INTRODUCTION:

The theory of groups, an important part in present day

mathematics, which was established early in the nineteenth century.
Originally a group was the set of all permutations of the roots of an
algebraic equation. Groups arise in a number of apparently
disconnected subjects. In fact, they appear in crystallography,
quantum mechanics, geometry, topology, and even in biology.

HISTORY ABOUT GROUP THEORY:

The term “Group” was coined by Galois around 1830 to

describe sets of one to one functions on finite set that could be
grouped together to form a closed set. But the study of groups
started in 18th century by “Lagrange”. However, this work as
somewhat isolated and more commonly
referred to as the beginning of group
theory.

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BINARY OPERATION:

To start the study about group theory, it is necessary to know

about Binary Operation.

A binary operation on a set is a calculation that combines two

elements of the set to produce another element of that set. More
formally, a binary operation is an operation of two arguments
whose two domains and one co-domain are in the same set.

EXAMPLE:

The most familiar binary operations are ordinary addition,

subtraction and multiplication of integers. Division of integers is not
a binary operation on the integer.

ALGEBRIC STRUCTURE:

A set together with one or more binary operations is called

algebraic structure. Let ‘G’ be a non-empty set and * be the binary
operation on A then (G, *) is called algebraic structure.

DEFINITION OF GROUP:

Let ‘G’ be a non-empty set. The elements of ‘G’ is said to form a

group. If there defined a binary operation (+, .) satisfying the
following;

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 G Satisfying closure axiom: ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 for addition
and 𝑎. 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 for multiplication.
 G Associative Property: ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ (𝑎. 𝑏). 𝑐 = 𝑎. (𝑏. 𝑐)for
multiplication and 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 for addition.
 G (Existence of identity element): ∃ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 𝑆𝑡 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 for
addition and 𝑎. 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 for multiplication.
 G (Existence of Inverse): ∃ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 Such that and 𝑎. 𝑎−1 = 𝑒 for
multiplication, 𝑎 + 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 for addition.
 Quasi Group/ Groupoid: G is quasi group or groupoid, if ‘G’ is
closed.
 Semi Group: G is called semi group, if ‘G’ is closed and associative
under binary operation.
 Monoid: an algebraic structure (G, *) is called monoid if it is
closed, associative and exist identify in ‘G’.
 Abelian Group: A group is said to be an abelian group or
commutative group, if ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑏. 𝑎
 Order of a Group: The number of element present in a group is
called order of the group. It is denoted by O (G) or [G]

Example:

G= {1, -1, I, -i} is a group under multiplication.

Then O(G)=4

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 Order of element:
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then the smallest 𝑚 ∈ 𝑁
Such that, 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐺 is called order of ‘a’ O(a)=m
Example:
U(15) = {1,2,4,7,8,11,13,14} be a group under multiplication
modulo 15.
To find order of 7, we compute that;
71 = 7 (Multiplication modulo 15)
72 = 4 (Multiplication modulo 15)
73 = 13 (Multiplication modulo 15)
74 = 1 (Multiplication modulo 15)
So 171 = 4
 Addition Modulus: To define a new type of addition known as
Addition modulo “n” and denoted by a+nb or a(+)nb and defined
as; a + b (mod n) = r.
Where r is the reminder when a+b is divided by n.
Example:
𝑍𝑛 = {0, 1, 2, … … , 𝑛 − 1}
i. e. 𝑍𝑛 is the set of 1st nth non-negative integers upto n-1.
𝑍𝑛 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
𝑍𝑛 is a group under binary operation addition modulo n.

