1

Polymers in Solar Energy: Applications and

Opportunities

W. F. CARROLL
California Institute of Technology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pasadena,CA91109
PAUL SCHISSEL
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden,CO80401

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

Polymers have many potential applications in solar

technologies that can help achieve total system cost-
-effectiveness. For this potential to be realized,
three major parameters must be optimized: cost, per-
formance, and durability. Optimization must be
achieved despite operational stresses, some of which
are unique to solar technologies. This paper identi-
fies performance of optical elements as critical to
solar system performance and summarizes the status of
several optical elements: flat-plate collector glaz-
ings, mirror glazings, dome enclosures, photovoltaic
encapsulation, luminescent solar concentrators, and
Fresnel lenses. Research and development efforts are
needed to realize the full potential of polymers to
reduce life-cycle solar energy conversion costs.
Problem areas which are identified are the
interactions of a material with or its response to the
total environment; photodegradation; permeability/
adhesion; surfaces and interfaces; thermomechanical
behavior; dust adhesion; and abrasion resistance.
Polymeric materials can play a key role in the future
development of solar energy systems [1]. Polymers
offer potentially lower costs, easier processing,
lighter weight, and greater design flexibility than
materials in current use.
Polymeric materials are used in a l l solar technologies. In
addition to such conventional applications as adhesives, coatings,
moisture barriers, electrical and thermal insulation, and struc-
tural members, polymers are used as optical components in solar
systems. Mirrors on parabolic troughs are made up of metallized
fluoropolymers and acrylics. Commercial flat-plate collectors are
glazed with fluoropolymers and ultraviolet-stabilized polyester/
glass fiber composites. Photovoltaic (PV) cell arrays are encap-
0097-6156/83/0220-0003$06.00/0
© 1983 American Chemical Society

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 4 POLYMERS IN SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

s u l a t e d w i t h s i l i c o n e s and a c r y l i c s f o r p r o t e c t i o n from the

weather. In laminated ( s a f e t y g l a s s ) m i r r o r s f o r c e n t r a l r e c e i v e r
h e l i o s t a t systems, p o l y v i n y l b u t y r a l i s used as a l a m i n a t i n g and
encapsulating agent. Cast and molded a c r y l i c F r e s n e l lenses are
used to concentrate s u n l i g h t onto p h o t o v o l t a i c c e l l s and thermal
receivers. The widespread use of polymers i s evident from the
i n f o r m a t i o n d i s p l a y e d i n Table I , where a p p l i c a t i o n s of polymers
are l i s t e d f o r each major s o l a r technology.
I t i s p o s s i b l e to estimate the amount of polymer which might
be used i n the o p t i c a l elements of s o l a r energy systems [ 1 ] . The
estimate assumes a market p e n e t r a t i o n f o r s o l a r systems e q u i v a l e n t
t o 0.4 Quads/year (U.S. 1980 energy use was about 85 Quads, 1
1 5
Quad - 1 0 Btu) s t a r t i n g i n the time p e r i o d 1985-1995. A s o l a r
i n s o l a t i o n of 1 kW/m f o r ^bout 6 hours per day w i l l r e q u i r e an
2
area p e n e t r a t i o n of 2 x 10° n r / y r (82 m i l e s / y r ) or about 5500
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org
Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

m e t r i c tons per year per m i l of t h i c k n e s s . An average thickness

of 10 m i l s would r e q u i r e , f o r example, an a p p r e c i a b l e f r a c t i o n of
the present market f o r e i t h e r a c r y l i c s or polycarbonate. Presum-
a b l y , c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r amounts of polymer could be used i n non-
o p t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s but t h i s i s system s p e c i f i c and d i f f i c u l t to
estimate. C a l c u l a t i o n s [1] a l s o suggest that the present low
l e v e l of funding f o r R&D on polymers i m p l i e s an underestimation of
the p o t e n t i a l which polymers have f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s to s o l a r
systems•
The use of polymers i n s o l a r equipment w i l l r e q u i r e major
changes from past l a r g e - s c a l e applications, especially i n
a c h i e v i n g s a t i s f a c t o r y performance under a l l combinations of
s t r e s s . Cost, performance, and d u r a b i l i t y must be optimized. I f
e a r l y c o s t - e f f e c t i v e commercialization of s o l a r energy i s to be
r e a l i z e d , c r i t i c a l delays must be shortened. Service experience
has t r a d i t i o n a l l y guided the e v o l u t i o n of systems toward an
optimum design. The process can be hastened by a p p l y i n g a l l
a v a i l a b l e understanding of the b a s i c behavior of m a t e r i a l s i n the
i n i t i a l designs of equipment. The stalemate imposed by the l a c k
of market and supply of s o l a r systems can be broken by government-
supported development of technology that demonstrates the economic
v i a b i l i t y of new or modified m a t e r i a l s . Such development would
enable m a t e r i a l s s u p p l i e r s and manufacturers of s o l a r equipment to
make knowledgeable business d e c i s i o n s and reduce development cost
and time.

Applications

The o p t i c a l elements of s o l a r systems are important a p p l i c a -

t i o n s f o r polymers. The use of polymers f o r o p t i c a l elements
w i l l , however, impose s e v e r a l unusual m a t e r i a l requirements. F i v e
examples of the current development of polymeric o p t i c a l elements
are considered below. Problems such as d i r t accumulation and
photodegradation, which are common to most o p t i c a l elements, are
considered i n a l a t e r s e c t i o n . More conventional a p p l i c a t i o n s are
then noted very b r i e f l y .

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org
Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

Table I. >
o
Polymer A p p l i c a t i o n p
cd >
(0 0
bO *H
o a
p! 0
bo •H
•H cd
U +-> 0
fn
N C/> </} O
bo Cd 0
\ o bO O pi •H 0 3
p! rH PJ 0 O rH
CJ 0 CO if)
•H o •>H s •+->H rH «H rH 0OJ0
N 0
•H (/> W +-> cd
CQ Pi
0 W
cd CD 1—1 cd cd
i—i cd cd § CJ
o air i—t 0 0 r
cd i—i U 0 \ P* u
1—1 i — i t/) rH
an

< +-> 0
1
c/> H P! +->
bO cd C
o P. V) o W Pi B t-H <p PS
JH
cd +J P! •H H
0
V)
0
cd o cd
0
?H
+->
c0d •H P. •H 6
0
S o l a r Energy System •H i—t
EX*
Pi
W CO CO
cd •H Th o JH
PL,
a. a,

s
S o l a r thermal conversion x x x x x x x x

Photovoltaics x x x x x x x x
O
S o l a r heating and o
cooling of buildings x x x x x x

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

Wind x x x x x

Ocean thermal x x x x x

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.

