., are living in acute poverty. Housing
conditions in large cities and towns are depicting sub human lives of slum
dwellers. With the reconstruction of poverty alleviation programmes in urban
India, it is expected that social and economic benefits will percolate to the
population below the poverty line. However, eradication of poverty and
improving the quality of life of the poor, remains one of the daunting tasks.
Magnitude of Poverty
One way of measuring the richness or poverty of a country is the
availability of goods and services for consumption in a particular year. This
we call the national income or dividend of a country is an elaborate task and
requires the services of expert economists. Sometimes it is difficult to decide
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which items should or should not be included in the national income and
there is difference of opinion among the economists over this. For example, the
services rendered by domestic servants or housewives should be included in
national income or not, though one of them is a paid worker and the other
unpaid. Similarly, the goods consumed by the cultivator at home without
bringing it to the market cannot be estimated easily. ii According to the United
Nations publication on National Income Statistics the net national product is
the aggregate of the net values added in all branches of economic activity
during a specified period together with the net income from abroad.iii
Poverty is “pronounced deprivation in well-being.”iv The conventional view
links well-being primarily to command over commodities, so the poor are
those who do not have enough income to meet their needs. This view explains
poverty largely in monetary terms. Poverty may also be tied to a specific type
of consumption; thus someone might be house poor or food poor or health
poor. These dimensions of poverty can often be measured directly, for instance
by measuring malnutrition or literacy.
Poverty is the biggest challenge to development for almost half of the
world. At the start of the twenty-first century, almost half of the world’s
people suffer in a state of “deep poverty amid plenty” measured as an income
of less than $2 a day.v The World Bank estimates that 456 million Indians i.e.,
42% of the total Indian population at present live under the global poverty line
of $1.25 per day. This means huge number of the global poor now reside in
India. However, this also represents a significant decline in poverty from 60
percent in 1981 to 42 percent in 2005, although the rupee has decreased in
value since then, while the official standard of 538/356 rupees per month has
remained the same.
The Planning Commission of India uses its own criteria and has
estimated that 27.5% of the population is living below the poverty line in
2004–2005, down from 51.3% in 1977–1978, and 36% in 1993-1994.vi 75% of the
poor are in rural areas, most of them are daily wagers, self-employed
householders and landless labourers.
The Human Development Reports and other United Nations/World
Bank reports identify South Asia as one of the most deprived regions in the
World. South Asia has the largest number of people in the world living in
absolute poverty which includes 46 per cent of the developing world’s
population. Sixty percent of these are women, with limited access to basic
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needs. The greatest burden of human deprivation and poverty, illiteracy and
health- related problems falls on women.vii
Poverty as a material reality disfigures and constrains the lives of millions of
women, men and children and its persistence diminishes those among the
non-poor who acquiesce in or help sustain it. Socio-economic structural and
cultural contexts shape the experiences and understandings of poverty. Thus,
“Poverty” is at the same time culture bound and universal.viii According to
World Bank Report poverty imposes an oppressive weight on India, especially
in rural areas, where out of four Indians one is poor or very poor, which
comprises about 77 percent of the total population, living is poor.ix According
to the Planning Commission, about 23.62 percent of the urban population and
about 27.09 percent of the rural population lived below the line of poverty in
1999-2000. x Overall, there is about 26.10 percent of India’s total population
which lives below the line of poverty.