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  Multiplication Modulo M:
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 be an integers 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑟 , 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑚
Example:
17 = 5 ∗ 3 + 2 (modulo 5) = 2
 Finite and Infinite Group: A group is called finite group if it
contains finite number of distinct element otherwise it is called
infinite group.
 Euler of ∅ function: For any integer 𝑛 > 1, the Euler of ∅ function
is denoted by ∅(𝑛) and defined as the number of +ve integers less
than n and relatively
 For any prime P, ∅(𝑃𝑛 ) = 𝑃𝑛 − 𝑃𝑛−1
 If m and n are relatively prime, then ∅(𝑚𝑛) = ∅(𝑚) ∅(𝑛)

Example:

N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
∅(𝑛) 1 1 2 2 4 2 6 4 6 4

 Subgroup: Let G be a group. A non-empty subset. H is said to be

subgroup of H is itself a group under the same binary operation
as defined in G.
Example:
G={1, -1, i, -i} is a group under binary operation multiplication.
H= {1, 1}

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 H is also a group under binary operation multiplication.
H is also a subset of G.
Hence, H is a subgroup of G.

 Test for Subgroup:

(a) One-step subgroup Test:
Let G be a group and H be a nonempty subset of G. then H is a
subgroup of G, if ab-1 is in H. whenever a and b are in H. )In
additive notation, H is a subgroup if a-b is in H whenever a and
b are in H.)
Proof:
Let G be a group and let H be a nonempty subset of G.
Assume that, ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, ab-1 is in H.
To prove H is a subgroup of G, we must have to show that H is
associative, has an inverse for every element, has an identity
and is closed under the operation.
Since the operation of H is the same as the operation of G,
the operation is associative since G is a group, H is associative.
Again,
Since H is nonempty, ∃ an element x in H. if we take a=x
and b=x, then ab-1 = xx-1 =e, where e is the identify element.
Again,

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 Let x be an element in H and we have just shown the identify
element, e is in H. then let a=e and b=x, ab-1 = ex-1= x-1 is in H.
Lastly, we have to show ‘H’ is closed.
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻, and 𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐻
Let a = x and b = 𝑦 −1
ab-1 =𝑥(𝑥𝑦 −1 )−1 = 𝑥𝑦 is in H
As 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻
Therefore, H is closed.
As H satisfy all the axioms of group and also it is the subset of
G, H is a subgroup. (Proved)
(b) To-step subgroup Test
A nonempty subset H of group G is a subgroup of G, if 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
and 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 whenever 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
Proof:
Given G is a group and H is a nonempty finite subset of G.
We have to prove H is a subgroup of G.
Given H satisfy
i) 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎. 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
ii) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻

The closure and inverse property satisfy H.

Now it remains to prove the existence of associativity and the

existence of identity property in H.

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 Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻

⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺

G is a group.

⇒(𝑎. 𝑏). 𝑐 ∈ 𝑎. (𝑏. 𝑐)

Associativity holds in H. Since given for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻

As ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎. 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

Hence for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻

𝑎. 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻

⇒𝑒 ∈𝐻

∴ identify element exist in H.

Now H satisfy all property of group.

H is a group.

Now H is nonempty subset of group G with H is group.

Hence, H is a subgroup of G.

Conversely,

We have to show; i) 𝑎. 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

ii) 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻

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 Since H is a subgroup.

H is also itself a group under the same binary operation as

defined in G.

i.e. The element of H satisfy 4 group axioms.

∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎. 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻

Hence, H is a subgroup of G, then ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

and 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻

 Centre of Group: let G is a group, the centre Z (G) of the group G

is set of element in G which commute with every element on G.

𝑍(𝐺 ) = { 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 |𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝑎 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺}

Centralizer or Normalizer: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then collection of those

element of G, which commute with a is called centralizer or
normalize of a and denoted by N(a).

N(a) = { 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥}

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 Basic Properties of Subgroup and centre of group:
 Every subgroup of an abelian group is abelian.
 Every subgroup of nonabelian group may be abelian except G.
 Centre of group G is a subgroup of G.
 For each ‘a’ in a group G, the centralizer of ‘a’ is a subgroup of
G.
 If O(G) = P3 and G is non-abelian then centre Z(G) has P
element. Where P is prime.
 If O(G) = P2 then G is abelian i.e. Z(G) = G

 Power Set of a Group:

Let G be a group.