Biological/chemical x x x x x x
 6 POLYMERS IN SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

Flat-Plate Collector Glazings* The cover g l a z i n g s protect

the inner elements of the c o l l e c t o r from the environment and
i n c r e a s e operating e f f i c i e n c y by reducing r e r a d i a t i o n and convec-
tion. Collectors with single glazings are l i m i t e d i n t h e i r
o p e r a t i n g temperature; however, some recent work suggests that
s i n g l y glazed c o l l e c t o r s can work i n the temperature ranges
r e q u i r e d by desiccant and a b s o r p t i o n c o o l i n g [ 2 ] . Higher operat-
i n g temperatures a r e obtained by u s i n g two g l a z i n g s . The outer
g l a z i n g must withstand the environment while the inner g l a z i n g
must be temperature r e s i s t a n t , t y p i c a l l y up to the s t a g n a t i o n
temperature of the device. R e s u l t s on c o l l e c t o r g l a z i n g s have
been reported [3] and environmental degradation studies of
m a t e r i a l s f o r g l a z i n g s a r e i n progress [ 4 ] . None of the m a t e r i a l s
are completely s a t i s f a c t o r y e i t h e r as an outer or inner g l a z i n g .
The temperature requirement f o r the inner g l a z i n g e l i m i n a t e s most
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

m a t e r i a l s other than fluorocarbon polymers and g l a s s . Glass i s

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

the most common outer g l a z i n g but i t s u f f e r s from weight, c o s t ,

and impact r e s i s t a n c e l i m i t a t i o n s , w h i l e l a c k of environmental
d u r a b i l i t y l i m i t s the a p p l i c a t i o n s of polymers.
The transparent honeycomb concept i s an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e
use of a second g l a z i n g [5] . The honeycomb i s attached t o o r i s
an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the outer g l a z i n g f a c i n g the absorber p l a t e .
The honeycomb improves c o l l e c t o r performance by suppressing con-
v e c t i o n and r a d i a t i o n heat l o s s e s w h i l e only s l i g h t l y reducing the
incoming s o l a r energy. The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the honeycomb f o r
improving c o l l e c t o r performance i s approximately equivalent t o
t h a t of an inner g l a z i n g . I n t e g r a l honeycombs formed from p o l y -
carbonate have good mechanical p r o p e r t i e s . Other m a t e r i a l s t e s t e d
i n c l u d e p o l y e s t e r , fluorocarbon polymers, and polyimide [ 5 ] •
Novel approaches t o c o l l e c t o r f a b r i c a t i o n use i n t e g r a l e x t r u -
s i o n s [6-8] or laminated t h i n f i l m s [ 2 ] . U n l i k e sheet-and-tube
designs, some extruded i n t e g r a l u n i t s i n c l u d e the transparent
g l a z i n g , h e a t - t r a n s f e r f l u i d pathways, and backing, a l l i n a con-
f i g u r a t i o n which could be r o l l e d out onto a r o o f t o p . Black f l u i d s
can act as absorbers and be drained from the c o l l e c t o r t o prevent
excessive s t a g n a t i o n temperatures. The designs vary i n d e t a i l but
a common problem has been the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of a polymer with
acceptable environmental d u r a b i l i t y and low c o s t . An extruded
polycarbonate c o l l e c t o r w i t h an i n t e g r a l o p t i c a l concentrator has
been developed [ 8 ] . Other m a t e r i a l s that have been used i n
designs i n c l u d e a c r y l i c and p o l y e t h e r s u l f o n e .
Imaginative a p p l i c a t i o n s o f polymers t o f e n e s t r a t i o n can a l s o
be used f o r f l a t - p l a t e c o l l e c t o r s . A transparent, coated p o l y -
meric g l a z i n g which transmits the s o l a r spectrum but r e t u r n s the
i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y increases the i n s u l a t i o n provided
by the g l a z i n g , because the i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n generated i n s i d e
the s t r u c t u r e i s r e t a i n e d . A polymeric f i l m which changes from
transparent t o opaque when heated above a t r a n s i t i o n temperature
a c t s as an automatic window shade which could help c o n t r o l
s t a g n a t i o n temperatures [ 9 ] .

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 1. C A R R O L L A N D SCHISSEL Applications and Opportunities 1

Polymeric Glazings - Mirrors* The i n s t a l l e d p r i c e of h e l i o -

s t a t s i s estimated t o account f o r about h a l f of the t o t a l c a p i t a l
cost o f a c e n t r a l - r e c e i v e r s o l a r thermal e l e c t r i c plant and a
l a r g e r f r a c t i o n of the cost of systems f o r process heat produc-
t i o n [10]. M e t a l l i z e d t h i n polymeric f i l m s a r e one means to make
l i g h t w e i g h t m i r r o r s that are l e s s expensive than current design.
F l e x i b l e , l i g h t w e i g h t mirrors a l s o a l l o w l e s s expensive designs o f
a u x i l i a r y equipment. Thin, f l e x i b l e f i l m s can be attached w i t h
adhesives t o substrates w i t h s i n g l e o r compound curvature.
E a r l i e r s t u d i e s of alurainized o r s i l v e r e d polymers have included
a c r y l i c s , f l u o r i n a t e d polymers, polycarbonate, s i l i c o n e s , and
p o l y e s t e r [11]. Tests a t Phoenix, A r i z o n a , showed n e g l i g i b l e
degradation o f aluminum and s i l v e r m i r r o r s protected by a c r y l i c ,
T e f l o n , and glass during exposures exceeding two years, w h i l e
s i m i l a r t e s t s a t other s i t e s r e s u l t e d i n severe degradation i n
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

about one year [12]. I t was decided that the r e l i a b i l i t y of

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

polymer-coated mirrors was i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e i r use as h e l i o -

s t a t s a t the Barstow demonstration f a c i l i t y [13]. More systematic
environmental degradation s t u d i e s o f some o f these m a t e r i a l s a r e
i n progress [4] and s e v e r a l m i r r o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g
aluminized a c r y l i c s , are being t e s t e d c u r r e n t l y a t s e l e c t e d l o c a -
t i o n s around the U. S. I n recent t e s t s conducted i n dry, r e l a -
t i v e l y benign c l i m a t e s , aluminized a c r y l i c s have performed w e l l
f o r up t o f i v e years, polymeric g l a z i n g s that p r o t e c t s i l v e r
surfaces f o r comparable time periods have not been i d e n t i f i e d .
L o c a l i r r e g u l a r i t i e s ( s l o p e - e r r o r ) i n the shape of r e f l e c t o r s
present a problem w i t h polymer-glazed m i r r o r s . A slope-error
t o l e r a n c e as low as one m i l l i r a d i a n i s needed f o r some point-focus
concentrators [14]. This tolerance has been met w i t h g l a s s
m i r r o r s ; however, m e t a l l i z e d polymeric f i l m s have a poorer t o l e r -
ance.