Poverty and the poor are always associated with
(a) Resourcelessness
(b) Choicelessness
(c) Insecurity and
(d) Deprivation
which create incapacities in the pursuit of dignified life in a given society for a
person, household, group or community. Furthermore, those suffering chronic
poverty also suffer several simultaneous disadvantages including gender, age,
caste, ethnicity, location, etc.xi
Chronic poverty seems to be disproportionately high among historically
marginalized groups such as Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs)
the elderly, women and the disabled.xii The multiple deprivations suffered by
these groups make it harder for them to escape from poverty. In recent years
there has been an increasing trend to incorporate the gender dimension in
analysis of poverty. xiii Lanjouw and Stern (1991) also postulate a strong
correlation between caste and poverty in India. The feminization of poverty is
a term used to describe the overwhelming representation of women among
the poor. “Women tend to be disproportionately represented among the poor,
the poorer the family the more likely it is to be headed by women”. xiv On an
average one out of two persons belonging to scheduled caste and tribe groups
is poor as compared with an average for the general population of less than
one in three. Whereas 31.4% rural non- SC/ST households were below the
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poverty line, the corresponding estimates were 52% for Scheduled Tribes and
48% for Scheduled Castes.xv
Poverty and Social Exclusion
Social exclusion can be understood as “people being prevented from
participation in the normal activities of the society in which they live or being
incapable of functioning”. In sum, social exclusion means incomplete
citizenship and unequal access to the status, benefits, and experiences of
typical citizens in society. Though social exclusion has multiple meanings, the
concept can also be reduced to one central notion. If an individual is socially
excluded, that person has a limited capability to effectively participate in
society.xvi
Chronic Poverty
Chronic Poverty describes people (individual, households, social
groups, geographical areas, and territories) who are poor for significant
periods of their lives, who may pass their poverty onto their children, and for
whom finding exit routes from poverty is difficult. As opposed to transient
poverty, chronic poverty involves people, households, and social groups who
are poor for sustained and significant or extended periods of their lives and
whose families and children may inherit this persistent condition. While
chronic poverty is dynamic in that people do climb out of, or fall into poverty
in significant numbers, exiting such poverty can prove difficult. Chronic
poverty is often concentrated in certain geographic areas and amongst certain
castes and occupational groups. It not only has economic dimensions, but also
social and political ones.xvii
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
urban population in the country is growing; urban poverty is also on the rise
due to various factors. There is an urgent need to develop strategies to develop
poverty reduction approaches to attack the multi-dimensional issues of urban
poverty.
Conclusion
It is an indisputable fact that India still remains a poor country in spite
of our various developmental projects, township plans, urbanization policies
and programmes. An all-pervading problem like poverty cannot be removed
all on sudden. Urban poverty requires the critical attention to policymakers.
Unless urban poverty is addressed, continued urbanization would result in
increases in urban poverty and inequality which might strain the city life. It
will affect relations between the different economic groups and may lead to
rising levels of insecurity, which in turn could lead to conflict. Poverty related
conflicts are already in existence in the rural parts of India. Studies on Poverty
and Conflicts in contemporary India shows that there are more conflicts
between the poverty affected social groups and others in the urban areas in
recent decades, and poverty related conflicts have positive and negative
potential in the context of political and economic reforms.
Urban poverty reduction requires different kinds of approaches,
because it is different from rural poverty in many respects: the urban poor are
affected by the highly monetized nature of urban living, which forces them to
spend far more on accommodation, food, transport and other services than the
rural poor; unlike rural poverty, urban poverty is characterized by the
regulatory exclusion of the poor from the benefits of urban development. The
three dimension of poverty such as lack of regular income and employment,
productive assets, access to social safety nets; lack of access to services such as
education, health care, information, credit, water supply and sanitation; and
political power, participation, dignity and respect are important in
understanding urban poverty. To escape urban poor from the multiple
vulnerabilities of urban living and to benefit them from the inclusive growth
process, Central Government’s intervention is therefore critical. Government’s
proposal to extend National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme to urban
areas, with modifications is certainly welcome policy intervention in
addressing the problems of urban poor in providing wage employments and
for income generating activities that would prevent the urban poor to find the
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
i
Gillin, J.L. and Gillin, J.P., An Introduction of Sociology (1942), p.721.
ii Wadia, P.A. and Merchant, K.T., Our Economic Problem, 1952, pp.678-680.
iii United Nations, National Income Statistics of Various Countries 1938-47(1948), p.5.
iv World Bank Institute, 2005, Introduction to Poverty Analysis, Poverty Manual, p.8.
v World Bank. 2001. World Development Report 2000/2001. New York: Oxford University Press. p.3.
vi 61st round of the National Sample Survey (NSS) and the criterion used was monthly per capita
consumption expenditure below Rs.356.35 for rural areas and Rs.538.60 for urban areas.
vii UNIFEM, 1999, Carrying the Beijing Torch in South Asia cited in Neera Burra et.al.(2005), ‘Micro-
Credit, Poverty and Empowerment; Linking the triad’, Sage publications, New Delhi, p.25.
viii Oyen, Else, Miller, S.M. and Samed, Syed Abdus, Poverty: A Global Reviewed, Hand Book on
Working p.44.
xvi Brady, David (2003), “Rethinking the sociological Measurement of poverty”, Social Forces, Vol. 81,
No., p. 724.
xvii India Chronic Poverty Report, 2011.
xviii Bhasin, R. (2001), Urban Poverty and Urbanization, p.15.
xix Lakdawala Committee.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
50
A study of Yeshasvini Health Insurance Scheme in Urban
Karnataka
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
enrolment process, with members being enrolled through these and the
societies playing the role of facilitators in securing the benefits under the
scheme.