We define < 𝑎 >= {𝑎𝑛 |𝑛 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}

Example:

𝐺 = {−1, 1, 𝑖, −𝑖}

< 𝑖 >= {𝑖 0 , 𝑖1 , 𝑖 2 , 𝑖 3 , }

= {1, 𝑖, −1, −𝑖, }

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 Cyclic Group:

A group G is said to be cyclic for some element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, every

element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 can be put into the form 𝑎𝑛 for some positive
integer.

The element ‘a’ is said to be generator of the group.

Example:

𝐺 = {1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 } is a cyclic group with generation 𝜔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔2 .

< 𝜔 > 𝑜𝑟 < 𝜔2 > = {𝜔3 , 𝜔1 , 𝜔2 }

 Some Basic Properties of Cyclic Group:

i) A finite group is cyclic iff, it has an element whose order is
same as that of the group.

i.e. If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑂(𝑎) = 𝑂(𝐺) then G is cyclic.

ii) Every cyclic group is abelian but not conversely.

iii) Every element generates a cyclic subgroup of its own order.
More formally, if G has element of order m then G has cyclic
subgroup of order m.
iv) Every non-abelian group has abelian subgroup.
v) Subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
vi) Number of generators of an infinite cyclic group is two.

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 vii) Number of generators of a finite cyclic group of order n is
∅(𝑛), where ∅(𝑛) is the Euler ∅- function.
viii) If ‘a’ is generator of cyclic group then a-1 is also a
generator o G.
ix) If d is a positive divisor of n, the number of elements of order d
in a cyclic group of order n is ∅(𝑑).

 Criterion for ai = aj: Let G be a group, let a belong to G. If a has

infinite order, then all distinct powers of a are distinct group
elements. If a has finite order say n then < 𝑎 >=
{𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2, . . . , 𝑎𝑛 + 1}

Proof:

Let the order of a is infinite. There does not exist any non-
negative integer n such that an=e

Where, ‘e’ is identity element

Let 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗

⇒𝑎𝑖 . 𝑎−𝑗 = 𝑎 𝑗 . 𝑎−𝑗

⇒𝑎𝑖−𝑗 = 𝑎0

⇒𝑖 − 𝑗 = 0

⇒𝑖 =𝑗

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 Hence, the distinct power of a are the distinct group element of G.

Let a has finite order

|𝑎| = 𝑛 [𝑜𝑟 𝑂(𝑎) = 𝑛]

⇒ 𝑎𝑛 , e is the identity element of G.

Now we have to prove <a>={e,a,.,an-1}

Let 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗 0≤𝑗 <𝑖 ≤𝑛−1

⇒ 𝑎𝑖 𝑎−𝑗 = 𝑎 𝑗 . 𝑎 −𝑗

⇒𝑎𝑖−𝑗 = 𝑎0

⇒𝑎𝑖−𝑗 = 𝑒

Now 𝑗 ≥ 0, 𝑖 > 𝑗 and 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛 − 1

⇒0<𝑖−𝑗 <𝑛

and since ‘n’ is the least non-negative number, for which an=e but
i-j<n with ai-j=e which contradict to our assumption |𝑎| = 𝑛

Hence there does not exist 0 ≤ 𝑗 < 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛 − 1

for which 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗

⇒{𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , . . . , 𝑎𝑛+1 } are distinct.

Let ak be an arbitrary element of <a>.