Dome Enclosures. An e n c l o s e d - h e l i o s t a t (dome) design e n v i -

sions l a r g e ( 3 0 - f t diameter) bubbles made of t h i n , a i r - s u p p o r t e d ,
transparent polymeric f i l m s as p r o t e c t i v e covers f o r m e t a l l i z e d
polymeric m i r r o r s . Studies [10] i n d i c a t e that use of dome-
enclosed s o l a r concentrators may r e s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t cost reduc-
tions. The air-supported dome c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s capable of w i t h -
standing wind loads and can p r o t e c t l i g h t gauge p l a s t i c membrane
h e l i o s t a t s and d r i v e mechanisms which lower c o s t s . The o r i g i n a l
concept from the Boeing Engineering and Construction Company used
i n t e g r a l domes w h i l e l a t e r designs by the General E l e c t r i c Company
used segments assembled w i t h adhesives.
A number of transparent polymers have been examined and
t e s t e d f o r t h i s purpose; prototype domes have been f a b r i c a t e d from
p o l y v i n y l f l u o r i d e which was l a t e r determined t o be too expensive
and not s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b l e . The dominant requirement f o r t h i s
a p p l i c a t i o n i s good specular t r a n s m i s s i o n . Several p o l y e s t e r s

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 8 POLYMERS IN SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

were t e s t e d and had e x c e l l e n t i n i t i a l o p t i c a l transmittance.

However, t h e i r environmental d u r a b i l i t y was too l i m i t e d . Energy
l o s s e s due to absorption or s c a t t e r i n g decrease the system e f f i -
c i e n c y , reducing the cost advantages. In the case of enclosures
f o r h e l i o s t a t s i n c e n t r a l r e c e i v e r systems, l o s s e s are m u l t i p l i e d
because the s o l a r beam must pass through the dome t w i c e . The
m a t e r i a l must be compatible w i t h c o s t - e f f e c t i v e dome f a b r i c a t i o n
methods and must have s u i t a b l e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s and dura-
b i l i t y to maintain operation under the combined e f f e c t s of wind,
h a i l , temperature, s u n l i g h t , e t c . , f o r s e v e r a l years. Other
m a t e r i a l s t e s t e d i n c l u d e p o l y v i n y l i d e n e f l u o r i d e , polycarbonate,
and polypropylene. B i a x i a l l y oriented polyvinylidene fluoride i s
p r a c t i c a l to manufacture commercially and i s s a i d to have good
o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and e x c e l l e n t w e a t h e r a b i l i t y [10].
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

Flat-Plate Photovoltaic (PV) Encapsulation.* Polymers can

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

serve s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s i n PV encapsulation systems [15]. The

s i n g l e polymer a p p l i c a t i o n common to a l l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s and the
core of the encapsulation package I s the p o t t a n t , which embeds the
s o l a r c e l l s and r e l a t e d e l e c t r i c a l conductors. The key r e q u i r e -
ments f o r a pottant are high transparency i n the range of s o l a r
c e l l response, mechanical cushioning of the f r a g i l e s o l a r c e l l s
from thermal and mechanical s t r e s s e s , e l e c t r i c a l i n s u l a t i o n to
i s o l a t e module voltage, and c o s t - e f f e c t i v e m a t e r i a l and module
f a b r i c a t i o n processes.
Other encapsulation a p p l i c a t i o n s of polymers f o r s p e c i f i c
designs i n c l u d e s o i l , u l t r a v i o l e t , and a b r a s i o n - r e s i s t a n t f r o n t
covers. The cover can serve as a transparent s t r u c t u r a l super-
state. Substrate support designs r e q u i r e a hard, durable f r o n t
cover f i l m to p r o t e c t the r e l a t i v e l y s o f t pottant from mechanical
damages and excess s o i l accumulation. A polymeric f r o n t cover
must be low i n c o s t , h i g h l y transparent, and weather r e s i s t a n t to
compete w i t h g l a s s . For a p p l i c a t i o n s out of the o p t i c a l path
between the sun and the s o l a r c e l l s (adhesives, i n s u l a t i o n , edge
s e a l s , gaskets) requirements f o r polymeric use i n encapsulation
are the same as f o r other a p p l i c a t i o n s .

Luminescent Solar Concentrators (LSCs). The LSC uses the

p r i n c i p l e of l i g h t pipe t r a p p i n g , t r a n s m i s s i o n , and c o u p l i n g i n t o
a p h o t o v o l t a i c c e l l (PV) to concentrate s o l a r r a d i a t i o n [16,17].
This use of a low-cost concentrator can reduce the area r e q u i r e -
ments of the more expensive PV c e l l s . The LSC has s e v e r a l import-
ant advantages. I t can be made from inexpensive m a t e r i a l s , can be
nontracking and i t can concentrate the l i g h t input from e i t h e r
d i r e c t or d i f f u s e i n s o l a t i o n . The LSC can act as a wavelength

*Encapsulation of p h o t o v o l t a i c s f o r concentrator systems depends

on c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a t i o and other system s p e c i f i c parameter t e s t s ,
i s s u e s that are not discussed i n t h i s paper.