The scheme is administered by the Yeshasvini Trust and is implemented
by a Third Party Administrator (TPA). Family Health Plan Ltd. (FHPL) was
TPA since inception to 30-11-2010 but subsequently this was replaced by
Medi-Assist India. Healthcare is provided through an identified network of
hospitals that meet certain prescribed standards and cashless treatment is
envisaged. The cost of treatment and the reimbursement of medical expenses
are the purview of the TPA and the Trust, for the range of treatments and
surgical procedures covered under the scheme. Assessments of the
performance of the Yeshasvini scheme have revealed that a large majority of
stakeholders have expressed satisfaction with and appreciation of the scheme.
The scheme has evolved in the last eight years or so to expand the range of
benefits and streamline the functioning of the system to increase efficiency in
performance. The Yeshasvini Co-operative Farmers Health Care Scheme
provides cost-effective medical facilities to farmers across the state courtesy
cooperative societies registered with the Department of Cooperatives. This
scheme targets informal workers in the lower-middle income and middle-
income groups. In other words, any patient in Karnataka can have access to
medical facilities, provided he or she is a member of any cooperative society.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Table -1: Division wise Expenditure for SC and STs Membership of Urban
Yeshasvini Scheme in Karnataka 2014-15
SI.No Name of the District SC/STs Members Total Amount
1 Bangalore Division 11769 2353800
2 Mysuru Division 4499 899800
3 Kalburgi Division 281 56200
4 Belagavi Division 1314 262800
Total 17863 3572600
Source: Yeshasvini Co-operative Farmers’ Health Care Scheme Trust
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Conclusion
The Yeshasvini Co-operative Farmers Health Care Scheme provides
cost-effective medical facilities to farmers across the state courtesy cooperative
societies registered with the Department of Cooperatives. It provides
insurance cover primarily for surgical treatment, besides certain medical
emergencies and free OPD (Out Patient Department) treatment. The scheme
places co-operative societies at the heart of the enrolment process, with
members being enrolled through these and the societies playing the role of
facilitators in securing the benefits under the scheme. It has reveals that the
scheme targets informal workers in the lower-middle income and middle-
income groups. In other words, any peasant in Karnataka can have access to
medical facilities, provided he or she is a member of any cooperative society.
The study has found that Bangalore division has highest urban SC/ST
Membership of Yeshasvini Scheme in the State followed by Mysuru division
(Second place), Belagavi division and Kalburgi division. The present study
clearly shows that there is a significant difference in the division wise
expenditure for SC and STs membership of urban yeshasvini scheme in
Karnataka during 2014-15.
References:
Devadasan, N., Ranson, K., Van Damme, W., & Criel, B. (2004). Community
health insurance in India: an overview. Economic and Political Weekly, 3179-
3183.
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Urban Poverty and Social Exclusion
Kuruvilla, S., Liu, M., & Jacob, P. (2005). A case study of the Yeshasvini Health
Insurance Scheme for the rural poor in India. International Journal of Self
Help and Self Care, 3(3/4), 261.
Soors, W., Devadasan, N., Durairaj, V., & Criel, B. (2010). Community health
insurance and universal coverage: multiple paths, many rivers to cross. World
health report.
Radermacher, R., Wig, N., Putten-Rademaker, V., Müller, V., & Dror, D. M.
(2005). Yeshasvini Trust, Karnataka India. Karnataka India.
Yip, W., & Mahal, A. (2008). The health care systems of China and India:
performance and future challenges. Health Affairs, 27(4), 921-932
Rajashekar and manjula (2012). A Comparative study of the health insurance
schemes in Karnataka, Planning Department, Government of Karnataka.
393