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 By division algorithm ∃ 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟

Such that 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑞 + 𝑟 0≤𝑟<𝑛

𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎𝑛𝑞+𝑟

= 𝑎𝑛𝑞 . 𝑎𝑟

= (𝑎𝑛 )𝑞 . 𝑎𝑟

= 𝑒 𝑞 . 𝑎𝑟

= 𝑎𝑟 0≤𝑟<𝑛

⇒ 𝑎𝑘 ∈< 𝑎 > 0≤𝑟<𝑛

Hence {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , . . . , 𝑎𝑛+1 }

Now remain to prove if 0(𝑎) = 𝑛 and 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗

⇒𝑎𝑖−𝑗 = 𝑒

By using division algorithm;

⇒𝑖 − 𝑗 = 𝑛𝑞 + 𝑟

⇒𝑎𝑖−𝑗 = 𝑒

⇒𝑎𝑛𝑞+𝑟 = 𝑒

⇒(𝑎𝑛 )𝑞 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑒

⇒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑒

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 Since n is the least +ve integer,

Such that an = e

Hence for 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑒, r must be zero.

⇒𝑖 − 𝑗 = 𝑛𝑞 + 0

⇒𝑖 − 𝑗 = 𝑛𝑞

⇒𝑛|𝑖 − 𝑗

Conversely,

Let 𝑛|𝑖 − 𝑗

⇒𝑖 − 𝑗 = 𝑛𝑞

⇒𝑎𝑖−𝑗 = 𝑎𝑛𝑞 = (𝑎𝑛 )𝑞 = 𝑒

⇒𝑎𝑖−𝑗 = 𝑒

⇒𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗 (Proved)

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 Theorem: Let G be a group and let the order of an element ‘a’ in G
is n. If 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒 then 𝑛|𝑘.

Proof:

Given G is a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 with 0(𝑎) = 𝑛

⇒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒, e is the identity element of G.

Let 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒

⇒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎0

We know that if order of a is n and 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗 then 𝑛|𝑖 − 𝑗

Hence 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎0

⇒𝑛|𝑘 − 0

⇒𝑛|𝑘 (Proved)

 Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Group:

i) Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. Moreover if
|< 𝑎 >| = 𝑛, then order of any subgroup of <a> is divisor of n
and for each positive divisor k of n, the group <a> has exactly
one subgroup of order k, namely <an/k>.
ii) If d is a positive divisor of ‘n’, then the number of elements of
order d in a cyclic group of order n is ∅(𝑑)

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 Permutation of Group: Let S= {a1, a2, ...., an} be a nonempty set-A
one one and onto mapping function from S onto itself is called
permutation.
𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜
i.e. F:S 𝑆, F is called permutation of degree ‘n’.
𝑜𝑛𝑒−𝑜𝑛𝑒

a1 a1
a2 a2
one-one, onto
. .
. .
an an

S Finite S Finite
Let F(a1)=a1, F(a2)=a2 . . . . . . . F(an)
Then F(a1)= F(a2).......... F(an) is nothing but some arrangement
of {a1, a2, .....an}
So the permutation of degree n can be written as;
𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛
𝐹 = (𝐹(𝑎 ) 𝐹(𝑎 ) … 𝐹(𝑎 ))
1 2 𝑛

Example:
S={1,2,3,4}
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Then F= ( ) and g=( ) are permutation
4 3 2 1 3 4 2 1
on S of degree 4.

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 Types of Permutation:
a) Equality of Permutation:

Let F and g are two permutation of degree n in S.

Two permutation f and g are said to be equal if f(a)=g(a) ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆

Example:

S={1,2,3}

1 2 3 2 1 3
F=( ) g=( )
2 3 1 3 2 1

F(1)=2=g(1)

F(2)=3=g(2)

F(3)=1=g(3)

b) Identity Permutation:

A permutation on a set ‘S’ is called an identity permutation if the

image of each element is itself.

i.e. f(a)=g(a) ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆

Example:

1 2
S= {1, 2} = ( ) is an identity permutation.
1 2

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 c) Inverse Permutation:

𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛
Let S= {a1, a2, ...., an} and a permutation of f = (𝑏 𝑏2 … 𝑏𝑛 )
1

The inverse permutation is given by;

𝑏1 𝑏2 … 𝑏𝑛
𝐹=( )
𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛

d) Composition of Permutation:

𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛
Let F = (𝑏 𝑏2 … 𝑏𝑛 )
1

𝑏1 𝑏2 … 𝑏𝑛
g= ( )
𝑐1 𝑐2 … 𝑐𝑛

𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛 𝑏1 𝑏2 … 𝑏𝑛 𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛
f(g)= (𝑏 𝑏2 … 𝑏𝑛 ) ( 𝑐1 ) = (𝑐 𝑐2 … 𝑐𝑛 )
1 𝑐2 … 𝑐𝑛 1

Example:

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
F= ( ) and g=( )
4 3 2 1 3 4 2 1
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Fg=( )( )=( )
4 3 2 1 3 4 2 1 2 1 3 4
1 2 3 4
gF=( )
1 3 2 4

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 Cyclic Permutation:
Let F be permutation of degree n such that is is possible to
arrange r elements in a row. Such that f-image of each element
in row is the element which follow it and image of last element
is the 1st element and remaining (n-r) elements are unchanged
by F.

 Types of Cyclic Permutation:

(a) Every cycle of length two is called transposition.
Example: (1m2), (a,b) are transposition.
(b) Disjoint Cycle: Two cycle are said to be disjoint if they have
no common element.

Example: (125) and (346) are disjoint cycle.

(c) Inverse of cyclic permutation:

F= (1 2 3 . . . n)

Then F-1 = (n, n-1, .... 3 2 1)

(d) Multiplication of cycles:

The multiplication of cycles can be done by

(1 2 3) (5 6 4 1)

1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 4 1 2 3
= ( )( )
2 3 1 4 5 6 6 4 1 5 2 3

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 1 2 3 4 5 6
= ( )
2 3 5 1 6 4

= (1 2 3 5 6 4)

 Basic Properties of Cyclic Permutation:

(a) Every permutation can be expressed as product of disjoint
cycles.
(b) Every cycles of length one is an identity permutation.
(c) Let f,g,h are three permutation then (fgh)-1=h-1g-1f-1
(d) Every cycle can be expressed as the product of
transpositions in infinitely many ways.
(e) Every permutation can be expressed as the product of
transposition in finitely many ways
 Even and odd permutation:

A permutation is said to be even permutation if it can be

expressed as the product of even number of transpositions.

Example:

F = (1 2 3 4 5)

= (1 2) (1 3) (1 4) (1 5)

F is even permutation.

A permutation F is said to be an odd permutation if it can be

expressed as product of odd number of transpositions.

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 Example:

F = (1 2 3 4)

= (1 2) (1 3) (1 4)

F is odd permutation.

 Important Properties:
(a) A permutation can’t be both even and odd.
(b) If a permutation F is expressed as the product of
transpositions, then the number of transpositions are either
even or odd always.
(c) Every transposition is an odd permutation.
(d) A cycle of length n can be expressed as the product of (n+1)
transpositions i.e. cycle of length n will be even permutation
if n is odd and will be odd permutation if n is even.
(e) Identity permutation is always even.
(f) Product of two even permutation is always even.
(g) Product of two odd permutation is even permutation.
(h) Product of even and odd permutation is odd.
(i) Inverse of even permutation is even and the inverse of odd
permutation is odd.
𝑛! 𝑛!
(j) Out of n permutation there are even and odd
2 2

permutation.

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 Inversion:

If in a permutation the 1st row is arrange in the increasing order of

natural numbers then inversion by i is given by;

Inv(i)= number of natural number less than f(i) and right to f(i)
where f is given permutation.

Then,
inversion by f = ∑𝑛−1
𝑖=1 𝑖𝑛𝑣 (𝑖)

Example:

1 2 3 4 5 6
Let f =
4 2 3 1 6 5

Then inv(1)=3, inv(2)=1, inv(3)=1, inv(4)=0, inv(5)=1, inv(6)=0

 Signature of Permutation:

Let F be a permutation, then

𝑖𝑛𝑣(𝑓) +1 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

Sig.F=(−1)1 ={
−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑑𝑑

Example:

1 2 3 4 5 6
Let f =
4 2 3 1 6 5

Then inv(1)=3, inv(2)=1, inv(3)=1, inv(4)=0, inv(5)=1, inv(6)=0

⇒ inv F=6

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 𝑖𝑛𝑣(𝑓)
Sig.F=(−1) = (−1)6 = +1

 Symmetric Group Sn:

Let A={1, 2, 3, . . . . n}

The set of al permutation of A is called symmetric group of degree n.