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 1. CARROLL A N D SCHISSEL Applications and Opportunities 9

matcher between the s o l a r r a d i a t i o n and the s p e c t r a l response o f

the PV c e l l . A l s o , the s o l a r i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n and the r e s u l t a n t
heat load are prevented from reaching the s o l a r c e l l .
One planar c o n f i g u r a t i o n , shown i n Figure 1, uses a polymeric
host (polymethylmethacrylate) i n t o which dye molecules are d i s -
persed randomly. Photons w i t h wavelengths i n the adsorption band
of the dye enter the host, a r e absorbed by the dye, and ate
reradiated i s o t r o p i c a l l y . Reradiated photons w i t h i n a c e r t a i n
s o l i d angle are trapped by t o t a l i n t e r n a l r e f l e c t i o n and guided t o
the edge of the p l a t e where s o l a r c e l l s are attached. The concen-
t r a t i o n f a c t o r i s determined by the r a t i o of the areas of the face
to an edge, by the f r a c t i o n of r e r a d i a t e d photons which i s trapped
(75%), and other f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g to the dye. The trapping e f f i -
ciency i s p a r t l y determined by the r e f r a c t i v e index o f the
polymer.
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

A second planar c o n f i g u r a t i o n uses t h i n (25 urn) polymeric

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

f i l m host ( c e l l u l o s e acetate butyrate) coated onto a support

(PMMA, g l a s s ) . When the support i s p o s i t i o n e d as a s u p e r s t r a t e i t
acts as a g l a z i n g t o protect the t h i n f i l m . Some designs use
s e v e r a l t h i n l a y e r s , each c o n t a i n i n g a dye matched t o d i f f e r e n t
s o l a r wavelengths. The p h y s i c a l separation of the dyes can
improve t h e i r d u r a b i l i t y . The t h i n f i l m approach means that more
expensive m a t e r i a l s may be acceptable. F l u o r i n a t e d or deuterated
dyes can improve o p t i c a l e f f i c i e n c y and h i g h l y concentrated dyes
can a l t e r the mechanism and e f f i c i e n c y of energy t r a n s p o r t .
System l i f e t i m e i s an important unknown f a c t o r p r i n c i p a l l y i n f l u -
enced by dye l i f e t i m e . Questions r e l a t i n g t o dye-host i n t e r -
a c t i o n s and the i n f l u e n c e of the host on system l i f e t i m e s a r e
unanswered.

Fresnel Lenses. F r e s n e l lens concentrators have been s t u d i e d

f o r both thermal and p h o t o v o l t a i c systems. The economic v i a b i l i t y
of t h e i r use depends on a l a r g e number of system-related f a c t o r s ,
i n c l u d i n g the performance, c o s t , and d u r a b i l i t y of the lenses.
Performance requirements i n c l u d e minimum a b s o r p t i o n , s c a t t e r i n g ,
and surface r e f l e c t i o n . T o t a l cost depends on costs of m a t e r i a l s
and f a b r i c a t i o n , or minimum thickness defined by mechanical
requirements, and on a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l required f o r o p t i c a l
design. L i k e other s o l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s o f o p t i c a l polymers, dura-
b i l i t y f o r extended periods i s r e q u i r e d .

Other Applications. Polymers can a l s o be used as edge s e a l s

i n g l a s s m i r r o r s , f i l m s f o r m i r r o r backings, adhesives, s t r u c t u r a l
members, s o l a r pond l i n e r s , and energy storage systems. Glass
m i r r o r s are more s t a b l e than m i r r o r s w i t h polymeric g l a z i n g s , but
they are expensive, heavy, and probably not s t a b l e enough. The
s t a t e of the a r t i s e x e m p l i f i e d by the developments of m i r r o r s f o r
h e l i o s t a t a p p l i c a t i o n s [18]. The s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s o f s i l v e r e d
g l a s s backed w i t h a p o l y i s o b u t y l e n e f i l m and mounted on an alumi-
num sheet-paper honeycomb s t r u c t u r e . The m i r r o r edges are sealed

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org
Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

H-»

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

Ο

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.

r

w
3
on
Ο
r
M
>
w
H
G
Ρ
Η
Ο -I
Η
 1. CARROLL A N D SCHISSEL Applications and Opportunities 11

w i t h p o l y i s o b u t y l e n e and s i l i c o n e , and the m i r r o r i s h e l d t o the

supporting s t r u c t u r e using a neoprene phenolic adhesive. Other
low-cost h e l i o s t a t m i r r o r modules have been designed and developed
which use p l a s t i c to reduce weight and to accommodate high-volume
production of complex forms by molding. Molded r i b , extruded
panel, or sandwiched honeycomb s t r u c t u r e s a r e combined w i t h
sprayed s i l v e r m e t a l l i z a t i o n , sprayed polymeric overcoats, o r
laminated f i l m s [19]. Molded r e i n f o r c e d p l a s t i c s are a l s o used i n
p a r a b o l i c trough module designs [20]• A survey of thermal energy
storage p r o j e c t s i s a v a i l a b l e [21]•

Research Opportunities

Optical Elements. Problems which are common to many s o l a r -

r e l a t e d o p t i c a l elements i n c l u d e d i r t r e t e n t i o n , c l e a n i n g , surface
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

a b r a s i o n , and photodegradation. A common f e a t u r e of some of these

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

problems i s that the d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s occur a t an i n t e r f a c e .

U l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n , atmospheric components, mechanical s t r e s s ,
etc., can have a profound e f f e c t on performance by changing
surface c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The l i f e t i m e s o f UV s t a b i l i z e r s can be
l i m i t e d by exudation; p e r m e a b i l i t y can cause harmful r e a c t i o n s a t
i n t e r f a c e s ; and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s can be i n f l u e n c e d by surface
crazing. I n other a p p l i c a t i o n s mechanical behavior of the bulk
polymer i s c r i t i c a l and v i r t u a l l y a l l a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e that
the polymer system withstand m u l t i p l e environmental s t r e s s e s
simultaneously.