It is denoted by Sn.

1 2 … 𝑛 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔
i.e. Sn ={( ) | |}
𝐹(1) 𝐹(2) … 𝐹(𝑛) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐴

Sn is called symmetric group of degree n.

 Altering Group An:

Let Sn be the set of all permutations of degree n. then the set of all
even permutation of degree n is called alternating group. Which is
denoted by An.

 Coset:

Let G is a group and H is a subgroup of G. Let a is any element of G,

we define Ha={ha/h∈H} is called right coset of H in G.

aH={ ha/h∈H } is called left coset of H in G.

if G is a group under binary operation addition and H is a subgroup

of G, then H+a= {h+a/h∈H} is called right coset of H in G.

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and a+H= {a+h/h∈H} is called left coset of H in G.

 Properties of Coset:
(a) a∈aH
(b) if aH and bH are two coset of H in G, then either aH=bH or
aH∩bH=∅
(c) |𝑎𝐻 | = |𝑏𝐻 |
(d) aH is a subgroup of G, if 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻.
(e) aH=H if and only if a∈H
(f) aH=bH if and only if, a-1b∈aH
(g) aH=Ha if , H=aHa-1

 Lagrange’s Theorem:

If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then|𝐻 | is a divisor

of |𝐺 |.

 Consequences of Lagrange’s Theorem:

(a) In a finite group, the order of each element of the group
divides the order of the group.
(b) A group of prime order is cyclic.
(c) Let G be a finite group and let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑎|𝐺| = 𝑒
(d) For every integer a and every prime P, ap modulo P= a
modulo p.

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 Group Homomorphism:

Let G and 𝐺̅ are two group. A mapping ∅: 𝐺 → 𝐺̅ is said to be a

homomorphism if ∅(𝑎𝑏) = ∅(𝑎)∅(𝑏), ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

Example:

Let G be a group and ∅: 𝐺 → 𝐺̅ defined by ∅(𝑥 ) = 𝑥then ∅ is a

homomorphism.

 Kernel of Homorphism:

Let ∅ is a mapping from the group 𝐺 to 𝐺̅ .

The kernel of ∅ is denoted by;

𝐾∅ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 |∅(𝑥 ) = 𝑒}

 Properties of Homorphism:

Let ∅: 𝐺 → 𝐺̅ then

(1) ∅(𝑒) = 𝑒̅, 𝑒̅ is the identity element of 𝐺̅ .

(2) ∅(𝑔−1 ) = {∅(𝑔)}−1 , ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
(3) ∅(𝑔𝑛 ) = {∅(𝑔)}𝑛 , ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
(4) |𝑔| = 𝑛 then |∅(𝑔)| divides n.
 Properties of Subgroups under Homorphisms:
(a) ∅(𝐻 ) = {∅(𝑏)|ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is a subgroup of 𝐺̅ .
(b) If H is cyclic, then ∅(𝐻 ) is cyclic.

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 (c) If H is abelian then ∅(𝐻 ) is abelian.
(d) If H is normal in G, then an ∅(𝐻 ) is normal in ∅(𝐺 ).
(e) If |𝐾𝑒𝑟 ∅| = 𝑛, then ∅ is an n-to-1 mapping from G onto
∅(𝐺).
(f) If |𝐻 | = 𝑛 then |∅(𝐻)| divides n.
̅ is a subgroup of 𝐺̅ , then ∅−1 (𝐾
(g) If 𝐾 ̅) = {𝐾 ∈ 𝐺 |∅(𝐾) ∈ 𝐾
̅} is
a subgroup of G.
(h) If ∅ is onto and 𝐾𝑒𝑟 ∅ = {𝑒} then ∅ is an isomorphism from
G to 𝐺̅ .
 Normal Subgroup:

Let G be a group and H is a subgroup of G. H is said to be normal

subgroup of G if Ha=aH, ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺

(1) Let H is said to be normal subgroup of G

If 𝑥ℎ𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
 Factor Group:

Let H is a normal subgroup of G. Then the fator group of ‘G’ or

quotient group of G by H is denoted by G/H and defined as

G/H= {aH|𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}

G/H= {Ha|𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}

i.e. The factor group is defined as the collection of all left cosets or
right cosets of H in G.

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 Isomorphism:

Let ∅ us a homorphism from G to 𝐺̅ . ∅: 𝐺 → 𝐺̅ is said to be an

isomorphism, if it is one-one and onto.

A mapping ∅: 𝐺 → 𝐺̅ is said to be an isomorphism if ∅ satisfy

the following conditions;

i) ∅ is one-one.
ii) ∅ is onto.
iii) ∅(𝑎𝑏) = ∅(𝑎) ∅(𝑏) ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
 Some Theorems of Isomorphism:
(a) Let if ∅ be a group homomorphism from G to G. then the
mapping from G/ Ker if ∅ to if ∅(𝐺) given by if 𝑔 𝐾𝑒𝑟∅ →
∅(𝑔) to ∅(𝐺 ) is an isomorphism.
In symbols, 𝐺 /𝐾𝑒𝑟 ∅ ≅ ∅(𝐺)
(b) Second Isomorphism Theorem:
Let G be a group. Let H be a subgroup of G and let K be a
normal subgroup of G. Then there is a natural isomorphism.
𝐻⁄ ≅ 𝐻⁄
𝐾 𝐻∩𝐾
(c) Third Isomorphism Theorem:
Let G be a group. Let K be a normal subgroup of G, and let N
be a subgroup of K that is also normal subgroup of G, then
K/N is a normal subgroup of G/N.

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 (𝐺 ⁄𝑁)
i.e. ≅ 𝐺 ⁄𝐾
(𝐾 ⁄𝑁)

 Properties of Isomorphism:

Suppose that ∅ is an isomorphism from a group G onto a group G.

then ;

(a) Carries the identity of G to the identity of 𝐺̅ .

(b) ∅(𝑎𝑛 ) = [∅(𝑎)]𝑛
(c) For any elements a and b in G, a and b commute if ∅(𝑎) and
∅(𝑏) commute.
(d) G is abelian if 𝐺̅ is abelian.
(e) |𝑎| = |∅(𝑎)| ∀ 𝑎∈𝐺
(f) G is cyclic if 𝐺̅ is cyclic
(g) ∅−1 is an isomorphism from 𝐺̅ to G.
(h) If K is a subgroup of G, then ∅(𝐾 ) = {∅(𝐾)|𝑘 ∈ 𝐾} is a
subgroup of 𝐺̅ .

 Automorphism:

Let G be a group. A mapping ∅: 𝐺 → 𝐺̅ is said to be automorphism

from G onto itself.

A mapping ∅ is said to be an automorphism if ∅ is one-one and

onto mapping from 𝐺 → 𝐺̅ satisfying ∅(𝑎𝑏) = ∅(𝑎)∅(𝑏)

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 Inner Automorphism:

Let G is a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. The function ∅𝑎 is defined by ∅𝑎(𝑥 ) =

𝑎𝑥𝑎−1 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 is called inner automorphism of G indused by a.

It is denoted by Inn(G).

* Innerautomorphism is a Group.

 Isomorphic:

Let ∅ is a homorphism from G to 𝐺̅ . If there is a isomorphicm from

G onto 𝐺̅ then we say G is isomorphic to 𝐺̅ . In symbol we can write
G≈ 𝐺̅ .

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