Surface/Interface Properties of Polymers

Surface phenomena play a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n the major

problem areas associated w i t h polymers and, t h e r e f o r e , are b a s i c
to most o f the s t u d i e s . For example, the l i f e t i m e s of UV s t a b i -
l i z e r s can be l i m i t e d by exudation and accumulation a t the
s u r f a c e , p e r m e a b i l i t y can cause harmful r e a c t i o n s a t i n t e r f a c e s ,
adhesion Is an i n t e r f a c e phenomenon, and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s can
be i n f l u e n c e d by surface c r a z i n g . Examples o f surface problems
a f f e c t i n g m i r r o r s i n c l u d e abrasion, dust adhesion, and c l e a n i n g
procedures. Surface i n t e r a c t i o n s a l s o occur during the production
of polymers; the subsequent behavior o f a polymer can be c r i t i -
c a l l y dependent upon the m a t e r i a l against which i t i s formed.
Surface measurement techniques w i l l form a general experimental
b a s i s f o r work on s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n s . Experimental and
a n a l y t i c a l studies are needed t o improve understanding of the
chemistry, p h y s i c s , and morphology of s u r f a c e s . Study o f i n t e r -
faces between polymers and other m a t e r i a l s i s a l s o needed both f o r
model i n t e r f a c e s and f o r candidate engineering m a t e r i a l i n t e r -
faces. Such s t u d i e s should c h a r a c t e r i z e the i n t e r f a c e s as
o r i g i n a l l y f a b r i c a t e d and a f t e r changes caused by t y p i c a l e n v i r o n -
mental exposures.
The accumulation of a i r b o r n e p a r t i c u l a t e s and aerosols on the

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 12 POLYMERS IN SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

o p t i c a l surfaces of s o l a r conversion equipment causes unwanted

absorption and s c a t t e r i n g which has lowered operating e f f i c i e n c i e s
more than 30%. Accumulation i s most serious f o r s o f t polymers
(e.g., s i l i c o n e rubber) and l e a s t s e r i o u s f o r g l a s s . Data i n d i -
cate that hard polymers l i k e polymethylmethacrylate are n e a r l y as
r e s i s t a n t as g l a s s . An understanding of adhesion mechanisms i s
r e q u i r e d to develop c o s t - e f f e c t i v e c l e a n i n g methods and s o i l -
r e s i s t a n t polymeric m a t e r i a l s [22-24]. M o d i f i c a t i o n s of polymeric
m a t e r i a l s , e i t h e r i n bulk or by surface treatment or c o a t i n g , may
r e s u l t i n m a t e r i a l s that are " s e l f - c l e a n i n g " or that do not tend
to hold s o i l , a l l o w i n g i t t o be removed e a s i l y by n a t u r a l forces
such as wind and r a i n .
Regular c l e a n i n g probably w i l l be r e q u i r e d to maintain high
o p t i c a l performance of s o l a r systems, and c l e a n i n g w i l l be a major
o p e r a t i o n a l cost f a c t o r . Automatic c l e a n i n g can be made c o s t -
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

e f f e c t i v e i f i t i s based on an understanding of s o i l adhesion

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

mechanisms. P o s s i b l e problems i n c l u d e mechanical damage to the

surface by c l e a n i n g and p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s of r e s i d u a l
c l e a n i n g agents to m a t e r i a l aging. The o p t i c a l f u n c t i o n of p o l y -
meric components can be s e r i o u s l y degraded by abrasion due to the
c l e a n i n g process or by n a t u r a l causes. Considerations such as
c o s t , mechanical c o m p a t i b i l i t y with supporting m a t e r i a l , or UV
r e s i s t a n c e may preclude the use of i n h e r e n t l y a b r a s i o n - r e s i s t a n t
materials. Since only a shallow l a y e r of r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l i s
r e q u i r e d , adding a c o a t i n g o r using surface processes that produce
a r e s i s t a n t " s k i n " can y i e l d the necessary r e s i s t a n c e . A c o a t i n g
might have s e v e r a l uses, p r o v i d i n g abrasion r e s i s t a n c e , improving
a n t i r e f l e c t i v e performance, screening UV r a d i a t i o n , or combining
several functions.
Adhesive f a i l u r e i s a problem i n s o l a r systems. In the past,
polymers have been used to p r o t e c t the mechanical i n t e g r i t y of
wood and metal s t r u c t u r e s i n severe outdoor environments and to
p r o t e c t s e n s i t i v e e l e c t r o n i c components In r e l a t i v e l y benign
enclosed environments. Polymers used i n s o l a r equipment w i l l have
to p r o t e c t the o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of r e f l e c t o r s , t h i n - f i l m e l e c -
t r i c a l conductors, and t h i n - f i l m p h o t o v o l t a i c s from the e f f e c t s of
moisture and atmospheric p o l l u t a n t s i n severe outdoor environments
w h i l e simultaneously maintaining o p t i c a l , mechanical, and chemical
integrity. I n some systems, the prevention of mechanical f a i l u r e
i s important; f r e q u e n t l y , adhesive f a i l u r e a t the metal/polymer
i n t e r f a c e i s of p a r t i c u l a r concern because the ensuing c o r r o s i o n
causes o p t i c a l f a i l u r e .
Loss of adhesion may be caused by permeation problems.
However, i n t e r n a l formation of v o l a t i l e species (outgassing) and
primary bond f a i l u r e can a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o l o s s of adhesion. A l l
polymers are i n h e r e n t l y permeable, but t o widely varying
degrees. Oxygen, moisture, a i r p o l l u t a n t s , e t c . , can penetrate
polymer f i l m s and a t t a c k underlying r e f l e c t o r m e t a l i z a t i o n , con-
d u c t o r s , or other f u n c t i o n a l elements. Furthermore, these gases

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 1. CARROLL A N D SCHISSEL Applications and Opportunities 13

can modify the mechanical and o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f the polymer

and a l t e r mechanical i n t e r f a c e s between l a y e r s .
The p e r m e a b i l i t y of a polymer can be s e n s i t i v e t o how the
m a t e r i a l i s processed and used and i s sometimes enhanced as the
m a t e r i a l degrades. Although a fundamental understanding o f
polymer permeability e x i s t s and experimental data are a v a i l a b l e ,
current information i s inadequate to model o r c o n t r o l the e f f e c t s
of permeation of v a r i o u s species i n s o l a r equipment. Experimental
and a n a l y t i c a l studies are needed t o consider modern t h e o r e t i c a l
approaches (e.g., nonequilibrium thermodynamics, non-Fickian
d i f f u s i o n ) with the g o a l of developing models f o r the transport o f
H2O, O2, S0 , and other molecules i n polymers, and to develop and
X

compile q u a n t i t a t i v e engineering data on transport through bulk

m a t e r i a l and across and along i n t e r f a c e s s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r s o l a r
a p p l i c a t i o n s [25, 26].
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , delamination may not be r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y t o

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

permeation, but may be due instead t o thermal and/or UV e f f e c t s

that are followed by the c o r r o s i v e f a i l u r e . Some studies and
models i n d i c a t e that the polymer/metal i n t e r f a c e morphology, and
the changes i n the morphology with exposure t o the environment,
play a key r o l e i n c o r r o s i o n r a t e s . These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be
even more important i n c o r r o s i o n c o n t r o l than e i t h e r the d i f f u s i o n
of vapors through the polymer or the inherent c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e
of the metal.

Photochemistry of Polymers

V i r t u a l l y a l l polymers d e t e r i o r a t e under exposure to outdoor

weathering and s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , but a t g r e a t l y varying r a t e s .
Polymers i n s o l a r equipment must maintain o p t i c a l , mechanical, and
chemical i n t e g r i t y despite prolonged exposure to s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t
radiation. F o r most outdoor a p p l i c a t i o n s of polymers, s o l a r
r a d i a t i o n exposure i s i n c i d e n t a l , but f o r many s o l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
exposure t o s o l a r r a d i a t i o n i s d e l i b e r a t e l y maximized i n the
equipment design. Transparency i s e s s e n t i a l f o r many o f t h e
p o t e n t i a l l y most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n s , and conventional
approaches t o u l t r a v i o l e t p r o t e c t i o n such as opaque coatings and
f i l l e r s are unacceptable.
Photodegradation i n polymers begins w i t h the primary e x c i t e d
s t a t e s produced by absorption of u l t r a v i o l e t photon energy by the
polymer. These e x c i t e d s t a t e s undergo f a s t - r e a c t i o n sequences t o
form chain r a d i c a l s which, i n t u r n , decay through chemical
r e a c t i o n s w i t h i n the polymer o r with O2, R^O, e t c . These
r e a c t i o n s can produce changes i n chemistry or molecular s i z e . The
r e a c t i o n products can absorb a d d i t i o n a l photons, r e s u l t i n g i n
f u r t h e r degradation by analogous processes. The cumulative
changes may r e s u l t i n y e l l o w i n g ( l o s s o f transparency), change i n
r e f r a c t i v e index, and d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f surface p r o p e r t i e s (e.g.,
crazing)• Changes i n the mechanical p r o p e r t i e s cause increased
creep or c r a c k i n g , w h i l e changes i n the chemical p r o p e r t i e s r e s u l t
i n increased permeability to R^O, S0 , e t c . , and subsequent cor-
X

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 14 POLYMERS IN SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

r o s i v e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h m e t a l l i c components i n contact w i t h the

polymer.
Polymers that are s e n s i t i v e to u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n but that
otherwise have d e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s can be s t a b l i z e d by u l t r a -
v i o l e t screens, absorbers, quenchers, r a d i c a l scavengers, and
antioxidants. U l t r a v i o l e t s t a b l i z e r s can be incorporated by
simple a d d i t i o n or by chemical combination w i t h the polymer
molecule. Long l i f e t i m e can best be a t t a i n e d by i m m o b i l i z i n g the
a d d i t i v e as part of the molecular s t r u c t u r e . Using e x i s t i n g
photochemistry, a n a l y t i c a l and experimental s t u d i e s are needed t o
develop models of photochemical processes i n s o l a r - r e l a t e d
polymers. Recent screening s t u d i e s u s i n g commercial a d d i t i v e s
have been d i r e c t e d toward s o l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s . They can provide
some input to the system s e l e c t i o n s [28-31].
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

Thermomechanical Behavior. Requirements f o r o p t i c a l perform-

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

ance impose unprecedented requirements f o r dimensional s t a b i l i t y

of polymers used i n h i g h - c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e f l e c t o r s . Requirements
f o r mechanical c o m p a t i b i l i t y are a l s o s t r i c t f o r p h o t o v o l t a i c
systems subjected to moisture and thermal s t r e s s e s . Moisture,
temperature, and UV, s e p a r a t e l y and i n combination, can change the
volume and thus the s t r e s s s t a t e of polymers. For example,
temperature and humidity c y c l e s alone do not cause surface micro-
cracks i n polycarbonate. However, i n the presence of UV r a d i a -
tion, such c y c l e s cause m i c r o c r a c k s , w h i l e UV alone does
not [32]. An understanding of these r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s e s s e n t i a l t o
permit r e l i a b l e design of equipment that uses polymers.
These f a c t o r s , coupled w i t h need f o r r e l i a b l e design and low
c o s t , n e c e s s i t a t e both a fundamental understanding of mechanical
behavior and r e l i a b l e mechanical design d a t a . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between process and environmental e f f e c t s to mechanical behavior
have been developed f o r e l a s t o m e r i c polymers to the degree t h a t
these m a t e r i a l s can be s e l e c t e d , and t h e i r long-term performance
r e l i a b l y p r e d i c t e d , by a knowledge of some fundamental parameters
determined from a few s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d experimental measurements.
If the current l e v e l of understanding of v i s c o - e l a s t i c i t y of
elastomers can be extended i n t o the range of g l a s s y polymers, then
i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e to make comparable p r e d i c t i o n s of mechanical
s t r e s s / t i m e / t e m p e r a t u r e / s t r a i n response and failure relation-
ships. U l t i m a t e l y , e q u i v a l e n t understanding of g l a s s y polymers
w i l l g r e a t l y reduce the need f o r c o s t l y e m p i r i c a l t e s t i n g each
time a new a p p l i c a t i o n i s contemplated.

Combined Environmental Effect. Any l i s t of s i g n i f i c a n t

e f f e c t s of the environment on polymers i n s o l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s w i l l
i n c l u d e UV degradation, weathering, p e r m e a b i l i t y , high-temperature
performance, d e l a m i n a t i o n / f a t i g u e , dimensional s t a b i l i t y , and
soiling/cleaning. These effects are not necessarily
independent: polymers are expected to s u f f e r more s e r i o u s
degradation during exposure to combined environmental s t r e s s e s

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 1. CARROLL A N D SCHISSEL Applications and Opportunities 15

E f f e c t i v e methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g and v e r i f y i n g the performance o f

polymers under i n t e r a c t i v e e f f e c t s are r e q u i r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r
those a p p l i c a t i o n s unique to s o l a r energy systems.
The simultaneous and s e q u e n t i a l combinations of environmental
s t r e s s e s that a l t e r the p r o p e r t i e s and a f f e c t the performance o f
polymers should be i d e n t i f i e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y . Assessment of the
s t a b i l i t y o f polymers from fundamental r a t e data o r from e x p e r i -
mental engineering data r e q u i r e s an understanding of the i n t e r -
a c t i v e e f f e c t s o f environmental s t r e s s [11, 32]. Testing o f a l l
combinations of the s t r e s s e s would r e q u i r e an unacceptable number
of experiments. The number of combinations s t u d i e d can be l i m i t e d
by r e c o g n i z i n g the unique p o s i t i o n o f o p t i c a l elements which may
use transparent polymers and o f s t r u c t u r a l members; by f i r s t
ranking the importance of i n d i v i d u a l s t r e s s e s ; and by using
screening t e s t s to i d e n t i f y promising m a t e r i a l s [28-30]•
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

Improved a n a l y t i c a l and t e s t methods are needed. Accelerated

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

t e s t s s t r e s s some parameters to decrease the time before f a i l u r e

occurs, abbreviated t e s t s use a n a l y t i c a l techniques t o estimate
f a i l u r e r a t e s from i n c i p i e n t degradation during short-term expo-
sures at u s u a l s t r e s s l e v e l s . Methods are needed t o demonstrate
c o r r e l a t i o n s between these t e s t r e s u l t s and r e a l - t i m e behavior.
E a r l i e r s t u d i e s [33, 34] provide some b a s i s f o r t h i s work.
Performance p r e d i c t i o n modeling (PPM) i s one method f o r
e v a l u a t i n g m a t e r i a l s performance that has been defined and i s
being a p p l i e d a t the Jet P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory. I n i t s simplest
form, PPM can v e r i f y the s a t i s f a c t o r y performance of a p a r t i c u l a r
m a t e r i a l used i n a s p e c i f i c design and subject to a defined set o f
s t r e s s e s (e.g., temperature, thermal c y c l i n g , u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a -
t i o n , mechanical l o a d s ) . Conversely, I t can d e f i n e l i m i t s o f
s t r e s s e s f o r the m a t e r i a l s i n an a v a i l a b l e piece of hardware o r
design. This approach has been used s u c c e s s f u l l y as part o f the
demonstration of the f e a s i b i l i t y of using an u l t r a - t h i n polymer
f i l m on a s o l a r s a i l f o r space p r o p u l s i o n [35], f o r a n a l y t i c a l
assessment of an experimental f a c i l i t y t o study space r a d i a t i o n
e f f e c t s [36], and f o r a n a l y t i c a l assessment and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f
c r i t i c a l technologies f o r ceramic r e c e i v e r s [37]. The method i s
c u r r e n t l y being a p p l i e d to p h o t o v o l t a i c encapsulation [38].
A second procedure, using the methods of thermodynamics
a p p l i e d to i r r e v e r s i b l e processes, o f f e r s another new approach f o r
understanding the f a i l u r e of m a t e r i a l s . For example, the e q u i -
l i b r i u m thermodynamics o f closed systems p r e d i c t s that a system
w i l l evolve i n a manner that minimizes i t s energy (or maximizes
i t s entropy). The thermodynamics of i r r e v e r s i b l e processes i n
open systems p r e d i c t s that the system w i l l evolve i n a manner that
minimizes the d i s s i p a t i o n o f energy under the c o n s t r a i n t that a
balance of power i s maintained between the system and i t s environ-
ment. A p p l i c a t i o n o f these p r i n c i p l e s o f nonlinear i r r e v e r s i b l e
thermodynamics has made p o s s i b l e a formal r e l a t i o n s h i p between
thermodynamics, molecular and morphological s t r u c t u r a l parameters,

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 16 POLYMERS IN SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

than from a simple sum of e f f e c t s of i n d i v i d u a l s t r e s s e s ,

and t h e i r r a t e of change.
E x p e r i m e n t a l l y , these p r i n c i p l e s emphasize dynamic measure-
ments t h a t make p o s s i b l e the s e p a r a t i o n o f the d i s s i p a t i v e and the
conservative components of energy i n c i d e n t upon the system.
Dynamic mechanical a n a l y s i s has been an important area o f research
f o r over 40 years. Computer-controlled experimentation now makes
i t p o s s i b l e t o apply analogous techniques t o the measurement o f
many other thermodynamic s t r e s s e s . One example c u r r e n t l y under
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , dynamic photothermal spectroscopy, i s expected t o
provide a new approach t o p r e d i c t i n g the long-term e f f e c t s of
u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n on m a t e r i a l s [39].

Acknowledgments
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

The authors wish t o express t h e i r g r a t i t u d e f o r the support

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

of the M a t e r i a l s Research Branch and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , Barry B u t l e r ,

A.W. Czanderna, and R.F. R e i n i s c h f o r t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s . Thanks
a l s o a r e due t o members of the Energy and M a t e r i a l s Research
S e c t i o n of the J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory f o r t h e i r help i n pre-
paring t h i s document. This document was prepared f o r the U.S.
Department of Energy under Contract No. EG-77-C-01-4024. The J e t
P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory i s a N a t i o n a l Aeronautics and Space
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n f a c i l i t y , and the S o l a r Energy Research I n s t i t u t e
i s a Department of Energy f a c i l i t y .

Literature Cited
1. Carroll, W. F.; Schissel, P. "Polymers in Solar
Technologies: An R&D Strategy"; SERI/TR-334-601; Solar
Energy Research Institute: Golden, CO 1980.
2. Wilhelm, W. G. "Low Cost Solar Energy Collection for Cooling
Applications"; BNL51408; Brookhaven National Laboratory:
Upton, NY, 1981.
3. Clark, Elizabeth; Roberts, W. E . ; Grimes, J . W.; Embree,
E. J . "Solar Energy Systems—Standards for Cover Plates for
Flat-Plate Solar Collectors"; NBS Technical Note 1132;
National Bureau of Standards, Center for Building
Technology: Washington, D.C., 1980.
4. DSET Laboratories, Inc. "Properties and Durability Data for
Solar Materials"; Contract XH-9-8215-1; Solar Energy
Research Institute: Golden, CO, 1981.
5. Lockheed Missiles and Space Co., Inc. Optimization of Thin-
-Film Transparent Plastic Honeycomb Covered Flat-Plate Solar
Collectors. SAN/1256-78/1. Lockheed: Palo, Alto, CA, 1978.
6. Acurex Corp., Mountain View, CA. DOE Contract No. DE-AC04-
79L12032. 1980.
7. Fafco Inc., Menlo Park, CA. DOE Contract No DE-AC03-
78CS32241. 1980
8. Ramada Energy Systems, Inc. Technical Bulletin RES TB 180.
9. Suntex Research Associates. "An Energy Efficient Window

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 I. CARROLL A N D SCHISSEL Applications and Opportunities 17

System: Phase 1 Technical Report;" Suntex: Corte Madera,

CA, 1976.
10. Mavis, C.L. "Status and Recommended Future of Plastic-
-Enclosed Heliostat Development; SAND 80-8032. Sandia
National Laboratories: Albuquerque, NM, 1980.
11. Schissel, Paul; Czanderna, A.W. "Reactions at the
Silver/Polymer Interface: A Review." Solar Energy
Materials. 1980, 3; 225-245.
12. University of Minnesota; Honeywell, Inc. "Research Applied
to Solar Thermal Power Systems"; NSF/RANN/SE/GI-
34871/PR/74/4; 1975.
13. McDonnell-Douglas Astronautics Co. "Central Receiver Solar
Thermal Power System, Phase 1 Vol. III (Book 1, Collector
Subsystem), Preliminary Draft, MDCG 6776 (May 1977).
14. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Annual Technical Report: Fiscal
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

Year 1980"; JPL 81-39; Pasadena, CA, 1981.

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

15. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Photovoltaic Module Encapsula-

tion Design and Materials Selection"; LSA Encapsulation Task,
Project Report 5101-177.
16. Batchelder, J . S.; Zewail, A. H.; Cole, T. "Luminescent
Solar Concentrators—1: Theory of Operation and Techniques
for Performance Evaluation; Applied Optics. 1979, 18, 3090-
3110.
17. Hermann, A. M. 1981. "Luminescent Solar Concentrators--A
Review"; to be published in Solar Energy.
18. Martin Marietta Corp. "Second-Generation Heliostat Develop-
ment"; SAND 79-8192; Denver, CO., 1980.
19. Hobbs, Robert B., Jr. "Solar Central Receiver Heliostat
Mirror Module Development"; SAND 79-8189; General Electric
Co.: Philadelphia, PA, 1981.
20. General Electric Co. "Design and Development of a Reinforced
Plastic Trough Module"; SAND 80-7150; Sandia National Labora-
tories: Albuquerque, NM, 1981.
21. Baylin, F . ; Merino, M. "A Survey of Sensible and Latent Heat
Thermal Energy Storage Projects"; SERI/RR-355-456; Solar
Energy Research Institute; Golden, CO, 1981.
22. Berg, R. S. "A Survey of Mirror-Dust Interactions" presented
at the ERDA Concentrating Solar Collector Conference; Georgia
Institute of Technology; 26-28 Sept. 1977.
23. Berg, R. S. 1978 (March). SAND 78-0510. Albuquerque, NM:
Sandia Laboratories.
24. Hampton, H.L.; Lind, M. A. "The Effects of Noncontact
Cleaners on Transparent Solar Materials"; Battelle Pacific
Northwest Laboratory: Richland, WA, 1979.
25. Carmichael, D. C. "Studies of Encapsulation Materials for
Terrestrial Photovoltaic Arrays"; 5th Quarterly Progress
Report"; ERDA/JPL-954328-76/6; Battelle Columbus
Laboratories: Columbus, OH, 1976.
26. Carmichael, D. C. et a l . "Evaluation of Available Encapsula-
tion Materials for Low-Cost Long-Life Silicon Photovoltaic

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.
 18 POLYMERS IN SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

Arrays"; DOE/JPL-954328-78/2; Batelle Columbus Laboratories:

Columbus, OH, 1978.
27. Roberts, F. R.; Schonhorn, H. "Polymer Preprints"; Amer.
Chem. Soc., Div. Polym. Chem. 1975, 16, 146.
28. Baum, B.; Binnette, Mark. "Solar Collectors--Technical
Status Report No. 14, 5 Oct.-5 Nov. 1979"; Contract EM-78-C-
04-5359; Springborn Laboratories, Inc.: Enfield, CT, 1979.
29. Baum, B.; Cambron, R.; White, R. "Technical Report No. 2, 19
Oct.-19 Nov. 1979"; Contract DE-AC01-79ET21106; Springborn
Laboratories, Inc.: Enfield, CT, 1979.
30. Willis, P. B.; Baum, B. "Investigation of Test Methods,
Material Properties, and Processes for Solar Cell Encapsu-
lants"; DOE/JPL-954527-79-10; Springborn Laboratories,
Inc.: Enfield, CT, 1979.
31. Willis, P. B. et al. "Investigation of Test Methods,
Downloaded by 193.50.216.88 on December 13, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org

Material Properties, and Processes for Solar Cell Encapsu-

Publication Date: June 15, 1983 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0220.ch001

lants: Annual Report"; ERDA/JPL-954527-77/2; Springborn

Laboratories, Inc.: Enfield, CT.
32. Blaga, A; Yamasaki, R. S. Journal of Material Science.
1976, 11, 1513.
33. Kolyer, J.M.; Mann, N.R. "Accelerated/Abbreviated Test
Methods: Interim Report, Apr. 1-Oct. 24, 1977; ERDA-JPL-
954458-77/2; Rockwell International: Anaheim, CA, 1977.
34. Thomas, R.E.: Carmichael, D.C. "Terrestrial Service Environ-
ments for Selected Geographic Locations." ERDA/JPL-954328-
76/5; Battelle Columbus Laboratories: Columbus, OH, 1976.
35. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Sail Film Materials and Support-
ing Structures for a Solar Sail"; JPL Report 720-9; Pasadena,
CA:, 1979.
36. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Effects of Space Environment on
Composites: An Analytical Study of Critical Experimental
Parameters"; JPL Report 79-47; Pasadena, CA, 1979.
37. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Performance Prediction Evalua-
tion of Ceramic Materials in Point Focusing Solar Receivers";
DOE/JPL-1060-23; Pasadena, CA. 1079.
38. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Physical/Chemical Modeling for
Photovoltaic Module Life Prediction"; presented at the Inter-
national Photovoltaics Conference, Berlin. Jet Propulsion
Laboratory: Pasadena, CA, 1979.
39. Lindenmeyer, P.H. "Principles of Nonlinear Irreversible
Thermodynamics Applied to the Testing of Materials"; D180-
25583-1; Boeing Co.: Seattle, WA.

RECEIVED February 9,1983

Gebelein et al.; Polymers in Solar Energy Utilization

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1983.